Comprehensive Mid & End Term Exams- Form One – Boost Your Academic Success
Ace your exams with comprehensive mid and end term assessments for all subjects. Improve your grades and excel academically. Don’t miss out! All these examination materials at absolutely zero cost.
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AGRICULTURE F4 P1.doc
ENGLISH F4 P2.doc
AGRICULTURE F4 P2 – MS.doc
C.R.E. P1.doc
PHYSICS F4 P3.doc
PHYSICS F4 P3 – MS.doc
PHYSICS F4 P3 – CONF..doc
PHYSICS F4 P2.doc
PHYSICS F4 P2 – MS.doc
PHYSICS F4 P1.doc
PHYSICS F4 P1 – MS.doc
MATHEMATICS F4 P2.doc
MATHEMATICS F4 P2 – MS.doc
MATHEMATICS F4 P1.doc
MATHEMATICS F4 P1 – MS.doc
KISWAHILI F4 P3.doc
KISWAHILI F4 P2.doc
KISWAHILI F4 P2 – MS.doc
I.R.E. F4 P2.doc
I.R.E. F4 P2 – MS.doc
I.R.E. F4 P1.doc
I.R.E. F4 P1 – MS.doc
HOME SCIENCE F4 P3.doc
HOME SCIENCE F4 P1.doc
HOME SCIENCE F4 P1 – MS.doc
HISTORY F4 P2 – MS.doc
HISTORY F4 P2.doc
HISTORY F4 P1.doc
HISTORY F4 P1 – MS.doc
GEOGRAPHY F4 P2.doc
GEOGRAPHY F4 P2 – MS.doc
GEOGRAPHY F4 P1.doc
GEOGRAPHY F4 P1 – MS.doc
FRENCH F4 P3.doc
FRENCH F4 P2 – MS.doc
FRENCH F4 P2.doc
FRENCH F4 P1 – MS.doc
ENGLISH F4 P3.doc
ENGLISH F4 P3 – MS.doc
ENGLISH F4 P2 – MS.doc
ENGLISH F4 P1.doc
ENGLISH F4 P1 – MS.doc
DRAWING & DESIGN P2.doc
DRAWING & DESIGN P2 – MS.doc
DRAWING & DESIGN P1.doc
DRAWING & DESIGN P1 – MS.doc
COMPUTER F4 P2.doc
COMPUTER F4 P2 – MS.doc
COMPUTER F4 P1.doc
COMPUTER F4 P1 – MS.doc
Grade 2 Rationalized Notes Free downloads, below:
Grade-2-Creative-Arts-Notes (2)
hygiene-and-nutrition-notes-grade-2 (1)
hygiene-and-nutrition-notes-grade-2-term-1 (1)
Grade-2-Creative-Arts-Notes (2)
CBC Grade 2 notes, Exams, Schemes of Work Free pdf
Grade 2 Notes, schemes of Work and Exams
Grade 2 Rationalized Notes Free
Grade 2 Free Termly Assessment Exams, Notes & Schemes
Grade 1,2,3 and 4 free schemes of work, pdf notes and exams (Thousands of free CBC downloads)
Grade 2 CBC Notes, Exams & Schemes of Work
Grade 1, 2 and 3 CBC free Schemes of works, Exams & Notes (Updated)
Free Lower Primary (Grade 1-6), PP1 and PP2 free notes, Schemes and exams downloads
CBC notes free downloads (PP1 to 2, grade 1 to 7)
Grade 2 Free Schemes of Work, Notes & Exams – Best Unlimited Downloads
Grade 9 Comprehensive Exams {1,000 plus downloads}:
GRADE-9-PRETECHNICAL-STUDIES-HOMEWORK
GRADE-9-INT-SCIENCE-PP1-HOMEWORK
GRADE-9-CREATIVE-ARTS-AND-SPORTS-HOMEWORK
GRADE-9-AGRICULTURE-AND-NUTRITION-HOMEWORK
GRADE-9-KJSEA-CBC-EXAM-MCQ-ANSWER-SHEET
GRADE-9-PRETECHNICAL-STUDIES-912-PP1
GRADE-9-INTEGRATED-SCIENCE-905-PP1
GRADE-9-INTEGRATED-SCIENCE-905-PP2
GRADE-9-AGRICULTURE-AND-NUTRITION-906-PP1
GRADE-9-CREATIVE-ARTS-AND-SPORTS-911-PP2
CBC Grade 9 Exams, Notes, Schemes & Assessment Materials
Knec KJSEA Grade 9 Exams Structure: Subjects & Content Distribution
Grade 9 KJSEA exams and answers
Grade 9 Free Resources: Assessment Exams, Notes & Schemes of Work Pdf
CBC Grade 9 Free JS Exams For all Subjects
KJSEA Grade 9 Free CBC exams Plus Marking schemes
How Grade 9 CBC Exams (KJSEA) will be set plus dates
Grade 9 Latest Rationalized Notes
Close to 46,000 teachers are yet to declare their wealth online ahead of the deadline slated for 31/12/2019. All teachers in employment under TSC are required to declare their Income, Assets and Liabilities
The online portal has been open since 1st November 2019.
The Kenyan law requires all public officers to declare their wealth; periodically. This declaration is made online and there are hefty penalties for officers who fail to declare their income, assets and liabilities within the stipulated time. According to the Public Ethics Act of 2003, It is mandatory for all public officers to declare their income, assets and liabilities once in every two years.
Any teacher in TSC employment who fails to submit a Declaration or gives false or misleading information is liable to a fine of Kshs. 1,000,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding (1) one year or both upon conviction.
| COUNTY | SUB COUNTY | SCHOOL NAME | FIRST NAME | MIDDLE NAME | LAST NAME |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.C.K. Kiteei Mixed Day Secondary School | Joshua | Kelly | Munyao |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.C.K. Ukokolani Primary School | Stephen | Musyoki | Kilavi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.I.C KATHONZWENI BD PRI | Alphonce | Mwangangi | Kisuu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.I.C KATHONZWENI BD PRI | Gordon | Ouma | Ochola |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.I.C KATHONZWENI BD PRI | Lucia | Mueni | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.I.C KATHONZWENI BD PRI | Peter | Kyalo | Mutie |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.I.C KATHONZWENI BD PRI | Stella | Mulee | Kyalo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | A.I.C KATHONZWENI BD PRI | Stephen | Mulwa | Mutua |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | IIANI PRI SCH | Daniel | Mutiso | Mutua |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | IIANI PRI SCH | Jorum | Mutuku | Salu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | IKAASU PRI SCH | Alice | Nthenya | Mutiso |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | ILUMANI PRI SHC | James | Muoki | Muema |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | ITUMBULE PRI SCH | James | Kata | Ngunu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KAASYA S.S. | Caroline | Nampaso | Terta |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KAASYA PRI SCH | Martin | Muli | Nyamai |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KAIANI PRI SCH | Alexander | Muli | Nzungi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Kanthiitu Secondary School | John | “Muia Muange” | Mutisya |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KANTHUNI S.S | Clementia | Bosibori | Ondimu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KANZOKEANI S.S. | Hildah | Mwikali | Kyule |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KANZOKEANI S.S. | Patrick | Munyao | Matilu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KANZOKEANI PRI SCH | Carolyne | Mbete | Muisyo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KASAYANI PRI | Ivanovich | Mutuku | Kithongo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KASAYANI PRI | Julius | Musau | Maweu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KASAYANI PRI | Mathew | Munyao | Kasivo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Katangini Secondary School | Dorcsa | Mbeneka | Kiiio |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATEIKO PRI SCH | Benjamin | Ndunda | Wambua |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATEIKO PRI SCH | Christine | Waeni | Mbuvi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATEIKO PRI SCH | Josephine | Mwikali | Kavilu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATEIKO PRI SCH | Mathew | Kiio | Nzivo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHAMBONI SEC SCH | Benard | Kibet | Koros |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHAMBONI PRI SCH | Dorcus | Mumbua | Mutungi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHAMBONI PRI SCH | Elinor | Shitseswa | Obongita |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHONZWENI BOYS SEC | Collins | Kipruto | Kipsergon |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHONZWENI BOYS SEC | Hillary | Mutunga | Muthoka |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHONZWENI BOYS SEC | Salome | Wanjiru | Mbuno |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHONZWENI GIRLS SEC | Wilfred | Kioko | Kyaunyi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHONZWENI HGM PRI SCH | Damaris | Mutanu | Muendo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KATHONZWENI HGM PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Mueni | Makunu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Katithi Secondary School | John | Munyao | Kioko |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KAVINGONI SEC SCH | Edward | Mulili | Muthiani |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KAVINGONI SEC SCH | Nashon | Peter | Kamwalo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KAVUMBU PRI SCH | Betty | Faith | Mulwa |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KIAMBANI PRI SCH | Jennifer | Wanjiru | Kiarie |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KIANGINI GIRLS S.S. | Rodgers | Mutua | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KIANGINI PRI SCH | Isaiah | Ireri | Mugendi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KIANGINI PRI SCH | Mary | Loko | Mutavi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KILULUINI PRI SCH | Amos | Nzyoka | Kasuni |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KILULUINI PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Nduku | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KILULUINI PRI SCH | Gilbert | Kioko | Matheka |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KITHAATHAINI PRI SCH | Serah | “Kalekye Kiswii” | Nthaketha |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KITHONI PRI SCH | James | Mutinda | Musyoka |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KITISE S.S. | Dancun | Mutua | Mutiso |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KITISE S.S. | Jonathan | Maweu | Mutisya |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KITUMBAI PRI SCH | Esther | Muluka | Nzioka |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KITUMBAI PRI SCH | Judith | Mbatha | Wambua |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KIUUKU MXD SEC | Fred | Yang | Anjeyo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KWA-HARUN PRI SCH | David | – | Kasyoki |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KWAKILOMO PRI SCH | Joseph | Ngatia | Kingori |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KWAKILOMO PRI SCH | Peter | Maina | Bernard |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KYASE PRI SCH | Monica | Kavindu | Titus |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KYASE PRI SCH | Simel | Michael | Lemayian |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | KYUASINI PRI SCH | Catherine | Wanza | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MAKUTANO PRI SCH | Annastacia | Mueni | Mbuva |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MANZANI PRI SCH | Josphat | Onchieku | Onyinkwa |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Nicholas | Kithuka | Mauyu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Nyamasyo | Mutua | |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATHEANI PRI SCH | Ndinda | Eunice | Kalungu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATHEMBA PRI SCH | Douglas | Muedo | Maundu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Mathemba Secondary School | Danson | Mutevu | Kyalo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Mathemba Secondary School | Melisa | Achongo | Otieno |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATULANI PRI SCH | Elijah | “Makau | Kimeu” |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATULANI PRI SCH | Johnson | Munguti | Mutiso |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MATULANI PRI SCH | Scolastica | Kaswii | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MAYUU PRI SCH | Eunice | Sindelela | Sila |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MBUVO PRI SCH | Boniface | Wambua | Kavoo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MBUVO PRI SCH | Dennis | Muthama | Kitema |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MIANGENI PRI SCH | Martin | Musyoka | Kieti |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MISEKE PRI SCH | Raphael | Ndolo | Kimuli |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUANGENI PRIM | Alex | Mumo | Nditi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUKAMENI PRI SCH | Jackline | Ngina | Nguli |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUKAMENI PRI SCH | Stephen | Mutie | Kalekye |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUMBEENI PRI SCH | Banjamin | Mumo | Nzioki |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUMBEENI PRI SCH | Francis | Kiio | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUNATHI PRI SCH | Peter | Komu | Nguli |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Munathi Secondary School | Maureen | Mbula | Nzyimi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUUSINI S.S. | Anthony | Muia | Simu |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MUUSINI S.S. | Irene | Mwende | Mulei |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | MWISA PRI SCH | Judith | Kakuvi | Kivuva |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | NGOMANO PRI SCH | Janet | Ndinda | Musyimi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | NGOMANO PRI SCH | Jeremiah | Mbuvi | Kulomba |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | NGOMANO PRI SCH | Richard | Musyoka | Mwosya |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | NGOMENI PRI SCH | Josephine | Itumbi | Mutunga |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Peter Kiilu Secondary School | Catherine | Ndinda | Mutua |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | Peter Kiilu Secondary School | WINFRED | WAVINYA | MUNYWOKI |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | St. Francis Manzani Secondary School | Alfred | Kyalo | Kingola |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | St. Mary’s Secondary Sch – Kyunyu | Paul | Kyondi | Mulei |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | SYANDOO PRI SCH | Sabina | Kasyoka | Kasomba |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | SYETHE PRI SCH | Kanini | Nyiwa | |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | SYETHE PRI SCH | Lilian | Mwikali | Masila |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | UNG’ATANI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Esther | Mwikali | Muendo |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | UNG’ATANI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Titus | Katula | Daudi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | UTITHINI PRI SCH | Boniface | Nzyoka | Musila |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | UTITHINI PRI SCH | Patrick | Kyalo | Musila |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | UTUNENI S.S | Allan | Fredrick | Owuor |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | VITALE HGM PRI SCH | Michael | Wambua | Ndunda |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | VITALE HGM PRI SCH | Teresah | Bonareri | Nyangau |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YEEMBONDO PRI SCHOOL | Jackson | Mutunga | Munyao |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YEEMULWA PRI SCH | Lilian | Ndinda | Makasi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YEEMULWA SECONDARY SCHOOL | Josiah | Daniel | Muia |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YIKITHUKI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Dorothy | Nzula | William |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YIKITHUKI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Titus | Muthengi | Makau |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YIKITISE PRI SCH | Jonathan | Musyoka | Malindi |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YINTHUNGU PRI SCH | Janet | Mutune | |
| Makueni | KATHONZWENI | YINTHUNGU PRI SCH | Stephen | Muasa | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ATHI SALAMA PRI SCH | Francis | Kyalo | Musyoka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | DWA ESTATE PRI SCH | Patricia | Kamanthe | Kiamba |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | IIANI S.S. | Julius | Mutunga | Nzumbi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | IIANI S.S. | Mark | Muia | Kioko |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | IONGONI PRI SCH | Joel | Nzioka | Mwonga |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ISUNGULUNI PRI SCH | Laban | Kithyoma | Kithome |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Ithaayoni Primary School | Anthony | Mwamote | Keli |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ITHAMBAUME PRI SCH | Christine | Sabina | Ndambu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ITHAMBAUME PRI SCH | Margaret | Kalekye | Kinene |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ITHUMULA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Charles | Mutati | Mutinda |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ITHUMULA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Elizabeth | Mutindi | Muthama |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ITHUMULA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Francis | Kisangau | Kaumbulu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ITHUMULA PRIMARY SCHOOL | William | Musyoka | Kilungya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Ititi Secondary School | James | Mulandi | Mwania |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | IVIANI PRI SCH | Lilian | Kitathe | Nguli |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | IVINGONI S.S. | Mercy | Mwende | Muthoka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | IVOLENI PRIM | Fredrick | Mutua | Wakine |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | JOANNA CHASE SECONDARY SCHOOL | Robert | Mwathani | Kingoto |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KALIANI PRI SCH | Meshack | Samperu | Karantoi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KALIMANI PRI SCH | Esther | Ndunge | Nthei |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KALULINI S.S. | Kinyingi | Alexander | Mutungi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KALULINI S.S. | Mathias | Kyalo | Nduva |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KALULU PRI SCH | Phinius | Mutua | Kiviu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kalungu Secondary School | Benedict | Mualuko | Nzioki |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kalungu Secondary School | Paul | Munguti | Mutisya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMBILI PRY SCHOOL | Annah | Keli | Kisilu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMBU PRI SCH | Gerald | Musyoki | Mauta |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMBU PRI SCH | Nicodemus | Nyenze | Lavuta |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMBU PRI SCH | Peninnah | Keli | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMULALANI PRI SCH | Everlyn | Mueni | Mulwa |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kamulalani Secondary School | Peter | Kiilu | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMUNYU PRI SCH | Albanas | Mulwa | Mulae |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMUNYU PRI SCH | Benjamin | Kyalo | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMUNYU PRI SCH | James | Mutuku | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMUNYU PRI SCH | Michael | Muli | Masila |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMUNYUNI PRI SCH | Cosmas | Mutua | Kamuya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KAMUNYUNI PRI SCH | Eric | Makau | Muthini |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KANYUNGU PRI SCH | Chrispus | Mnyika | Wanjala |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kasue Girls Secondary School | Eunice | Sopiato | Lepore |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHEKANI S.S. | Antonina | Illorine | Wekesi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHEKANI PRI SCH | Tabitha | “Mbithe Musau” | Kisuve |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHEKANI PRI SCH | Titus | Mutua | Mbondo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHIANI PRI SCH | Shadrack | Mutavi | Mulei |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHIIANI PRIM | Ezekiel | Ncheshia | Nasuju |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHYAKA PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Mutindi | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHYAKA PRI SCH | Irene | Mwikali | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHYAKA PRI SCH | Joseph | Munywoki | Musyoka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATHYAKA SEC SCH | Alphonce | Muthuka | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATILAMUNI PRIM | Christine | Nguluutu | Munywoki |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KATILAMUNI PRIM | Julius | Munyao | Kimeu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kavungwa Primary | Gladys | Ndunge | Ngala |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kavungwa Primary | Paul | Mbinda | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIAMBANI PRIM | Festus | Kiangi | Ndaku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIAMBANI PRIM | Judith | Nduku | Vita |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIAONI PRI SCH | James | Kamwalo | Mulei |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIAONI SEC SCHOOL | Jonathan | Muthama | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIBWEZI TOWNSHHIP PRI | Jerinah | Ndinda | Kyove |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIBWEZI TOWNSHHIP PRI | Judith | “Lois Kanini” | Kyumwa |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIBWEZI TOWNSHHIP PRI | Musee | Muthami | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIKWASUNI PRIM | Benson | Kiamba | Ngui |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KILUNGU PRI SCH | Francisca | Wavai | Munyao |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KILUNGU PRI SCH | Stellamarries | Muthio | Mulonzi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KINGUTHENI PRI SCH | Jane | WAVINYA | Kavoko |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KINYAMBU PRI SCH | Josephine | Chekuku | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KISAYANI HIGH SEC SCHOOL | Joseph | Mumo | Mbevi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KISAYANI HIGH SEC SCHOOL | Lizzy | Mukeli | Moki |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KISAYANI PRI SCH | Janet | Mutanu | Munyao |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KITENGEI SEC SCH | Caleb | Kioko | Matheka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KITHEINI PRIM | Jonathan | Masila | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KITHINGIISYO S.S. | Prudance | Ndinda | Kamba |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kithito Primary School | Francis | Musyoki | Matheka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kithyululu Secondary School | Evelyne | Awino | Haggai |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kithyululu Secondary School | Jacqueline | Ndondo | Muthini |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kithyululu Secondary School | Sila | Nzuki | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kiuani Secondary School | Fredrick | Kyalo | Kimonyi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kiuani Secondary School | Nzukuna | _ | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kiuani Secondary School | Rabecca | Mwongeli | Kisilu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIUNDWANI PRI SCH | Loise | Mueni | Nthae |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIVUTHINI SEC SCH | Isabella | Jeptoo | Letyo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIVUTHINI SEC SCH | Nicholas | Wambua | Ndonye |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kivutini Primary School | Erastus | Mutua | Mulei |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KIWANZANI PRI SCH | Phyles | Miusu | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KOMBOYOO GIRLS HIGH SH | Nicholas | Kasuni | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Komboyoo mixed Secondary School | Grace | Makaa | Mulang’a |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Komboyoo mixed Secondary School | Simon | Muema | Muange |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KOMBOYOO PRIM | Mary | Nthangu | Koloso |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KONGO PRI SCH | Francis | Matuku | Mbatha |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KWAKYAI PRI SCH | David | Nzyoka | Kiema |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KWAKYAI PRI SCH | Julius | Mwambeo | Mwakio |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KYAANI PRI SCH | Joseph | Kyalo | Komu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Kyaani Secondary School | Susan | “Munee Muia” | Makau |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KYAMBUSYA PRI SCH | Ruth | Ndunge | Mutisya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KYANGINYWA PRIM | Duncan | Mwendwa | Musambi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | KYANGINYWA PRIM | Penninah | Ngina | Matheka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAIA-ATATU PRIM | Grace | Ndanu | Mwania |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAIKUU SEC SCH | Thomas | Muthami | Muthondwe |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAKAANI PRI SCH | Julius | Muema | Kimwatu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAKOKANI PRI SCH | Fridah | Nzilani | Mbindyo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAKUTANO PRIMARY | Japhet | Kinyua | Iruki |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAKUTANO SEC SCH | Abraham | Wamalwa | Nabiswa |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MAKUTANO SEC SCH | Dennis | Mulwa | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MALEMBWA PRIM | David | Mwina | Nzyuko |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MASAKU NDOGO PRI SCH | Boniface | Kingoo | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MASAKU NDOGO PRI SCH | Serah | Wanza | Muema |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MASIMBANI PRI SCH | Josephat | Mulei | Mbindyo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MASONGALENI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Jaffery | Mutua | Mulu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MASONGALENI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Robert | Kamwila | Martin |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Masongaleni Secondary School | Charles | Musyoka | Mumo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Mavindini Secondary School | Bildad | Musyoki | Ngumbi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Mbeetwani Secondary School | Thomas | Shadrack | Mbithi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MBOTELA PRI SCH | Benson | Mutuku | Ndaka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MBOTELA PRI SCH | Rosemary | Nzisa | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MBUI NZAU | Fredrick | Kaloki | Munyao |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MBUI NZAU | Virginia | Ndunge | Mwania |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MBUKONI PRI SCH | Jotham | Muendo | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | METAVA PRI SCH | Titus | Mutungwa | Makula |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIAANI PRI SCH | David | Kitenge | Mumina |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIAANI PRI SCH | Jacob | Malembeka | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIAMBA PRIM | Anthony | Muia | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIANGENI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Angela | Nthenya | Mbate |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Mikomani Pri Sch | Paul | Kithome | Masuu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Mikomani Pri Sch | Shadrack | Mjomba | Mwikamba |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIKUYUNI SEC SCH | Benedict | Malonza | Muvya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIKUYUNI SEC SCH | Elijah | Muuo | Ndambo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIKUYUNI SEC SCH | Gabriel | Mbindyo | Kisyula |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIKUYUNI PRI SCH | Pascalis | Wambua | Mutiso |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MIKUYUNI PRI SCH | Sam | Maison | Mesenka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Milu Primary School | Benson | Nthusi | Kanee |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Milu Primary School | Michael | Mutyota | Mutivo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MITONGUNI PRI SCH | Sammy | Makenzi | Mwanthi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MOLEMUNI PRI SCH | Cynthia | Mwikali | Musembi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MOLEMUNI PRI SCH | Flora | Kaari | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MOLEMUNI PRI SCH | Justus | Kyalo | Musila |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MOLEMUNI PRI SCH | Salima | Azadini | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MOLEMUNI PRI SCH | Ziporah | Wambeti | Makau |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MTITO ANDEI PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Mwikali | Kimeu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MTITO ANDEI PRI SCH | Nicholas | Nyambu | Mtongolo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUATINI PRI SCH | Jacinta | Kamene | Malinda |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUATINI PRI SCH | Rachael | Wanjiru | Ndungu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUATINI PRI SCH | Salome | Ndunda | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUKANDA PRI SCH | Ndungwa | Mweku | Musembi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUKONONI PRI SCH | Florence | Mwikali | Silo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUKONONI PRI SCH | Joshua | Kioko | Kiteme |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUKONONI PRI SCH | Nelson | George | Muasya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUKONONI PRI SCH | Paul | Fredrick | Kioko |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Mulangoni Primary School | Jonathan | Mulinge | Kimatu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Mulangoni Primary School | Joyce | Mwende | Mwilu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MULILUNI PRIMARY | Robert | Kituku | Nzeki |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTHINGIINI S.S. | Geofrey | Micheni | Mwamba |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTHINGIINI PRIMARY | Robinson | Kioko | Mutua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTHUNGUE PRI SCH | Alexander | Mutuku | Mulwa |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTHUNGUE PRI SCH | Phyllis | Nthenya | Muthiani |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTHUNGUE PRI SCH | Regina | Nduku | Ndeti |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTOMO PRIMARY SCHOOL | Jericah | Wanza | Nyola |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUTOMO PRIMARY SCHOOL | Veronica | Mwikali | Sammy |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MUUSINI PRI SCH | Boniface | Mativo | Munyoke |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MWEINI PRIM | Joseph | Kiswii | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | MWITASYANO PRI SCH | Patrick | Musyoka | Kimeu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NDAUNI SEC SCHOOL | Steven | Musai | Martin |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGAIKINI PRI SCH | Anthony | Kelly | Mulatya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGAIKINI PRI SCH | Mwivithi | Derrick | Nzamulya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGAIKINI PRI SCH | Onesmus | Kivuva | Muthoka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGAIKINI PRIMARY | Beth | Mbula | Mutunga |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGAIKINI PRIMARY | Julius | Wathome | Kyule |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGILUNI PRI SCH | Titus | Mutiso | Kyamu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGOMANO PRI SCH | Abednego | Mutunga | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGULUNI PRI SCH | John | Mwangea | Muasya |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGUUNI PRIM | Gladyce | Mkaiwawi | Mwaengo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGWATA SEC SCH | Mark | Shikuku | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGWATA PRI SCH | Johnson | _ | Mwalukuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGWATA PRI SCH | Miriam | Kauku | Ngovu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NGWATA PRI SCH | Nicholas | Maweu | Mutunga |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NThONGONI PRI. SC | David | Mbithi | Kimongo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NThONGONI PRI. SC | Jackson | Muthiani | Ngundo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NThONGONI PRI. SC | Martin | Muli | Kioko |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NThONGONI PRI. SC | Robert | Mumo | Kilonzi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NTHUNGUNI PRI SCH | Benjamin | Muthama | Nzuki |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NTHUNGUNI PRI SCH | Geoffrey | Kamau | Muneeni |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NTHUNGUNI PRI SCH | Mutiso | Kiili | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NYAYO PRI SCH | Francis | Kiema | Muoka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NYAYO PRI SCH | Priscillah | Mutio | Musau |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NZAYO PRI SCH | Caroline | Mwende | Muli |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NZAYO PRI SCH | Peter | Mutunga | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NZAYO PRI SCH | Willy | Makau | Muthoka |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | NZOUNI PRI SCH | Bernard | Muviku | Muendo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Proffesor Kaloki Muthungue Secondary Sch | Grace | Mutethya | Kimanthi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | SILANGA PRI SCH | Magdalene | Nditi | Maingi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Silanga Secondary School | FELISTERS | NDUKU | MWOLOLO |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Silanga Secondary School | Linah | Chemtai | Metot |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ST LUCY KALIMANI SEC | Cecilia | Mary | Kyule |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ST MARTINS KYUMANI SECONDARY | Lameck | Osebe | Nyachienga |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ST. JOSEPH’S KIBWEZI GIRLS | Joseph | Kimeu | Muli |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ST. PETER’S THANGE | Alfred | Muindi | Nzyuko |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ST. PETER’S THANGE | CATHERINE | MBULA | MUTISO |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ST. PETER’S THANGE | Dorothy | Ndinda | Mutavuta |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | St. Simon Mbui – Nzau Sec Sch | Lillian | Ndinda | Mulwa |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | St.Mary’s Gilrs kinyambu secondary | Matano | Kweli | |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | St.Mary’s Gilrs kinyambu secondary | Paul | Mwanzia | Ndunda |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ULILINZI DAY & BOARDING PRIMARY SCHOOL. | Emily | “Ndumba Kitulu” | Kimuli |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ULILINZI DAY & BOARDING PRIMARY SCHOOL. | Grace | Katumbu | Isika |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | ULILINZI DAY & BOARDING PRIMARY SCHOOL. | John | Mweu | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Ulilinzi High School | Beatrice | Mbinya | Mutie |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Ulilinzi High School | Dominic | Kamuti | Komu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | USALAMA PRI SCH | Jackson | Mwanziu | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | USALAMA PRI SCH | Mirriam | Wanza | Mwania |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | USALAMA PRI SCH | Moses | Peter | Musau |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | UTAFITI D/B (KINZUU) | James | Ndolo | Wambua |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | UTAFITI D/B (KINZUU) | Joseph | Muema | Nzomo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | UTAFITI D/B (KINZUU) | Julius | Ntapayia | Mutenke |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Utini Mixed Day Secondary | Gabriel | Mulinge | Mwilu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | Utini Mixed Day Secondary | William | Mwangi | Mbusu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | UTITHI PRI SCH | Dorcas | Betty | Muia |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | WANDEI PRIMARY | Joshua | Kyalo | Soo |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YIKIVUMBU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Onesmus | Kinyingi | Kangula |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YIKIVUTHI PRI SCH | Andrew | Mutua | Kimuyu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YINDUNDU PRI SCH | Christine | Mueni | Kiilu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YINDUNDU PRI SCH | Kelvin | Kyalo | Mati |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YINDUNDU PRI SCH | Michael | Kioko | Kimilu |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YUMBUNI S. S. | Catherine | Atieno | Onyango |
| Makueni | KIBWEZI | YUMBUNI S. S. | Christopher | Wafula | Ngusare |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | A.C.K ST JOHNS KISEKINI SECONDARY SCHOOL | Dorcas | Mawia | Mwendwa |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | A.C.K ST JOHNS KISEKINI SECONDARY SCHOOL | Mary | Mueni | Kioko |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | A.I.C MUMBUNI SEC SCH | Austine | Sila | Kiilu |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | A.I.C MUMBUNI SEC SCH | Johnsone | Musyoka | Kasina |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | A.I.C. Mwaani-Ilima Secondary School | Shadrack | Kioko | Muteti |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | AIC NUNGUNI SEC SCH | Beatrice | Adhiambo | Adika |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ENGAVU PRI SCH | Michael | Mutavanya | Munywa |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | Engavu Secondary School | Mark | Muia | Muema |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | IKALYONI S.S. | Festus | Musyoka | Ndunda |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | IKALYONI S.S. | Jonathan | Ngunga | Nguta |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | IKALYONI S.S. | Naomi | Nyaburi | Onami |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | IKALYONI PRI SCH | Kyalo | Zachariah | Kioko |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | INYOKONI S.S. | Ikombo | Boniface | Kituku |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | INYOKONI PRI SCH | Gladies | Jepleting | Sang |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | INYOKONI PRI SCH | Ken | Onyango | Owino |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ISOVYA PRI SCH | Janet | “Mutete Kundi” | Ndambuki |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KATHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Robert | Ntheketha | Makau |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KATHULUNI PRI SCH | Philip | Mwambingu | Matano |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | Katikomu Secondary School | Martin | Mutuku | Somba |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KATULYE (NUNGUNI) S.S. | Clement | Kyalo | Kiilu |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KAUTI PRI SCH | David | Kyalo | Maundu |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KIKOKO PRI SCH | Agnes | Ndinda | Ndambuki |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KIKOKO PRI SCH | Jubilet | Mbulwa | Ndanga |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KIKOKO PRI SCH | Marrieta | Kavete | Mutava |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KIKOKO PRI SCH | Pascal | Mulinge | Kathuku |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KILULUINI PRI SCH | Bernard | Mutuku | Kyunguti |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KILUNGU PRI SCH | Stella | Koki | Musyoki |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | Kisyulya Mixed Secondary School | Edwin | Abari | Nyabuto |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KITHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Veronich | “Mueni Mutua” | Ng’ithya |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KITHEMBE PRI SCH | Gregory | “Mbindyo Mutisya” | Sava |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KITUINI PRI SCH | Frederick | Kyaloh | Mwau |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KITUINI PRI SCH | Kiendi | Titus | |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KITUINI PRI SCH | Stamily | Atieno | Okomo |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KITUNDUMO PRIM | Emmah | Kaveni | Musyoka |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAKATHUNGU PRI SCH | Mary | Katumbi | Muthiani |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAKATHUNGU PRI SCH | Stephen | Ndivo | Mulelo |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAKITHUKU PRI SCH | Benjamin | Yona | Musau |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAKITHUKU PRI SCH | Dominic | Mwongela | Mwangi |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAKITHUKU PRI SCH | Jane | Mutanu | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYALE PRI SCH | Bilha | Mumbua | Mukeku |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAMATHEKA PRI SCH | Catherine | Ndanu | John |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAMATHEKA PRI SCH | Francis | Muindi | Kioko |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYAMUOSO PRI SCH | Jacob | Kimanthi | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYANGUNZU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Richard | Kisui | Ngoloma |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | KYENZENI PRI SCH | Alfred | Malinda | Makula |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MATUA PRI SCH | Regina | Nduku | Mutuku |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTANDA PRI SCH | Joseph | Muthoka | Mulaa |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTHETHE PRI SCH | Albanus | Muema | Kitema |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTHETHE PRI SCH | Benard | Nganda | Musyoka |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTHETHE PRI SCH | Doras | Muthoni | Njeru |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTHETHE PRI SCH | Grace | Nduki | Kimweli |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTONGU PRI SCH | Eunice | Kavinya | Nzuki |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | MUTUNGU PRI SCH | Grace | Mutuni | Malinda |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | NTHUNGUNI PRIM | Frorence | Mutinda | Kyalo |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | NUNGUNI PRI SCH | Janet | Chebet | |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | NYAANI PRI SCH | Angelina | Mwongeli | Musyimi |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | PRECIOUS BLOOD GIRLS | Mary | Wairimu | Wachira |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ST MONICA WAUTU SECONDARY SCHOOL | Bernard | Kiamba | Ndalalu |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ST. LUCIA KAUTI G S.S. | Elijah | Musyoki | Nguli |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ST. LUCIA KAUTI G S.S. | Oscar | Lebene | |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ST. LUCIA KAUTI G S.S. | Reginah | Ndunge | Mutua |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ST. LUCIA KAUTI G S.S. | Rose | Karambu | Kinyua |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | ST. PATRICKS KYAMATHEKA | Everlyn | Ndanu | Muasa |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | St.Paul’s Kyanga secondary school | Bernard | Waema | Mutevu |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | St.Paul’s Kyanga secondary school | Christine | Mueni | Peter |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | THOMEANDU S.S. | Willington | Mwanzia | Mutua |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | TUSUNINI PRI SCH | Robert | Kiua | Muindi |
| Makueni | KILUNGU | WAUTU PRI SCH | Gregory | “Joakim Musyoki” | Makumi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | IKUNGU PRI SCH | Charles | Ngei | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | IKUNGU PRI SCH | David | Mukosi | Muia |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | IKUNGU S.S | Bernard | Muisyo | Thomas |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Itulani Primary School | Daniel | Muli | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Itulani Primary School | Josephine | Mwili | Mwonge |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Itulani Primary School | Victor | Mwangangi | Moni |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KAI PRI SCH | Benedict | Mwanzia | Mutua |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KALAKALYA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Adam | Mwakulomba | Mwakesi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KALAKALYA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Grace | Ndinda | Joseph |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KALII PRI SCH | Gideon | Mutangili | Kinyili |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KAMBOO MIXED DAY SEC | Emmaculate | Minoo | Mbinda |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KAMBOO MIXED DAY SEC | Ruth | Mwikali | Kivuva |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KAMBOO PRI SCH | Rebecca | Nzai | Peter |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KANGII PRI SCH | Janet | Mbulwa | Nzomo |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KATANGINI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Christopher | Wambua | Wella |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KATHEANI PRY SCH | Gilbert | Tanga | Muasa |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Kaunguni Secondary School | Joel | Mbatha | Muindi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Kaunguni Secondary School | Nicholas | Kyalo | Munyao |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KAWELU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Gladys | Mutindi | Mwenga |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIAMBANI PRI SCH | Ferah | Nyatichi | Obiero |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIAMBANI PRI SCH | Ruth | Mwelu | Kyania |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIAMBANI PRI SCH | Salome | Mumbe | Mwendwa |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIBOKO PRI SCH | Angeline | Ndunge | Mwenze |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIBOKO PRI SCH | Anna | Kamene | Muli |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIBOKO PRI SCH | Doris | Wayua | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KIBOKO PRI SCH | Michael | Waithaka | Kimani |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KILEMA PRI SCH | Dorcus | Muthini | Wambua |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KILONGONI PRIM | Caroline | Kanini | Kiilu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KISINGO SEC SCH | Joshua | Mumina | Kisilu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KISINGO SEC SCH | Mourice | Kyalo | Kilavu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KISINGO SEC SCH | Stephen | Ong’au | Atisa |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KYANDULU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Catherine | Kakene | Ngengi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | KYANDULU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Nancy | Ndunge | Kitunga |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKINDU S.S. | Janet | Mwende | Muthiani |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKINDU S.S. | John | Mathukia | Numa |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKINDU PRI. SCH | Elizabeth | Muthoni | Kamau |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKINDU PRI. SCH | Jeremiah | Kitheka | Mbuva |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKINDU PRI. SCH | Stephen | Katua | Kanzu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKUSU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Agripina | Ngina | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MAKUSU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Simon | Mwololo | Kamuti |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MASALANI | Nicholas | Musiu | Nzioki |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MBONDENI PRIM | Joyce | Wawuda | Karinda |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MBONDENI PRIM | Lucia | Mwende | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MBONDENI PRIM | Rose | Katee | Lubanga |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MBONDENI PRIM | Simon | Mutinda | Mbithi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Mikululo Primary School | Elizabeth | Ndave | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Mikululo Primary School | Josephine | Mwende | Mwendwa |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Mikululo Primary School | Mwinyi | Minifaki | Ismael |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MITENDEU PRI SCH | Daniel | Muli | Muoki |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MITENDEU PRI SCH | Simon | Muindi | Mwicha |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MOI GIRLS SECONDARY SCHOOL-KIBWEZI | Janet | Mwende | David |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MUKAMENI MIXED SEC | Marietta | Musyawa | Kitoo |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MUKAMENI PRI SCH | John | Malelu | Musembi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MUKAMENI PRI SCH | Joyce | Nduku | Sila |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MULILII PRI SCH | Reuben | Mutua | Muthengi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MUSINGINI PRI SCH | Wilson | Muli | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | MUTANTHEEU PRIMARY SCHOOL | Redempter | Nzembi | Kiilu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Muundani Primary School | Geoffrey | Muthami | Mulatya |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Mwailu Pri Sch | Daniel | Mbuvi | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NDEINI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Alex | Mbinda | Makeku |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NDEINI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Caroline | Mutile | Kavivya |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NDULUNI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Geoffrey | Nzomo | Mweu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NDULUNI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Samuel | Kiamba | Masilah |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGAAKAA PRI SCH | Margaret | Kwamboka | Kabora |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUKUNI PRI SCH | Philip | Lazarus | Mukosi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO PRIMARY SCHOOL | Abraham | Mutuku | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO PRIMARY SCHOOL | Julius | Itumo | Muia |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO PRIMARY SCHOOL | Marietta | Nduku | Kioko |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO PRIMARY SCHOOL | Mwende | Kasimu | |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO S. S. | Alexander | Mwanzia | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO S. S. | Francis | Musyoka | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO S. S. | Lynnet | Mutindi | Kaloki |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO S. S. | Maureen | Mwende | Musau |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGUUMO S. S. | Mwikali | Wambua | |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGWIWA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Francisca | Kanini | Kimeu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NGWIWA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Sternwood | Kyalo | Nganda |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NTHIA PRI SCH | Margaret | Kambua | Sila |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | NZAIKONI PRI SCH | Hellen | Malemba | Mwandoro |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | SEKELENI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Charles | James | Lole |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | SEKELENI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Doris | Mwikali | Muthai |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | SHINE STAR KAI SEC SCH | Alfred | Munyao | Musau |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | SYENGONI PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Mutheu | Muinde |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | SYUMILE SEC SCH | Nicholas | Muthiani | Kyalo |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | SYUMILE SEC SCH | Stephen | Muthini | Tuva |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | TUNGUNI PRIMARY SCHOOL | John | Musyoka | Kamuya |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | UVILENI PRIMRY SCHOOL | Esther | Nduku | Munyao |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | UVILENI PRIMRY SCHOOL | Teresia | Nduku | Kyania |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | WAYONA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Agnes | Wayua | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | WAYONA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Assumpta | Wavinya | Mwania |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Yikisemei Primary School | Daniel | Mutinda | Nzioki |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | Yikisemei Primary School | Francis | Muthui | |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | YIMWAA PRI SCH | Faith | Wanza | Masila |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | YIMWAA PRI SCH | Jackson | Mwang’ombe | Chinia |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | YINDALANI PRI SCH | Simon | Kaseka | Makuu |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | YINGOSO PRIM | Daniel | Wambua | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MAKINDU | YINZAU PRIMARY SCH | Georgina | Mwende | Waita |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | A.C.K. Ukia Secondary School | Pascalia | Mwende | Kiilu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | AIC MUTULA PRIMARY SCHOOL | Stephen | Munyao | Mbuvi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | IIUNI PRIM | Kimeu | Stephen | Mwatu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | ITHANZENI PRI SCH | Catherine | Mutheu | Muewa |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | IUANI S.S. | Stansalaus | Muli | Muthoka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAITI ACK PRI SCH | Joseph | Ndolo | Katundu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAITI ACK PRI SCH | Margaret | “Nduku Mwania” | Mwanthi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Kambi Mawe Boys Secondary School | Julius | Maina | Muchiri |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Kambi Mawe Boys Secondary School | Pamela | Solomon | Kalayu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KASUNGUNI PRI SCH | Benedetta | Nzula | Muema |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAUMONI DEB PRI SCH | Immaculate | Mueni | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAUMONI HGM PRI SCH | Marietta | Wanzuu | Wambua |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAUMONI HGM PRI SCH | Veronica | Ndunge | Makau |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAUMONI SEC, SEC | Joseph | Tote | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAUMONI SEC, SEC | Ndunge | Muendo | |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAUMONI SEC, SEC | Nicholas | Kinyanzui | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KAVANI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Alfred | Wamulango | Ndolo |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KEE PRIMARY SCHOOL | Christopher | Kisoma | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KEE PRIMARY SCHOOL | Patricia | Mbithuka | |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KIATINE PRI SCH | Salome | Mbithe | Mbithi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KILALA AIC PRI | Mirriam | Ndinda | Isaiah |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KIMWATHO PRIMARY | Nelson | Mwasaru | Mwikamba |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KINGUUTHENI PRI SCH | Ednah | Kambua | Kimanzi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KINGUUTHENI PRI SCH | Joel | Ndawa | Ngumbi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KINYONGO PRI SCHOOL | Serah | Ndinda | Musili |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KISYUNGII PRI SCH | Philomena | Kyumwa | Mbiwa |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KISYUNGII PRI SCH | Sarah | Waithera | Muriuki |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KISYUNGII PRI SCH | Stephen | Mutuku | Ndunda |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KITANDI S.S. | Timothy | Mwanzia | Mwikali |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KIVANDINI PRI SCH | Josephat | Mutisya | Kyungu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Kivani S. S | Annastacia | Nthemba | Nguta |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Kivani S. S | Caroline | Mwende | Nzinga |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Kivani S. S | Martin | Nthome | Kisilu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Kivani S. S | Mirriam | Ndanu | Kiema |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KIVUTINI PRI SCH | Stella | Kalunde | Mwaniki |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KYAMUTHEI PRI SCH | Dinah | Undisa | Obiayo |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KYUMU SEC SCH | Bernard | Mwanzia | Wambua |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | KYUMU SEC SCH | Catherine | Stephen | Kalekye |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKONGO PRI SCH | Daniel | Muhuri | Chege |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Makongo Spec School For The Deaf | Pricilla | Kavete | Munyao |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Frankline | Mwendwa | Wambua |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Goulder | Mutono | Matheka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Gregory | Ndau | Muema |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Josphat | Mutuku | Maluva |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Mathias | Musyoka | Muyanguku |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Raphael | Katana | Diwani |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUENI BOYS S.S. | Stephen | Muema | Mutune |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUTANO PRI SCH | Cedric | Nzyoki | Mutua |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MAKUTANO PRI SCH | Peter | Kisese | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MALIVANI A.I.C PRI SCH | Bernard | Kingoo | Muthwa |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MATINDINI PRI SCH | Joyce | Katumi | Kivuva |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUAMBANI PRI SCH | Augustine | Mwanthi | Kimuyu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUIU PRI SCH | Benson | Ndisya | Mwanga |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUIU PRI SCH | Julius | Maingi | Maundu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUKUYUNI S.S. | Daniel | Mwanzia | Mutava |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUKUYUNI S.S. | Vincent | Mulei | Simu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUNGELI PRI SCH | Petronilla | “Kawie | C.” |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUNYUNI S.S. | Mary | Wangari | Wanjohi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUTULANI SEC SCH | Felix | Musyoki | Mulwa |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUTULANI SEC SCH | Onesmus | Muema | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUTULANI SEC SCH | Stephen | Ndunda | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MUTULANI PRI SCH | Emma | Syombua | Mwita |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWAANI BOYS S.S. | Erastus | Kala | Muoki |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWAANI BOYS S.S. | Jackson | Mulinge | Mokosi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWAANI BOYS S.S. | Petronila | Nundu | Muthoka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWAANI BOYS S.S. | Silvanus | Kitonga | Nzioka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWAANI GIRLS S.S. | Mary | Maria | Nzomo |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWAANI GIRLS S.S. | Sandra | Muthini | Kimilu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Mwea Mixed Day Secondary School | Thomas | Musyoka | Katambo |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | MWEA PRY SCH | Joyce | Mueni | Kyania |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NGILUNI PRI SCH | Daniel | Mwongela | Ngolanie |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NGILUNI PRI SCH | Simon | Mutuku | Malonza |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NGOSINI PRI SCH | Justus | Mumina | Mutie |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NTHANGU M SEC SCH | Miriam | Kasiva | Maweu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NTHANGU M SEC SCH | Norah | Kasikwa | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NTHUKULA PRI SCH | Joel | Muli | Nthekani |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NTHUKULA PRI SCH | Juliana | Kavata | Kyalo |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Nziu Boys Secondary School | Mary | Mbinya | Nthenge |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NZIU PRI SCH | Josephine | Mwethya | Matheka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NZIU PRI SCH | Margaret | Nziva | Munywoki |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NZIU PRI SCH | Patrick | Ngungi | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | NZUENI PRI SCH | Agnes | Tatu | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | SENDA PRI SCH | Leonard | Muema | Muthusi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | SIA PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Mwongeli | Kiilu |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | SIA PRI SCH | Phillip | Mulei | Kivuva |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | SIA SEC SCHOOL | Shadrack | Mululi | Kioko |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | ST PAULS KYAMUTHEI S S | Faith | Ndiku | Kavisi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | ST. JOHN MALIVANI | Boniface | Nguta | Muli |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | THOMA PRI SCH | Philis | Ndanu | Kyaka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | UKIA GIRLS S.S. | Mary | Kasavi | Mutua |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | UNOA PRI SCH | Catherine | Kalekye | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | WATEMA PRI SCH | Shadrack | Mutunga | Ndeto |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Wote Technical Training Institute | Anne | Wanjiku | Munga |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Wote Technical Training Institute | Melchisedeck | Kavyu | Muluka |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Wote Technical Training Institute | Peter | Muriu | Nganga |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Wote Technical Training Institute | Raphael | Macharia | Mwangi |
| Makueni | MAKUENI | Wote Technical Training Institute | Timothy | Khakina | |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITITU PRI SCH | Mutinda | Benson | Mwania |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITITU PRI SCH | Tabitha | Nzilani | Kimuyu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Ititu Secondary School | Eliud | Wamupalia | Wangila |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Ititu Secondary School | Peter | Ngemu | |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITULU PRI SCH | Fidelis | Nzyoka | Mavuti |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITULU PRI SCH | Jane | Wayua | Mwania |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITULU PRIM | Georgina | Mwongeli | Kimeu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITULU SEC SCH | Frankil | Mutuku | Mutinda |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITULU SEC SCH | Samuel | Mutisya | Mutunga |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | ITUMBULE PRI SCH | Stevenson | Muoki | Mbaluku |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kaketi Pri Sch | Francisca | Kamene | Mwanzia |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kaketi Pri Sch | Joan | Mukonyo | Musyoki |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kaketi Pri Sch | Julius | Muimi | Kabuga |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KAKO S.S. | PATRICK | MUTUKU | MASIO |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kakuswi Primary School | Augustine | Mulyali | Munywoki |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kakuswi Primary School | Caroline | Keli | Kisilu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kakuswi Primary School | Santos | Kyalo | Muindi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KALAWA S.S. | Naomy | Kavilu | Muendo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kalawa Primary School | Florence | Mueni | Kingola |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kamutonye Pri Sch | Cosmas | Muoka | Malonza |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kamutonye Pri Sch | David | Sila | Mbuta |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KANYENYONI PRI SCH | Janeffer | Wavinya | Kasoloi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kasooni Prim | Francis | Kanyi | Kiago |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KATHAMBANGII PRI SCH | Japheth | Mutio | Katiwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kathongo Hgm Pri Sch | Jeniffer | Museng’Ya | Maundu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kathongo Hgm Pri Sch | Thomas | Muendo | Munyao |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KATHULUMBI SEC | Johana | Ngila | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KATHULUMBI SEC | Michael | Mbevi | |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Katikomu Primary School | Miriam | Katheu | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Katikomu Primary School | Samuel | Mumo | Mativo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KAVUMBU PRI SCH | Solomon | Nthenge | Muendo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KAVUMBU PRI SCH | William | Wambua | Musembi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KAVUMBU SEC SCHOOL | Esther | Kalekye | Itua |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KAVUMBU SEC SCHOOL | Judith | Mumbua | Nzuki |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KIELEELENI PRI SCH | Daniel | Musau | Mumo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KIKUSWI SEC SCH | Sammy | Mule | Katundu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KILUNGU PRIMARY | Phytilisah | Kakwasi | Ngina |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KILUNGU PRIMARY | Stephen | Nthaa | Muia |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KIMANDI PRI SCH | Agnes | Kavindu | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kinyau Primary School | Erickson | Mutinda | Mbithi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kinze Pri Sch | Michael | Mutunga | Kitana |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KISAU GIRLS S.S. | Daniel | Kioko | Ngunzi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KISAU GIRLS S.S. | Daniel | Muteto | Kilatya |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KISAU GIRLS S.S. | Luke | Ndunda | Kimeu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KISAU GIRLS S.S. | Stella | Yula | Kitala |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | kiteta Boys Secondary school | David | Ngumbau | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | kiteta Boys Secondary school | Joseph | Mutuku | Kasimbi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | kiteta Boys Secondary school | Patrick | Muteti | Muthoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITETA GIRL’S SEC. SCHOOL | Evanson | Ireri | Gicigi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITETA GIRL’S SEC. SCHOOL | Mary | Muthoni | Kihara |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Regina | Mwikali | Muthai |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kithuia Primary School | Benson | Kala | Muisyo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITONDO S.S. | Alfred | Kiio | Muli |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITONDO S.S. | Annastacia | Muthoki | Kimuli |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITONDO S.S. | Benedict | Mulwa | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITONDO S.S. | Daniel | Nzioka | Mbote |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITONDO S.S. | Francis | Muendo | Muthoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kitoto Pri Sch | Wambua | B | Mulwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KITOTO S.S. | Florence | Nduku | Mbuvi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KYALUMA PRI SCH | Margaret | Mutindi | Kyengo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KYANGONDU PRI SCH | Janet | Mwikali | Ngangi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Kyaume Pri Sch | Anthony | Nzyoka | Musuu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KYOME PRI SCH | Victoria | Ngina | Kitombo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KYOME SEC SCH | Boniface | Mutuku | Munyao |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | KYOME SEC SCH | Vibian | Jepkirui | |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | LUNGU SEC SCH | Andrew | Metho | Kethi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | LUNGU SEC SCH | Christine | Munyaanyi | Wakhungu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MAVIANI PRI SH | Joseph | Mutinda | Muema |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MBIMBINI PRI SCH | Musyoki | Mwongela | |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | mbukoni sec sch | Gladys | Nthambi | Muli |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | mbukoni sec sch | Stephen | Mweu | Muthiani |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MIANGENI PRI SCH | Alice | Nduku | Kitumu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MIAU PRI SCH | Michael | Nganda | Malonza |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MIAU SEC SCH | Joseph | Mwendwa | Muthengi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MITHUMO PRI SCH | Victor | Thomas | Nzue |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MITUVU PRI SCH | Nicholas | Mualuko | Mali |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUAANI PRI SCH | Simon | Musau | Kiio |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUKIMWANI SEC | Victor | Mutie | Muia |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUKUKU PRI SCH | James | Katangi | Mutinda |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mukuku Primary School | Joshua | Mavuti | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mukuku Primary School | Roval | Mwambili | Mwambui |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MULUTI PRI SCH | Daniel | Wambua | Ngui |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUNYINI PRI SCH | Aaron | Kasyoki | Nzioka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUNYINI PRI SCH | Annah | Wayua | Muli |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUTANDA PRI SCH | Urbanus | Kaminda | Mututa |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mutembuku Primary School | Francis | Nzangi | Mulwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mutembuku Secondary School | Cornelius | Wambua | Manthi |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mutembuku Secondary School | John | Mwathe | Kamama |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mutembuku Secondary School | Julius | Mackenzie | Ngongo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | MUTHWANI SECONDARY | Beatrice | Nthenya | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mutini Primary School | Bernard | Mutuku | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Mutini Primary School | Daniel | Kyalo | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Ndauni Mixed Day Sec Sch-Kalawa | Vincent | Muithya | Mbinoyo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NDULUKU S.S. | Carlos | Vaati | Kivuva |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NDULUKU S.S. | Faith | Ndulu | Kinyumu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NDULUKU PRI SCH | Jamaica | Luka | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NDUMBI SEC SCH | Richard | Mutunga | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NDUMBI SEC SCH | Samson | Maswii | Munywoki |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NGAA PRI SCH | Patrick | Muema | Muia |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NGAMU PRIM | Peter | Nyamai | Muthama |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NGILUNI PRI SCH | Rongers | Laban | Kingoku |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NGILUNI PRIM | Monica | Kamene | Ndolo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NGONI SEC SCH | Evelyn | Katumbi | Nzyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NGUNINI PRI SCH | Jane | Munyiva | Mutie |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NTHAATWA PRI SCH | Dancan | Kioko | Kivindyo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | NTHAATWA PRI SCH | Patrick | Wambua | Musango |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | SAKAI PRIM | Cyrus | Mutengu | Ndulu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | St. Barnabas Thwake Mixed Day Sec Sch | Martin | Mutuku | Muvaa |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | SYUNGUNI PRI SCH | Dorothy | Katulu | Kimatu |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | SYUNGUNI PRI SCH | Kennedy | Makau | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | TAWA KIAMBWA S.S. | David | Kioko | Mutunga |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | TAWA KIAMBWA S.S. | Matthias | Mutuku | Elijah |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | THWAKE PRI SCH | Wilson | Nzivo | Musau |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | USALALA PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Kanini | Nthiambo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | UVILUNI PRI SCH | Florence | Mumbe | Ndolo |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | Watuka Mixed Secondary School | Nicholas | Mbithi | Makau |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | WATUKA PRI SCH | Francisca | Mutindi | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI EAST | WATUKA PRI SCH | Gerald | Kiio | Matata |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Imale S | Kennedy | Muasya | Muthoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Imale S | Martin | Ndunda | Mutua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Imale S | Rashid | Okoba | Oduori |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Imale S | Shadrack | Mwendwa | Kyalo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITETANI S.S. | Patrick | Mutinda | Simon |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITETANI S.S. | Yambu | Winston | Mutua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITETANI PRIM | Francis | Keli | David |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITHEMBONI BOYS PRI SCH | Titus | Mutunga | Kioko |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITHEMBONI PRI SCH | Joseph | Masila | Munguti |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITHEMBONI PRI SCH | Joyce | “Mutinda M” | Nthiwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Ititu A.I.C sec | Geoffrey | Mutinda | Kimuyu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Ititu A.I.C sec | Justus | Musyoka | Kilonzi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Ititu A.I.C sec | Purity | Mbula | Kyuma |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITITU PRI SCH | Dorothy | Mutheu | Nzai |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITULANDOO PRY SCHOOL | Elizabeth | Mumbi | Nzuki |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | ITULANDOO PRY SCHOOL | John | Mwanza | |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KAKIMA PRI SCH | Pius | Munyao | Nguli |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KANGO PRI SCH | Ruth | Kavindu | Kasyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KATHOKANI PRI SCH | Annah | Muli | Kauna |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KATHOKANI PRI SCH | Fredrick | Maingi | Kisinga |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KATHOKANI PRI SCH | Mary | Nthue | Mulli |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KIATINENI PRI SCH | David | Itute | Muoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KIATINENI PRI SCH | Peter | Mbitia | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Kiatineni Secondary School | Mary | Muendi | Kivuva |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Kiatineni Secondary School | Peter | Mukoma | Kilavi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KIKIINI SEC SCHOOL | Boniface | “Mwanza Mutunga” | Ndeto |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KIKIMA S.S. | Abed | Nzuki | Kisia |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KIKIMA S.S. | Nicholas | Nthakyo | Ndavi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KIKIMA S.S. | Philip | Mutuku | Muya |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILENGE PRI SCH | Simon | Mutisya | Kilai |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILIKU PRI SCH | Dorcas | Muthei | Munyao |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILIKU PRI SCH | Hassan | Ramadhan | Yussuf |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILIKU PRI SCH | Jackline | Nzilanih | Muli |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILIKU PRI SCH | Magdalene | Mbijiwe | Gacheri |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILIKU PRI SCH | Winfred | Mukui | Mumo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILYUNGI M SEC SCH | Emmanuel | Sila | Nzau |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILYUNGI M SEC SCH | Janecaster | Ndinda | Benson |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILYUNGI M SEC SCH | Josephine | Kalala | Ndambu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KILYUNGI M SEC SCH | Peter | Ndolo | Kyai |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KINYEE PRI SCH | Patrick | Mulli | Masua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KINYEE PRI SCH | Rael | Syombua | Mule |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KINYUANI PRI SCH | Kennedy | Mwendwa | Kyungu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KISESINI PRI SCH | Jackson | Muia | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KISYATHUKU PRI SCH | Benson | Mutua | Mutua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KISYATHUKU PRI SCH | Carolyne | Nthoki | Kituku |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KISYATHUKU PRI SCH | James | Nzivo | Mbiti |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITHUNGO PRI SCH | Pius | Makau | Mutunga |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITITHINI PRI SCH | Josephine | Mwende | Mathembe |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITOO ABC MIXED SEC SCH | Charles | Keli | Muendo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITOO ABC MIXED SEC SCH | Daniel | Mulinge | Musau |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITOO ABC MIXED SEC SCH | Sarah | Murugi | Muoki |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITOO ABC MIXED SEC SCH | Stephen | Kamarichi | Mokaya |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITOO PRI SCH | Peris | Syombua | Munyao |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KITUNDU S.S. | Caroline | Mbithe | Mutie |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KUSYOKITHOI PRI SCH | Abed | Musembi | Kyangu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KUSYOKITHOI PRI SCH | Salome | Mbula | Muli |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KYAMUATA PRI SCH | Beth | Mueni | Mweleli |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KYANGOMA PRI SCH | Lemmy | Kyallo | Kingoo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KYANGOMA PRI SCH | Mercy | Festus | Mutheu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Kyangoma Special School For The Ment | Charles | Musau | Mutunga |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KYUU S.S. | Faith | Mumo | King’oo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | KYUU S.S. | Salmin | Ali | Nassoro |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MANZUVI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Samuel | Munyao | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MAVINDU S.S. | Dorothy | Syombua | Simon |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MAVINDU S.S. | Nichodemus | Mbithi | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MAVINDU PRI SCH | Magdaline | Nduku | Kilile |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI GIRLS S.S. | Catherine | Wavinya | Mwikya |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI GIRLS S.S. | Elizabeth | Mutindi | Kiio |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI GIRLS S.S. | Faith | Mutheu | Muinde |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI GIRLS S.S. | Lucy | Muthoni | Kagwithi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Mbooni A.I.C.Girls Secondary School | John | Mwita | Burure |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI BOYS SEC SCHOOL | Abednego | Kimondo | Kimeu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI BOYS SEC SCHOOL | Aristarchus | Mutie | Musili |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI BOYS SEC SCHOOL | Reuben | Mutua | Mwendwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MBOONI D.E.B PRI SCH | Kyalo | Daniel | Michael |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MIUUSINI PRI SCH | Nicholus | Muteti | Musila |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUKAATINI S.S. | Agnes | “Muli Mukulu” | Mulwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUKAATINI S.S. | Venic | Nyangarisa | Ogoti |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUKAATINI PRI SCH | Jonathan | Ngemu | Nzioka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUKASI PRI SCH | Phoebe | Mutanu | Kiamba |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MULOONI S.S. | David | Muoki | Muendo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MULOONI S.S. | Irene | Mumbua | Mutua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MULOONI S.S. | Jackson | Kiptoo | Chirchir |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MULOONI S.S. | Margaret | Ndunge | Makato |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUSOA PRI SCH | Joseph | Nthenge | Mutungi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUSOA PRI SCH | Musyoki | Anne | Ndanu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUSOA PRI SCH | Stephen | Musau | Nthatu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUTHWANI PRIM | Ann | Ruguru | Njue |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUTHWANI PRIM | Richard | Oyianoi | Sonto |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUTHWANI PRIM | Scholastica | Ndanu | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUTULANGUU PRI SCH | Raymond | “James Mumo” | Musilu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUTWII PRI SCH | Jackson | Omulama | Kuya |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUTWII PRI SCH | Wissman | Muthiani | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MUUMONI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Moses | Kalawa | Gitonga |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MWEANI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Joe | Mutune | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | MWEANI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Patrick | Mutisya | Masila |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NDUENI PRI SCH | Jackline | Katile | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NDUNI PRI SCH | Agnes | Mbete | Nyamu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NDUNI PRI SCH | Benson | Muvea | |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NDUNI PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Mwende | Mwedwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NGAANI PRI SCH | Regina | Mbithe | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NGAI PRI SCH | Anthony | Mutua | Musila |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NGAI S. S. | Jonathan | Munyao | Musau |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NTHAANI PRI SCH | Anastacia | Kalondu | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NTHAANI PRI SCH | Michael | “John Kaleke” | Kitisya |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NTHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Andrew | Mutiaene | Kavoi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NTHANGATHINI PRI SCH | Nicholas | Mutuku | Mbithi |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Nzeveni S.s. | Anne | Mwongeli | Mwilu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Nzeveni S.s. | Faith | Mwende | Masai |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Nzeveni S.s. | Titus | “Japheth Mulwa” | Nzwili |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | NZUENI PRI SCH | Hastings | Pius | Kivuva |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Senior Chief Munguti Secondary School | Timothy | Mulei | Mumo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Syathani Mixed Day Secondary School | Angelina | Ndunge | Kinyili |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Syathani Mixed Day Secondary School | Emmanuel | Mutua | Kyole |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Syathani Mixed Day Secondary School | Everlyne | Mwikali | Musyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | SYATHANI PRI SCH | Robert | Kavita | Mutua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TULIMANI PRI SCH | Carolyne | Karimi | Njeru |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA SECONDARY SCHOOL. | Antony | Kanzivai | Wambua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA SECONDARY SCHOOL. | Dominic | Maingi | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA SECONDARY SCHOOL. | Dominic | Musembi | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA SECONDARY SCHOOL. | Jacob | Mutua | Ndola |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA SECONDARY SCHOOL. | Mary | Karimi | Mutuku |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA SECONDARY SCHOOL. | Rose | David | Mwikali |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA PRI SCH | Esther | Gathoni | Weru |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | TUTUTHA PRI SCH | Mercy | Ndumi | Kyalo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UKALA PRI SCH | Damaris | Mbatha | Muia |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UKALA PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Nthamba | Muthuka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UKALA PRI SCH | Terry | Malinda | Kiio |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UKALA PRI SCH | Victor | Keli | Sila |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTANGWA HGM PRI SCH | Evalyne | Ndanu | Kasyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTANGWA MIXED SEC SCHOOL | Joel | Nganda | Caleb |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTANGWA MIXED SEC SCHOOL | Joyce | Waeni | Mutua |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTANGWA MIXED SEC SCHOOL | Thomas | Ithia | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTUMONI PRI SCH | Francis | Kivaya | Nzyoka |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTWIINI PRI SCH | Josephat | Musyoka | Kimolo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UTWIINI PRI SCH | Naom | Munanye | Ndemwa |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UVAA PRI SCH | Onesmus | Ndavi | Matata |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UVAANI PRI SCH | Benedict | Mutua | Koti |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | UVAANI PRI SCH | Peter | Mutungi | Kiilu |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Uvuu Secondary School | Abednego | Katelo | Kyau |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | Wanzauni Mixed Day Secondary School | Charles | Ndisya | Kilunda |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | WANZAUNI PRI SCH | David | Mutava | Musili |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | WANZAUNI PRI SCH | Esther | Nduku | Munyao |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | WANZAUNI PRI SCH | Everlyne | Mbithe | Kingoo |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | YAMBAE PRI SCH | Petronillah | Suma | Nzilani |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | YATWA PRI SCH | Alice | Mwelu | Mutune |
| Makueni | MBOONI WEST | YATWA PRI SCH | Paul | KASOMO | Mutunga |
| Makueni | MUKAA | A.C.K. St. Luke’s Marwa Secondary School | Caroline | Mwende | Wilson |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ENGULI PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Nditiva | Masai |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ENZAI PRI SCH | Annastacia | Mumbe | Mutiso |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ENZAI PRI SCH | Mary | Ndunge | Mulumba |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ITUMBULE PRI SCH | Esther | Ndunge | Nguma |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ITUMBULE PRI SCH | Naummy | Nduku | Mutua |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ITUMBULE PRI SCH | Winlinstone | Mutuku | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | Kalimbini Primary School | Bernand | Kiendi | Mukelelya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KAMUTHINI PRI SCH | Isaiah | Oyugi | Ogola |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KAMUTHINI PRI SCH | John | Mutie | Kiema |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KASIKEU GIRLS SCH | Grace | Kangai | Gacici |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KASIKEU S.S. | Daniel | Ouma | Oloo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KASIKEU S.S. | James | Waiti | Njoroge |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KASIKEU S.S. | Jefferson | Mutunga | Kisaulu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KASIKEU S.S. | Raphael | Kimweli | Kinyungu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KATHII PRI SCH | Josephine | Mutunge | Mbevi |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KATULYANI PRI SCH | Mary | Mumbua | Mwanzia |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KATULYANI PRI SCH | Richard | Musyoka | Ndulya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KAVUKO PRI SCH | Betty | Mbithe | Mbunya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIIMA – KIU PRI SCH | Faith | Ngina | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KILOME S.A. S.S. | Agnes | Ngina | Kyenze |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KILOME S. A. PRI SCH | Jackline | Kaluma | Wambua |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIONGWANI S.S. | William | Vincent | Kyalo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIOU PRI SCH | David | Wambua | Muthiani |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIOU PRI SCH | Justus | Mutunga | Muhu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIOU PRI SCH | Pius | Nguta | Mwonga |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITAINGO PRI SCH | Stella | Muthike | Francis |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITHEINI PRI SCH | Franciscah | Rose | Mbullu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITHEINI PRI SCH | Isaac | Mwongela | Mwanzia |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITHEINI SECONDARY SCHOOL | Mathew | Kingola | Muia |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITHINA PRI SCH | Daniel | Kilonzo | Ndeti |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITIVO PRI SCH | Nicholas | Kyalo | Nzioki |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITONGUNI PRI SCH | Julius | Mutua | Mutwiwa |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITONGUNI PRI SCH | Paul | Munywoki | Mutua |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITONGUNI SEC SCH | Mary | Mumbua | Makewa |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KITONGUNI SEC SCH | Sharon | Mwikali | Paul |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIU PRI SCH | Obed | Somba | Makau |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KIU PRI SCH | Richard | Musyoka | Kitunga |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKALELO | Anderson | Mwadime | Mwashumbe |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKALELO | Catherine | Mwende | Muthusi |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKALELO | Marie | Mumo | Kyalo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKATIA PRI SCH | Jackson | Ndangili | Waita |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKAVITA PRI SCH | Nahashon | Watuka | Munguti |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKIKETI PRI SCH | Christine | Mwikali | Tom |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKIKETI PRI SCH | Philip | Muasya | Makau |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKIKETI SEC SCH | Josphat | Musyoki | Ndunda |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAKIKETI SEC SCH | Stephen | Ouma | Oduor |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAMALELU PRI SCH | David | Wambua | Mwalimu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAMBOTOE PRI SCH | Florence | Muthike | Nyamai |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWAMBUMBU PRI SCH | Douglas | Muli | Mbungue |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANDEKE PRI SCHOOL | James | Mulake | Mailu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANDEKE PRI SCHOOL | Moses | Mwithali | M’ambau |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANDEKE PRI SCHOOL | Nancy | Nzilani | Kasyoka |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANGUMU PRI SCH | Felistus | Kavuli | Kilonzo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANGUMU PRI SCH | John | Kitivi | Ngui |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANGUMU PRI SCH | Loise | Mutile | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KWANGUMU PRI SCH | Mirriam | Syongombe | Kinyae |
| Makueni | MUKAA | KYUNGUNI PRI SCH | Miriam | Nduku | Maeke |
| Makueni | MUKAA | LANDU PRI SCH | Gladys | Munini | Ndenge |
| Makueni | MUKAA | LANDU PRI SCH | John | Mutua | Kasuni |
| Makueni | MUKAA | LUMU PRI SCH | Jeddida | – | Sichangi |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MAIANI S.S. | Raphael | Wambua | Musyoki |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MARWA PRI SCH | Elizabeth | Nduume | Musyoki |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MASAANI PRI SCH | Erick | Sabaya | Kepisiet |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MASIVE PRI SCH | Lumet | Richard | Rianto |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MASOKANI SEC SCH | Serah | Muthina | Muteti |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MATIANI PRI SCH | Peter | Piaro | Memusi |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MBIINI S.S. | Maurice | Muli | Ndivo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MBUKUNI PRI SCH | Moses | Ochieng | Onduso |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MBUKUNI PRI SCH | Peter | Mutuku | Mbithi |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MBYANI PRIM | Michael | Mutuku | Muli |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MT CARMEL GIRLS SEC | Festus | Nzalu | Nzioka |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MT CARMEL GIRLS SEC | Regina | Wanza | Muathe |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUANI SECONDARY SCHOOL | Faith | Mbithe | Boniface |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA BOYS S.S. | Bosco | Bernard | Kimilu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA BOYS S.S. | Elizabeth | Mbinya | Wambua |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA BOYS S.S. | Hesbon | Sunguti | Ong’weni |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA BOYS S.S. | Martin | Akweri | |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA BOYS S.S. | Samuel | Nthama | Mwongela |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA GIRLS HIGH | Dorcas | Nzula | Titus |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA PRI SCH | Jane | Mwelu | Mutua |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUKAA PRI SCH | Rhoda | Mbeneka | Muthoka |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MULUMINI S.S. | Paul | Johnbosco | Kikwati |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MULUMINI PRI SCH | John | “K | Ing’oo” |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUTHITHA PRI SCHOOL | Joseph | Manyi | Ngeembe |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUTWEAMBOO PRI SCH | Esther | Mwikali | Mutunga |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUUA MIXED SEC | Kevin | Okumu | Egesa |
| Makueni | MUKAA | MUUA PRI SCH | Regina | Mukonyo | Masilia |
| Makueni | MUKAA | Ndemiu Primary School | Joseph | Nzomo | Mutisya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NDULUNI PRI SCH | Juliana | Mbinya | Munguti |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NDULUNI SEC SCHOOL | Evans | Mongare | Omambia |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NDULUNI SEC SCHOOL | Moses | Nguma | Kyaa |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NDULUNI SEC SCHOOL | Ruth | Mwili | Kimeu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NGAAMBA PRI SCH | Christine | Ndungwa | Mulwa |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NGILUNI PRI SCH | James | Muasya | Kyenze |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NGILUNI PRI SCH | Philemon | Meritei | Kisharisha |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NZEVENI PRI SCH | Joseph | Samuel | Kalovoto |
| Makueni | MUKAA | NZEVENI PRI SCH | Samuel | Matui | |
| Makueni | MUKAA | S.A MAIANI PRIMARY SCHOOL | Jane | Mwende | Maweu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | Salvation Army Maiani Sec. School | Assumpter | Mbula | Kasolo |
| Makueni | MUKAA | Salvation Army Maiani Sec. School | Scholastica | Mumo | Maundu |
| Makueni | MUKAA | St Regina Kiou | Jackson | Mutiso | Ndungi |
| Makueni | MUKAA | TANGU PRI SCH | Petronila | Mueni | Nyamai |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ULU PRI SCH | Nancy | “Nduku Kavuli” | Mulake |
| Makueni | MUKAA | ULU PRI SCH | Simon | Keli | Kivungya |
| Makueni | MUKAA | UTHINI PRI SCH | Cecilia | Mbula | Muoki |
| Makueni | MUKAA | UTHINI PRI SCH | Joseph | Kiilu | Nyamai |
| Makueni | MUKAA | WATHINI PRI SCH | Stephen | Kimondiu | Nzue |
| Makueni | NZAUI | BARAZANI GIRLS S.S. | Gabriel | Kinyae | Kioko |
| Makueni | NZAUI | BARAZANI GIRLS S.S. | Joy | Makena | Muriuki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | EMALI PRI SCH | Winfred | Warwathia | Gathenya |
| Makueni | NZAUI | EMALI TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCH | Esther | Muoti | Muthiani |
| Makueni | NZAUI | EMALI TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCH | Masila | Alex | Mulwa |
| Makueni | NZAUI | EMALI TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCH | Patrick | Ndunda | Ngele |
| Makueni | NZAUI | EMALI TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCH | Pauline | Kamene | Kyule |
| Makueni | NZAUI | EMALI TOWNSHIP SECONDARY SCH | Rither | Nthambi | Muia |
| Makueni | NZAUI | GIGIRI GIRLS S.S. | Dickson | “Mutuku Mutua” | Muia |
| Makueni | NZAUI | GIGIRI GIRLS S.S. | Mulei | – | Mutuku |
| Makueni | NZAUI | GIGIRI LIONS BOYS S.S. | Christopher | Kingoo | |
| Makueni | NZAUI | GOOD SHEPHERD GIRLS’ | Eric | Ndonye | Muange |
| Makueni | NZAUI | IKANGAVYA PRI SCH | Margaret | Nduku | Muvuva |
| Makueni | NZAUI | IKANGAVYA PRI SCH | Wilson | Wambua | Mwema |
| Makueni | NZAUI | ITULU PRI SCH | David | Kyalo | Kikumu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | ITULU PRI SCH | Eliner | “Mumbua Musyimi” | Malika |
| Makueni | NZAUI | IVIANI PRI SCH | Benjamin | Muli | Mutune |
| Makueni | NZAUI | IVIANI PRI SCH | Michael | Makau | Mulwa |
| Makueni | NZAUI | IVIANI PRI SCH | Samuel | Mutua | Muithi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI SEC SCH | Boniface | Muoka | Maweu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI SEC SCH | Caroline | Waiu | Kasimu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI SEC SCH | Ruth | Mwende | Stephen |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI PRI SCH | Angelina | Nthenya | Mwakavi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI PRI SCH | Boniface | Mutinda | Mwaka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI PRI SCH | Borman | Muthoka | Mukeka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAANI PRI SCH | Stephen | Musembi | Nduvya |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAMBA S.S. | Jonathan | Mutinda | Kivuthu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALAMBA PRI SCH | Alphonce | Mulwa | Mutuku |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALIINI PRI SCH | Joshua | Wambua | Matheka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KALIMA PRI SCH | Charles | Musyimi | Kang’uta |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KANYILILYA PRIMARY | Purity | Wanjue | |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KASUVI PRI SCH | Tom | Mutuku | Mwania |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KATHEKA PRI SCH | Godfrey | Muthoka | Mutinda |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KATHUMA PRI SCH | John | Muema | Nyamai |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KAVUTHU PRI SCH | Caroline | Nungari | Gathina |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KAWALA S.S. | Jennifer | Ndungwa | Maweu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KIKUI PRI SCH | Julius | Mutisya | Kiio |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KIKUMINI PRI SCH | Wayua | Rose | Muteti |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILIKU MIXD SEC | Philip | Mulandi | Mutua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILIKU PRI SCH | Alfred | Kimuyu | Kavyu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILIKU PRI SCH | Joshua | Musyoka | Katumo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILIKU PRI SCH | Linet | Nyiva | Muteti |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILIKU PRI SCH | Michael | Kithuka | Musyoki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILIKU PRI SCH | Shadrack | Ndeti | Mumo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILILI SECONDARY SCHOOL | Faith | Munyiva | Nzomo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KILILI SECONDARY SCHOOL | Gladys | Mumo | Kyengo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITANDI PRI SCH | Anne | Mumbua | Nguli |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITANDI PRI SCH | Faith | Nyiva | Munywoki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITENDE PRI SCH | Donald | Maweu | Mulandi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITENDE PRI SCH | Florence | Mirriam | Mueni |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITENDE PRI SCH | Lucas | Maingi | Mwini |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHATHA PRI SCH | Joshua | Mutuku | Kivunga |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHUMANI PRI SCH | Eddinah | Kanini | Kavyu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHUMBA MIXED DAY AND BOARDING | Francis | Mukoto | Matee |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHUMBA MIXED DAY AND BOARDING | Japhet | Mwambia | Kairishi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHUMBA MIXED DAY AND BOARDING | Morris | Mulei | Muteti |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHUMBA PRI SCH | Matilda | Mbula | Masila |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KITHUMBA PRI SCH | Susan | Momanyi | Ogangah |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KIUANI PRI SCH | Alfred | Kimanthi | Musyoka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KIUANI PRI SCH | Henry | Musyoka | Mbulo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KIUANI PRI SCH | Josephat | Mutua | Malile |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKAKULU PRI SCH | Joel | Ndulu | Muthoka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKAKULU PRI SCH | Winfred | Mwikali | Thomas |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKALELI PRI SCH | Serah | Muthoki | Nyamai |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKALUI PRI SCH | Christine | Wandii | Mwau |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKUKUI MIXED DAY SECONDARY SCHOOL | Joseph | Kimosi | Mbalia |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKUKUI MIXED DAY SECONDARY SCHOOL | Ndinda | John | Christine |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAKUKUI PRI SCH | Benson | “Nyamai Ndambuki” | Ngunia |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAMBITI PRI SCH | Sarah | Anyona | Okwaro |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAMUTAVI PRI SCH | Benson | Mwasi | Mati |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAMUTAVI PRI SCH | Philomena | Syombua | Ndambuki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAMUTAVI PRI SCH | Richard | Mueti | Mailu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWAMUTUMIA PRI SCH | Daniel | Matheka | Mwanzui |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KWANGITI MIXED DAY SECONDARY SCHOOL | Mukami | Alex | Mumo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KYANGWASI PRI SCH | Jackson | Ndolo | Kikuvi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KYANGWASI PRI SCH | Joyce | Kitonyo | Komoni |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KYENI PRI SCH | David | Maillu | Nthei |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KYUMBE PRI SCH | Richard | Muua | Makonde |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KYUMBUNI PRI SCH | Cosmas | Muema | Kithuka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | KYUMBUNI PRI SCH | Rachael | Mwende | Muli |
| Makueni | NZAUI | Makasa Primary School | Benson | Kyuvi | Kitili |
| Makueni | NZAUI | Makasa Primary School | Jameson | Muia | Musyoki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MANOONI PRI SCH | Esther | Kambua | Sila |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MANOONI PRI SCH | Joshua | Kioko | Mbwesa |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MASAMUKYE PRIMARY SCHOOL | Paul | Mulwa | Kasonzo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MASAMUKYE PRIMARY SCHOOL | William | Mutio | Mutunga |
| Makueni | NZAUI | Matha Secondary School | Elizabeth | Muli | Musyimi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATIKU PRI SCH | Joseph | Muli | Harrison |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATIKU SECONDARY SCHOOL | Joseph | Nzioki | Kiuvu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATIKU SECONDARY SCHOOL | Roselyne | Kwamboka | Mogere |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATILIKU BOYS | Eddah | Amisi | Munala |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATILIKU BOYS | Philip | Mutisya | Thyaka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATILIKU BOYS | Simon | Kyalo | Musyoki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATILIKU BOYS | Stephen | Mukando | Ndeti |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATILIKU PRI SCH | Lucyline | Mutono | Nabea |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATUTU MIXED SEC | Nzau | Muthoka | |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MATUTU MIXED SEC | Rose | Mwongeli | Wambua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MAUMBA SECONDARY SCHOOL | Jeremiah | Muendo | Kimeu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MAVIAUME PRI SCH | Benjamin | Mangeli | Kasimu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MAVIAUME PRI SCH | Steve | Muoka | Musyoni |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBALANI PRI SCH | Benjamin | Mutavi | Mutua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBELETU MIXED DAY | Wilson | Wambua | Muli |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBELETU PRI SCH | Mathias | Ngulu | Musau |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBELETU PRI SCH | Onesmus | Mutie | Matheka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBIUNI PRI. SCHOOL | Salome | Mumo | Mwau |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBUTHANI S.S. | David | Kilu | Kathumo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBUTHANI S.S. | Upton | Mutua | Kimeu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBUTHANI PRI SCH | Winrose | Kavasi | Ngunga |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MBUVUNI PRI SCH | Bernice | Musengya | Nthenge |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MII PRI SCH | Jonathan | Mutiso | Wasua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MII PRI SCH | Lazarus | Makoani | Ngao |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MITHINI PRI SCH | Mwendwa | Lazarus | Benson |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MITHINI PRI SCH | Samson | Mutio | Nzung’a |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MITHUMONI PRI SCH | Ruth | Ndinda | Munyao |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUAMBWANI S.S. | Joseph | Mutuku | Mamuu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUANGENI PRI SCH | Boniface | Kimonyi | Muli |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUANGENI PRI SCH | Christopher | Kiminza | Mwatu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA PRI SCH | Christine | Ndunge | Matheka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA PRI SCH | Jacintah | Ndinda | Mwololo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA PRI SCH | Julius | Mutunga | Mutua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA PRI SCH | Lekuria | Nakiyiayi | |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA PRI SCH | Nicodemus | Mulala | Nzioka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA S.S. | Neema | Kithia | Mbiwa |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULALA S.S. | Rebeccah | Moraa | Maroko |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MULENYU PRI SCH | Josephine | Nundu | Masala |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUNGETHEELE PRI SCH | Geoffrey | Mulinge | Muthoka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUNGYANI PRI SCH | Daniel | Mutuku | Muia |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUTAITI SEC SCH | Dennis | Muoka | Matee |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUTAITI SEC SCH | Festus | Libuko | Omulogoli |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUTANDA GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL | Crissa | Mutheu | Musau |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUTANDA GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL | Danson | “Kibiwott Rutto” | Soi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUTANDA PRI SCH | Robert | Musau | Wambua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUTYAMBUA PRIMARY | James | Kimilu | Mutunga |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUUANI PRI SCH | John | “Nzyoka Mwau” | Nganda |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUUANI PRI SCH | Margaret | Mueni | Kiio |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MUUANI PRI SCH | Ruth | Wanjiku | Musau |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MWALILI PRI SCH | Mary | Ndunge | Kikwanuu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MWEINI PRI SCH | Everlyne | Mueni | Kithuku |
| Makueni | NZAUI | MWEINI PRI SCH | Robinson | Wambua | Maundu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDATANI PRI SCH | Julius | Musembi | Nyole |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDATANI PRI SCH | Pauline | Peter | Muthoki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDOVEA PRI SCH | Nicholas | “M N” | Kombo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDOVEA PRI SCH | Stella | Kalulu | Nzile |
| Makueni | NZAUI | Ndunguni Mixed Secondary School | Mwendo | Wambua | Thomas |
| Makueni | NZAUI | Ndunguni Mixed Secondary School | Shadrack | Musyoka | Muthiani |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDUNGUNI PRI SCH | Benson | Kimeu | Ngoma |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDUUNDUNE S.S. | Jane | Kelekye | Maithya |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDUUNDUNE AIC PRI SCH | Colletah | Mutheu | Kiio |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDUUNDUNE AIC PRI SCH | Wycliff | Mutinda | Mutisya |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NDWAANI SEC | Stanley | Mutunga | Ndolo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGAA PRI SCH | Benjamin | Muting’a | Masoo |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGAA PRI SCH | Benson | Kimono | Kamende |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGAA PRI SCH | Hope | Ndinda | Lungui |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGO’I PRI SCH | Lawrence | Kasanga | Ngui |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGONGWENI PRI SCH | Danson | Ndolo | Mulinge |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGONGWENI PRI SCH | Julius | Mutisya | Kimondiu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGOTO S.S. | George | Kai | Savai |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGOTO PRI SCH | Alexander | Muli | Kithome |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGOTO PRI SCH | George | Matata | Matheka |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGUKUNI PRI SCH | Annah | Ndinda | Munuve |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGUKUNI PRI SCH | Winfred | Nthuka | Muumbi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NGULWA PRI SCH | Patricia | Rimanto | Meikoki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | NTHUNGUNI PRIM | Virginia | Mumbua | Mathew |
| Makueni | NZAUI | SERENA WILLIAMS MATOONI S.S. | Mercy | Mwelu | Makumi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | SERENA WILLIAMS MATOONI S.S. | Timothy | Simiyu | Nyongesa |
| Makueni | NZAUI | ST MARYS TAAVA SEC | Ismael | Musa | Nzuki |
| Makueni | NZAUI | ST MARYS TAAVA SEC | Laban | Wambua | Ngule |
| Makueni | NZAUI | ST MARYS TAAVA SEC | Michael | Nthusi | Iseu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | St. Anthony Itiani Secondary School | Irene | Ndungwa | Joseph |
| Makueni | NZAUI | St. Anthony Itiani Secondary School | Jonathan | Muange | Mulei |
| Makueni | NZAUI | SYAOLWE PRI SCH | Amos | Kyalo | Kumanga |
| Makueni | NZAUI | SYAOLWE PRI SCH | Ann | Wangeci | Muthike |
| Makueni | NZAUI | THITHI SEC SCHOOL | Neville | Nyumu | Ngule |
| Makueni | NZAUI | THITHI SEC SCHOOL | Paul | Kawelu | Ngila |
| Makueni | NZAUI | THITHI PRI SCH | Jackline | Setoon | Runke |
| Makueni | NZAUI | THITHI PRI SCH | Monicah | Syokau | Mwangangi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | TUTINI S.S. | John | Aggrey | Mutunga |
| Makueni | NZAUI | TUTINI PRI SCH | Janefer | Atieno | Ochieng’ |
| Makueni | NZAUI | UTHANGATHI PRI SCH | Nicodemus | Mutua | Wambua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | UTHANGATHI PRI SCH | Willy | “Ley Mulinge” | Masila |
| Makueni | NZAUI | Utini Girls Secondary School | Jackson | Kiiti | Kasivu |
| Makueni | NZAUI | VOLOLO PRI SCH | Agnes | Mueni | Kavita |
| Makueni | NZAUI | VULUENI SEC SCH | Benjamin | Mulinge | Mutua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | VULUENI SEC SCH | Nicholas | Muia | Wambua |
| Makueni | NZAUI | VULUENI PRI SCH | Eliud | Mutua | Nguli |
| Makueni | NZAUI | VULUENI PRI SCH | Ruth | “Mwikali Maweu” | Kimau |
| Makueni | NZAUI | YUMBANI PRI SCH | Janet | Kyambi | Muthengi |
| Makueni | NZAUI | YUMBANI PRI SCH | John | Mulu | Ndunga |
| MAKUENI | TSC County Office – Makueni | TSC County Office – Makueni | Michael | Mulwa | Mwany’a |
| Makueni | TSC County Office – Makueni | Doris | Mutindi | Mathome | |
| Makueni | TSC County Office – Makueni | Elias | Gitonga | Kiara | |
| Makueni | TSC County Office – Makueni | Emily | Kaimuri | Njabani | |
| Makueni | TSC County Office – Makueni | Muithya | Mutisya | ||
| Makueni | TSC Unit – Makindu | Muthama | Patrick | Mbalya | |
| Makueni | TSC Unit – Mukaa | Nyambane | Kemunto |
|
|
SCHEME OF WORK FORM FOUR C.R.E. TERM ONE 20…………… | ||||||
WKNO |
L/NO |
TOPIC/SUBTOPIC |
LESSON / SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES |
TEACHING / LEARNING
ACTIVITIES |
MATERIALS
/ RESOURCES |
REF. | REM. |
| 1 |
1 |
INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN ETHICS
The meaning and importance of Christian ethics. |
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define ethics. Define Christian ethics. |
Brain storming; Probing questions; Exposition; discussion |
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 1-2
|
|
2 |
Principles of Christian ethics.
– Internal guides.
|
Discuss internal guides as basis of Christian ethics. | Narrations;
Probing questions; Exposition; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 3-4
|
|||
3 |
Principles of Christian ethics.
– External guides.
|
Discuss external guides as basis of Christian ethics. | Narrations;
Probing questions; Exposition; Giving relevant examples; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 4-5
|
|||
4 |
Principles of Christian ethics.
– The Bible
|
Highlight biblical teachings of the bible on Christian ethics. | Scripture reading;
Narrations; Giving relevant examples; Discussion. |
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 6-7
|
||
2 |
1 |
Principles of Christian ethics.
– The Christian community.
|
Cite roles of Christian community in shaping morality. | Probing questions;
Detailed discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 7-8
|
||
2 |
Principles of Christian ethics.
– The natural law and situational ethics.
|
Discuss natural law and situational ethics as bases of Christian ethics.
|
Narrations;
Probing questions; Exposition; Giving relevant examples; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 8-9
|
|||
3 |
Christian values that enhance justice.
–love, honesty, justice. |
Highlight and discuss some Christian values that enhance creation of a just society. | Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 9-12
|
||
4 |
Christian values that enhance justice.
–respect, humility, persistence, chastity. |
Discuss some Christian values that enhance creation of a just society. | Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 12-13 |
|||
3 |
1 |
Life skills.– critical thinking. – creative thinking
|
Discuss critical thinking and creative thinking as life skills. | Real life narrations;
Exposition; Probing questions; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 14-15 |
||
2 |
Life skills.– decision making. – self esteem & assertiveness.
|
Discuss decision making, assertiveness and self esteem as life skills. | Q/A and detailed discussion;
Topic review. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 16-17 |
|||
3 |
3 |
HUMAN SEXUALITY
Definition of human sexuality. |
Define human sexuality.
Discuss sexuality as an integral part of human personality. |
Brain storming;
Probing questions; Exposition; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 21-22 |
||
4 |
Traditional African understanding of human sexuality. | Discuss traditional African understanding of human sexuality. | Probing questions;
Exposition; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 22-24 |
|||
4 |
1 |
Christian teaching on human sexuality. | Highlight some Christian teachings on human sexuality. | Bible reading;
Q/A and discussion. |
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pg 24 |
|
2 |
Male-female relationships in traditional African practice. |
Discuss male-female relationships in traditional African practice. |
Probing questions;
Open discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 24-24 |
|||
3 |
Christian teaching on male-female relationships. | Highlight some Christian teachings on male-female relationships. | Bible reading;
Q/A and discussion; Real life narrations; Written exercise.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 26-27 |
||
4 |
RESPONSIBLE SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour.
|
Highlight some Christian teachings on responsible sexual behaviour.
|
Bible reading; Q/A and discussion; Real life narrations.
|
The Bible. |
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 26-27 |
||
5 |
1 |
Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour.
-incest. -rape.
|
Highlight some Christian teachings on incest and rape.
State effects of incest and rape.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
Newspaper extracts. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 30-36 |
|
2 |
Christian teaching on fornication.
|
Highlight some Christian teachings on fornication.
State effects of fornication.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Q/A and discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 336-38 |
||
3 |
Christian teaching on adultery.
|
Highlight some Christian teachings on adultery.
State effects of adultery.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Q/A and discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 38-40 |
||
4 |
Christian teaching on prostitution.
|
Highlight some Christian teachings on prostitution.
State effects of prostitution
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Open discussion. |
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 40-42 |
||
6 |
1 |
Christian teaching on homosexuality and lesbianism.
|
Highlight some Christian teachings on homosexuality and lesbianism.
State effects of homosexuality and lesbianism.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Probing questions; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 42-44 |
|
6 |
2 |
Christian teaching on divorce and abortion. | Highlight some Christian teachings on divorce and abortion.
List some effects of divorce and abortion.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Q/A and discussion.
|
The Bible.
Relevant print media extracts. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 44-46 |
|
3 |
STIs |
Identify common STIs.
State symptoms and effects of STIs.
|
Open discussion. | Resource person. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 46-47 |
||
4 |
HIV and AIDS. |
Identify methods of HIV spread.
Discuss the impact of AIDS. Explain the role of the church in combating AIDS. |
Brain storming;
Open discussion. |
Resource person. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 47-51 |
||
7 |
1 |
MARRIAGE
The meaning of marriage. |
Define marriage. Identify forms of marriage. |
Q/A and brief discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pg 53 |
||
2 |
Traditional African understanding of marriage. |
Discuss traditional African understanding of marriage. | Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 53-57 |
|||
3,4 |
C. A.T. & MID-TERM BREAK | ||||||
8 |
1 |
Christian teaching on marriage. | Highlight some Christian teachings on marriage.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
Relevant print media extracts. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 57-60 |
|
2 |
Secular approach to marriage. | Discuss secular approach to marriage.
Compare and contrast secular and Christian views. |
Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 60-61 |
|||
3,4 |
Preparation for marriage in an African view. |
Describe preparation for marriage in an African view. | Probing questions;
Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 61-66 |
|||
9 |
1,2 |
Preparation for marriage in a Christian view. |
Describe preparation for marriage in a Christian context. | Bible reading;
Narrations; Probing questions; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 66-70 |
||
3,4 |
Celibacy. |
State advantages of celibacy.
Cite reasons for observing celibacy. Give a biblical account on celibacy. |
Bible reading;
Narrations; Probing questions; Open discussion; Topic review. |
The bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 71-72 |
||
10 |
1 |
THE FAMILY
Definition of the family. Types of families. |
Define a family.
List types of families. |
Q/A and brief discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 74-76 |
||
10 |
2 |
Traditional African understanding of the family. |
Discuss traditional African understanding of the family. | Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 76-77 |
||
3 |
Christian understanding of the family. | Highlight some Christian teachings on marriage.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 77-79 |
||
4 |
Responsible parenthood. |
Highlight qualities of responsible parents. | Probing questions;
Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 79-81 |
|||
11 |
1 |
Contraception. | Discuss natural and artificial methods of contraception.
|
Probing questions;
Discussion.
|
Artificial contraceptives. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 81-84 |
|
2 |
Traditional African responses to problems related to families. |
Discuss some traditional African responses to problems related to families.
Suggest possible solutions to these problems. |
Probing questions;
Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 84-90 |
|||
3,4 |
Christian responses to problems related to families today. |
Discuss some Christian responses to problems related to families today.
Suggest possible solutions to these problems. |
Probing questions;
Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 84-90 |
||
12-13 |
END OF TERM ONE EXAMS | ||||||
| SCHEME OF WORK FORM FOUR C.R.E. TERM TWO 20…………… | |||||||
WKNO |
L/NO |
TOPIC/SUBTOPIC |
LESSON / SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES |
TEACHING / LEARNING
ACTIVITIES |
MATERIALS
/ RESOURCES |
REF. | REM. |
| 1 |
1 |
CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO WORK
The meaning of work and vocation. Reasons for engaging in work. |
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define work and vocation.
Cite reasons why people work |
Brain storming; Probing questions; Exposition; discussion |
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 92-93, 96
|
|
2 |
Types of work. | Describe various types of work. | Probing questions;
Exposition; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 93-96
|
|||
3 |
Traditional African attitude to work. | Highlight some traditional African attributes to work. | Probing questions;
Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 96-98
|
|||
4 |
Secular attitude to work. | Discuss secular attitude to work. | Probing questions;
Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 99-100
|
|||
2 |
1 |
Christian teaching on work. | Highlight some Christian teachings on work.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 100-1 |
|
2 |
Virtues related to work. | Identify virtues related to work.
|
Narrations;
Exposition; Giving relevant examples; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 101-3
|
|||
3 |
Professional ethics, ethos and codes. | Define professional ethics, ethos and codes.
Explain the role of professional ethics, ethos and codes. |
Exposition;
Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 103-4
|
|||
4 |
Rights of employers and employees. | State rights of employers and employees | Exposition;
Probing questions; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 104-6 |
|||
3 |
1 |
Christian approaches to employment. | Describe Christian approaches to employment. | Bible reading;
Probing questions; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 10106-7 |
|
2 |
Christian approaches to wage and labour contracts. | Describe Christian approaches to wage and labour contracts. | Bible reading;
Probing questions; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 107-8 |
||
3 |
Christian approaches to industrial actions. | Describe Christian approaches to industrial actions. | Bible reading;
Probing questions; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 108-9 |
||
4 |
Christian approaches to child labour. | Describe Christian approaches to child labour. | Bible reading;
Probing questions; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 109-111 |
||
4 |
1 |
Self employment and unemployment. | Describe Christian approaches to self employment and unemployment. | Bible reading;
Probing questions; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 112-4 |
|
2 |
CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LEISURE
The meaning, forms and importance of leisure. |
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define leisure. Identify forms of leisure. Give importance of leisure. |
Brain storming; Probing questions; Exposition; discussion |
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 115-8
|
||
3 |
Traditional African attitude to leisure. | Highlight some traditional African attributes to leisure. | Probing questions;
Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 118-20
|
|||
4 |
Christian teaching on leisure. | Highlight some Christian teachings on leisure.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 120-3 |
||
5 |
1 |
Misuse of leisure today. |
Identify ways in which leisure is abused today. | Q/A and brief discussion. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 123-5 |
||
2 |
Alcohol and other substances. |
State effects of abusing alcohol and other substances. | Q/A and open discussion. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 125-7 |
|||
3 |
Drugs and drug abuse. |
Identify some common drugs.
Explain effects of drug abuse. Give reasons why people abuse drugs. |
Q/A and open discussion. | Resource person. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 42-44 |
||
5 |
4 |
Christian evaluation of leisure. | Identify criteria for evaluating the use of leisure. | Bible reading;
Exposition; Discussion.
|
The Bible. | KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 132-3 |
|
6 |
1 |
CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WEALTH, MONEY & POVERTY
The meaning of wealth, money and poverty. |
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define wealth, money and poverty as understood in the contemporary world. |
Brain storming to review Jesus’ teachings on wealth and poverty; Probing questions; discussion |
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 134-5
|
|
2,3 |
Traditional African understanding of wealth, money and poverty.. | Highlight some traditional African attributes to wealth, money and poverty. | Probing questions;
Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 136-40
|
|||
4 |
Money economy in traditional African society. | Discuss the impact of introduction of money in economy in traditional African society.
|
Probing questions;
Exposition; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 140-2
|
|||
7 |
1,2 |
Christian teaching on wealth, money and poverty.
–new testament. -old testament. |
Highlight some Christian teachings on wealth, money and poverty.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 142-8 |
|
3,4 |
C.A.T. & MID-TERM BREAK | ||||||
8 |
1 |
Christian teaching on distribution of wealth. | Highlight some Christian teachings on distribution of wealth.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
Relevant print media extracts. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 149-51 |
|
2,3 |
Christian teaching on bribery and corruption. | Highlight some Christian teachings on bribery and corruption.
|
Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion; Topic review.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 151-3 |
|||
4 |
CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LAW , ORDER & JUSTICE
The meaning of law, order and justice. |
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define law, order and justice as understood in the contemporary world. |
Brain storming; Probing questions; discussion |
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 154-6 |
||
9 |
1 |
The need for law, order and justice. | Explain the role of law, order and justice in the society. | Probing questions;
Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 156-7 |
||
2 |
Rights and duties of a citizen. | Highlight rights and duties of a citizen. | Probing questions;
Exposition; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 157-160 |
|||
3 |
Traditional African understanding of law, order and justice. | Highlight some traditional African attributes to of law, order and justice. | Probing questions;
Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 160-1 |
|||
4 |
Christian teaching on law. | Highlight some Christian teachings on law.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 161-4 |
||
10 |
1 |
Christian teaching on order. | Highlight some Christian teachings on order.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 164-5 |
|
2 |
Christian teaching on justice. | Highlight some Christian teachings on justice.
|
Bible reading;
Narrations; Discussion.
|
The Bible.
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 165-7 |
||
3 |
Social disorders and remedies. |
Identify causes of social disorders and possible remedies. | Probing questions;
Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 167-180 |
|||
4 |
Church-State relationship. |
Explain church state relationship in maintaining social order. | Exposition;
Probing questions; Giving relevant examples; Discussion.
|
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 180-2
|
|||
11 |
1,2 |
CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
The meaning of science, technology & environment.
Christian views on science and technology. |
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define science, technology & environment as understood in the contemporary world.
Discuss Christian views on science, technology & environment. |
Brain storming; Probing questions; Discussion. |
|
KLB BOOK IV Pgs 186-194 |
|
3,4 |
Christian response to impact of science and technology on the environment. |
Discuss Christian response to impact of science and technology on the environment. | Brain storming;
Explanations; Discussion. |
KLB BOOK IV
Pgs 194-200 |
|||
12-14 |
PRE – K.C.S.E EXAMINATIONS | ||||||
Grade Two CBC Notes, Revision Questions and Answers
BUSINESS STUDIES FORM ONE NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS STUDIES
Objectives: By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
–It can also be defined as the study of activities that are carried out in and around production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
iii) Goods: These are items that are tangible .i.e. they can be touched and felt.
Activity 1: The students to list items in the classroom that can be touched and felt
–Furniture, buildings, books, vehicles e.t.c
Activity 2: The students to list items that money is paid to get but they cannot touch.
Activity 3: Using the lists of goods and services above, the students to name those involved in their production.
vii) Consumption: Refers to the act of using the goods or services produced consumption is the ultimate goal of production. The persons who uses a good or a service is referred to as a consumer.
Activity 4: The students to list the consumers of the goods and services listed in activity (1) and (2) above.
Business studies as a subject is composed of topics drawn from various disciplines such as:
Commerce
This is the study of trade and aids to trade. Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services or money.
Aids to trade are human activities (services) that assist trade to take place.
Economics
This is the study of how human beings strive to satisfy their endless wants using the available scarce resources.
Accounting
This refers to a systematic way of recording business activities which all used for decision making.
Office practice
This refers to all activities that are carried out in an office e.g. communication, filling, clerical work, reproduction of documents e.t.c
Entrepreneurship
This is the study of activities involved in the process of identifying a business opportunity and acquiring the necessary resources to start and run a business. The person who carries out these activities is refered to as an entrepreneur.
Importance of Business studies in society
Business studies is meant to prepare learners to function as informed consumers, producers and workers in the society.
Some of the benefits of learning business studies include:
BUSINESS AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
Meaning of a business
This refers to any activity carried out by an individual or by an organization with the aim of making a profit.
Profit is what the business earns above what it spends in providing goods and services to the people who need them.
The term business also refers to firms or organizations that provide goods and services to make a profit.
Purpose of business (Reasons for the existence of businesses)
Business is important in any society because it is not possible for people to provide themselves with all what they need without direct or indirect aid from others. Some of the main reasons why businesses exist are:
NB: Whatever purpose a business fulfills, it has to earn a reasonable return on the invested money to survive.
TYPES OF BUSINESS ACTIVITIES
People carry out different business activities in order to earn income. Business activities are activities which involve the provision of goods or services with an aim of earning a profit.
Activities done without the intention of making profit are referred to as non-business activities. Business activities may be grouped into the following seven categories:
This involves obtaining goods from their natural setting e.g. mining, farming, lumbering, fishing, quarrying e.t.c
NOTE: Students to give examples of activities they pay money for which are not goods.
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE BUSINESS
Business environment refers to conditions or factors which surround and affect business operations. These factors could be within the business (internal environment) or from outside the business (external environment).
These factors affect the decisions, strategies, processes and overall performance of the business.
Activity: Discuss some factors that have a strong influence on businesses within the immediate environment.
Internal Business Environment
This comprises factors that are within the business unit itself. These factors can be controlled fully by the business. Internal environmental conditions could be either strength or weaknesses. The strengths tend to improve the performance of the firm while weaknesses tend to affect the operations of the business negatively.
Internal environment is also referred to as: micro-environment. Micro environmental factors include:
These ate targets or goals that are set by the owners or managers of a business to be achieved. The objectives will influence the following;
The management refers to the people who are responsible for directing the day-to-day operations of a business. It is the management that sets the objectives and policies of an organization.
A policy is a course of action of action for achieving set objectives, which is adopted by a business.(it is the established way of doing things in a business.
This is the formal arrangement of activities that are carried out at various levels of the organization so that objectives of the business can be achieved.
Duties and responsibilities of all the workers are defined in the business structure. Their interrelationships are also defined.
A well laid out business structure is likely to lead to success of the business since:
A poor business structure leads to business failure.
A resource refers to anything that can be used to achieve an objective. These resources include;
5.) Research and development
Research and development is an important factor for the success of a business. Research generates new ideas, skills and better methods of doing things.
A business has to do market and consumer research regularly to find out how the consumers perceive its goods and services, and how they can improve in order to outdo their competitors.
Research also assists in the development of new and unique goods and services that may attract new consumers or maintain the loyalty of the existing ones.
6.) Business culture
This is a combination of employees expectations, beliefs and values within the business. It is normally passed on from one generation of employees to the next. Employees acquire norms and code of conduct that is acceptable to all from the general manager down to the sweeper. A business that has a culture of involving employees in decision-making may perform better than one that does not involve its employees.
The owners of the business provide finances/resources to start and run the business. They also make decisions concerning operations of the business.
Appropriate decisions are likely to lead to well being of the business while poor decisions may adversely affect the business.
External Business Environment
This environment consists of all the factors which affect the operations of the business from the outside. Some of these factors offer business opportunities while others may create problems (threats).
Business have limited or no control over external environmental factors and should therefore try to do adjust in order to cope with them.
External environmental factors are also referred to as macro-environment i.e. environment that is in large scale.
External business environment can further be sub-divided into operating environment and remote environment, depending on whether the factors can be influenced to some extent or not. Those environments that can be influenced are referred to as operating environment while those that cannot be influenced are known as remote environment.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
Meaning of entrepreneurship
This is the process of identifying business opportunities and gathering the necessary resources to start and run a business.
An entrepreneur who identifies business opportunities and gets the necessary resources in order to start and run a business. The entrepreneur therefore creates new businesses or transform the existing ones in the face of risks and uncertainties in order to make profits.
An entrepreneur is therefore a business owner; he starts and organizes the business (the factors of production in appropriate combination)
Importance of entrepreneurship to an economy
Characteristics of an entrepreneur
A good entrepreneur should have the following characteristics:
Generating Business Ideas
For an entrepreneur, the first step in starting a business begins with an idea (business idea).
Business ideas are all about thoughts on possible businesses an entrepreneur can start or improve. It indicates among other things;
Sources of Business Ideas
iii. Magazines and journals-Reading magazines and journals with business information may equip an entrepreneur with new business ideas.
vii. Recycling/using waste products-Some waste products could be converted into useful products e.g. scrap metal for making jikos,old tyres for making sandals e.t.c
viii. Listening to what people say-By listening keenly to what people say, one can identify unsatisfied needs e.g. complaints about goods and services in the market. These complaints may form a basis of a business idea for an entrepreneur.
xii. Copying/improving an existing business-This involves identifying the weaknesses of a business and trying to come up with solutions.
Business Opportunity
A good business plan is not necessarily a business opportunity. A business idea becomes a business opportunity if it is viable i.e. it can be developed into a successful/profitable business enterprise
A business opportunity is a favourable chance that an entrepreneur accepts for investment. It exists where there is a gap to be filled in the needs of the market. Examples of such gaps include:
Evaluating a business opportunity
This means assessing whether the identified opportunity is viable or not. This helps in arriving at the best decision concerning the business idea to implement
Evaluation should be done carefully, systematically and without emotions. Evaluation is necessary even where there is only one business idea. This will help in avoiding starting a business that cannot succeed.
Factors to consider when evaluating a business opportunity
The following are the factors to consider when evaluating a business opportunity.
BUSINESS PLAN
This is a written document that highlights the objectives of the business and steps to be followed in order to achieve these objectives. It indicates where the business is, where it wants to move to, how and when.
Contents of a good business plan
Need for the business plan
Factors that influence entrepreneurship practices
There are many conditions or factors which may encourage or discourage entrepreneurship. Some of these factors are:
Causes of Business success
A business is considered as being successful if it makes consistent profit and experiences progressive growth in the scale of its operations.
Some of the factors that lead to the success of business may include:
Management of finances includes:
ETHICAL ISSUES IN BUSINESS
Ethics -refers to a set of values, principles and rules of acceptable behavior which influence how individuals, groups of people and the society in general behave.
Business ethics-refers to acceptable behavior that should be displayed by business people. Business ethics helps businesses in deciding what actions are right or wrong depending on circumstances.
Ethical issues-are the moral concerns that arise in the course of carrying out business.
Need for Ethical issues in Business
The need for ethical issues in business includes the following;
-It ensures that everybody is given an equal opportunity (has equal chance) and is not discriminated against because of their sex, religion, ethnicity, social background e.t.c.
THE OFFICE
An office is a building, room or a place set aside for administrative, communication or clerical work of an organization.
Advantages of photocopying
Disadvantages of photocopying
| Functions | Type of machine | |
| (a) | To create postage impressions on envelopes | Franking machine |
| (b) | To fold documents put them in envelope and seal them | Composite machine |
| (c) | To destroy sensitive but unwanted documents | Paper shredder |
| (d) | To store large volumes of data | Computer |
| (e) | To run 300 copies of an exam for students in a school | Printing machine |
| (f) | To make exam copies of a certain original document | Photocopier |
| (g) | To trim papers to the required sizes | Guillotine machine |
| Category | Example | |
| (a) | Typing office machine | (i)Typewriter
(ii)Dictating machine |
| (b) | Mailing office machine | (i)Franking machine
(ii)Composite machine (iii)Folding machine |
| (c) | Communication office machine | (i)Telephone
(ii)Telex (iii)Cell phone |
| (d) | Duplicating/reprographic machine | (i)Photocopier
(ii)Duplicator (iii)Printing machine
|
In centralized system one department is given the responsibility of keeping and managing all the files in the whole organization. This department is referred to as a registry.Decentralised filing
(a)Departmental manager
(b)Personal secretary
Advantages
HOME TRADE
TOPIC OBJECTIVES: By the end of the topic, the learners should be able to:
MEANING OF TRADE
This is the buying and selling of goods and services with the aim of making a profit.
Importance of trade:
Trade plays a vital role in any economy. The various roles played by trade in the economy include:
Classification of Trade
–It refers to the buying and selling of goods and services within the boundaries of a given country.
–It is further divided into retail trade and wholesale trade.
-This is trade that is carried out beyond the boundaries of a country
-This is trade carried out between individuals or government of different countries e.g. trade between a citizen of Kenya and a citizen of Tanzania, or trade between the government of Kenya and the government of Southern Sudan
-International trade carried out between two countries is referred to as bilateral trade and international trade carried out among many countries (more than two countries) is referred to as multilateral trade.
International trade is classified into the following;
Forms of Home Trade
-Retail trade involves the buying of goods and selling them to the final consumer. A retailer is the trader who buys goods with a view of selling them to the final consumer.
Classification of Retail Traders
Retailers are classified/categorized according to the amount of capital they need to start and operate their businesses and their sales volume. Thus retailers can be classified as;
These are retailers whose capital requirement is low and their sales volume also low. They form the majority of retail traders and all found in all parts of the country.
Small scale businesses are easy to start and in most cases they are operated as one-man’s business.
A small scale trader serves the needs of people in the immediate neighbourhood and deal mainly in fast moving goods such as foodstuffs, detergents, kerosene e.t.c
Categories and Types of small scale
These are two main categories of small-scale traders as shown below;
–Itinerant Traders (Hawkers and peddlers)
–Roadside sellers
–Open air market Traders
–Single shops –Tied shops –Kiosks –Mobile shops
–Market stalls –Canteens –Mail order stores
These are retailers who move from place to place selling their goods either on foot, by bicycles or motor cycles
-They move from town to town, door to door and from village to village selling their goods. Their goods may include clothes, utensils and foodstuffs. Customers can buy goods without having to travel to look for them
-Examples of itinerant traders are hawkers and peddlers (Hawkers move around on bicycles, handcarts or motorcycles while peddlers walk around)
-The itinerant traders require a licence from the local authorities in order to sell their goods.
Characteristics of itinerant Traders
Advantages of itinerant Traders
Disadvantages of itinerant Traders
These are traders who sell their goods at places where other people pass by and at busy places such as along busy roads, bus stages, road junctions and entrances to public buildings.
They place their goods on trays, cardboards, empty sacks and mails
They sell items such as fruits, utensils, sweets, clothing and some hardware.
Open air markets are places set aside by the government through the local authorities where people meet to buy and sell goods. Traders selling similar commodities are allocated a special area. Such markets are open on particular days of the week.
The variety of goods sold here is wide and include agricultural produce, clothing, household items, animals, foodstuffs and even furniture.
The traders move from one market to another depending on the various market days.
Advantages of small-scale retailers without shops
Disadvantages of small-scale retailers without shops
These are small scale retailers with permanent locations to operate from. They include;
These are small shops or structures found mostly in residential areas, busy streets, highly populated areas or inside building where people pass by or work
They deal in fast-moving items and groceries such as; sodas, cakes, sweets, cigarettes, and newspapers e.t.c. some kiosks also sell food
These are permanent stands found in market places, especially those operated by the various local authorities
They are of different designs depending on the goods they sell or services they offer.
They are rented or leased by individuals from local authorities
They deal in fast moving household goods though some may specialize in other products such as clothing and shoes.
Examples are stalls at Muthurwa markets, Kariokor, and most municipal markets.
Advantages of kiosks and market stalls
Disadvantages of kiosks and market stalls
–Single shops are mostly located in the trading or market centres in rural areas or in the residential areas of high towns
-They are operated from fixed premises
-They are usually run by one person who may get assistance from him/her family or employ attendance
-Some deal in one line of commodity such as houses, clothing, groceries or electronics
Advantages of single shops
Disadvantages of single shops
These are shops that mainly sell the products of one particular manufacture or are owned by a specific supplier of certain goods. The shops are owned or controlled by the manufacturer, and are thus tied to the manufacture.
The manufacture/supplier designs the organization of the shop and its appearance e.g. painting hence they look alike. The supply closely supervises the shops.
Examples of tide shops include; Bata shops which sell shoes made by Bata Company, petrol station like National, Kobil, and total e.t.c
Advantages of Tied shops
Disadvantages of Tied shops
Differences/Distinction between a tied shop and single shop Single shop Tied shop
| -Owner is free to stock whatever he/she wishes | –Dealership can be withdrawn if operators stock competing products |
| –Owned by individual or a group of people | –The owner is normally the manufacturer |
| –Sells products from different manufacturers | –Sells products from a single manufacturer |
| -Design of shop according to owners wish | –Shops usually have the same design |
| –Prices of goods determined by shop owner or different manufactures | –Prices of goods set by the manufacturer |
| –Operators not trained by manufacturers | –Operators are usually trained by manufacturer |
-They stock a variety of consumable goods such as sodas, bread, tea, groceries and other things used by the people in that institution.
-They are run by the institutions management or by individuals on retail business
-Most of them operate without a license as they are considered to be part of the institution. Their hours of operation are sometimes regulated by the institution
Advantages of canteens
-Some do not pay any rent, thus they incur low overhead costs
-They often require low capital to start
-Some offer credit facilities to their customers
-They are situated at ideal location which is convenient for their customers
-They are assured of a market as they cater for people in particular institution.
Disadvantages of canteens
-The market is limited to people in a particular institution
-They do not open throughout/they open for limited hours e.g. after classes in schools
-They close down when the targeted customers are not available e.g. during school holidays.
-They may suffer from bad debts
-They are difficult to expand due to insufficient funds
Features
-They dispense goods or services once a coin or a card is inserted and instructions keyed in.
-They operate without an attendant
-They are usually placed at strategic places such as busy streets, office buildings, shopping centres and hospitals.
Advantages of vending machines
Disadvantages of vending machines
Mobile shops, like itinerant traders move from town to town or village to village selling their goods.
-They have vehicles that they have converted into a shop from which customers can buy their goods
-They visit different towns at regular intervals.
Advantages of small scale Retailers
Disadvantages of small-scale retailers
LARGE SCALE RETAILERS
Large-scale retailers have the following features/characteristics;
TYPES OF LARGE SCALE RETAILERS
Features of supermarkets
Advantages of supermarkets
Disadvantages of supermarkets
A hypermarket is a large shopping complex/centre comprising a variety of businesses managed by different people all housed in one building
Examples; village market, sarit centre, Tuskeys-Kisumu, Nakumatt mega city-Kisumu e.t.c
Features/Characteristics of Hypermarkets
Advantages of Hypermarkets
Disadvantages of Hypermarkets
Characteristics/features of chain stores
Advantages of chain stores/multiple shops
Disadvantages of chain stores/multiple shops
This is a group of single shops operating under one roof with a centralized management
Each shop/department specializes in a particular line of products and is headed by its own department manager.
Characteristics of departmental stores
Advantages of departmental stores
Disadvantages of Departmental stores
This is a type of retail business where business is carried out through the post office, telephone or email
-Ordering of the goods is done through the post office telephone or email and delivering of goods is done by post or courier
-There is no personal contact between the seller and the buyer and buyers get information from advertisements.
-Goods are dispatched on the basis of cash with order (CWD) or cash on delivery (COD).
Characteristics/features of Mail order stores
–They sell the goods through the post office
-They operate on cash with order (CWO) or cash on delivery (COD) terms
-Heavy advertisement are involved
-Customers do not visit the selling premises.
-There is no personal contact between the buyer or the seller
-All transactions are done through the post office
-They deal with goods that are less bulky, have high value, and are durable and not too fragile
-May have large warehouses
Advantages of Mail order stores
Disadvantages of Mail order stores
FUNCTIONS OF RETAILERS
These can be discussed as services rendered to consumers, wholesalers and producers
Services Rendered to consumers
Services Rendered to wholesalers
Services Rendered to producers
WHOLESALE TRADE
Wholesaling involves selling goods in large quantities to traders for resale. A wholesaler is a trader who buys goods in bulk from producers/manufactures for resale to retailers at a profit.
-There are wholesalers who carry out retailing but that do not make them retailers.
Classification of wholesalers/Types of wholesalers
Wholesalers may be classified depending on a number of factors. These factors include;
Under this classification, wholesalers may be any of the following;
The word merchandise means goods.
-The general merchandise wholesalers stock and sell a wide variety of goods e.g. hardware, clothes, cosmetics and foodstuffs. The retailers who buy from these wholesalers are thus able to get a wide variety of goods for resale.
-They are also called general wholesalers or full-line wholesalers
-These are wholesalers who deal in a wide variety of goods within the same line e.g. textbooks, duplicating papers and other types of stationary.
-These are wholesalers who deal in a particular good from a given line e.g. in the line of grains, they may specialize in maize only.
Under this category wholesalers may be;
These are wholesalers who supply goods to traders in all parts of the country.
-They establish warehouses or depots in different areas from Kenya National Trading Corporation (KNTC)
These are wholesalers who supply goods to certain parts of the country only. They may cover a county, District, division e.t.c
iii) According to their method of operation
Under this classification, wholesalers can be:
-They neither offer transport nor credit facilities to their customers.
These wholesalers specialize in selling certain/particular products to other specialized wholesalers. They buy goods from producers or from other countries for reselling.
E.g. some wholesalers buy horticultural products from producers and sell to other wholesalers in urban areas
-Rack jobbers usually stock their goods in shelves or racks from which customers select the goods to buy. Customers may be allowed to pay for the goods after they have sold them.
These are wholesalers who make orders for goods from manufactures/producers but do not take them from the producers premises. They then look for the buyers for the goods and supply the goods directly from the producers
Alternate classification of wholesalers
An alternative classification of wholesalers is given below:
These terms are explained as below:
Functions of a wholesaler
These can be discussed as services rendered to producers, retailers and to consumers.
Services of wholesalers to the producers
Services of wholesalers to the Retailers
Services of wholesalers to consumers
DOCUMENTS USED IN HOME TRADE
A business document is a written record which gives evidence to a stage in the transfer of goods or provision of services from one party or it is written record which gives evidence that trader or a business transaction has taken place.
A business transaction is a deal between two or more people involving exchange of goods and services in terms of money.
Business transaction may take place on cash basis; in which case goods are paid for before or on delivery or a short while after delivery
Business transaction may also take place on credit basis; which means payment is made after a specified period from the date of delivery of the goods or the provision of the services
There are various business documents that are used in various stages of business transactions as discussed below;
This is the first stage in transaction. An inquiry is a request by a prospective buyer for information on available goods and services. It is aimed at establishing the following;
Some of the documents used at this stage include;
This is a letter written by a potential buyer to the seller to find out the goods and services offered by the seller.
A letter of inquiry can be general or specific. A specific letter of inquiry seeks for information about a particular product.
Reply to an inquiry
The seller may reply to the letter of inquiry by sending any of the following documents;
-Price list -A catalogue -Quotation -A tender
This is a list of items sold by the trader together with their prices. The information contained in a price list is usually brief and not illustrated and may include;
–Name and address of the seller -List of the goods and services
-The recommended unit prices of the products -Any discounts offered
Price list show the prices of the commodities at that time.
It is normally sent by the seller to the buyer when the buyer sends a general letter of inquiry. It usually carries illustrations on the goods stocked, and could be in the form of attractive and colorful pictures
The content of a catalogue includes the following;
-Catalogues carry more information than the price list and they are more expensive to print.
The content of a quotation includes the following;
-Name and address of seller -Name and address of the buyer
-Description of goods to be supplied -Prices of the commodities
-Terms of sale i.e. discounts, time of supply, delivery
-Total of the goods to be supplied
Quotations are normally in form of letters, but many large-scale businesses have pre-printed quotations forms which they readily send to the potential customers.
This is a document of offer to sell sent by a seller to a buyer in response to an advertised request
Tenders contain the following;
–Date when the tender advertisement was made –Mode of payment
-Date of making document –Discounts given
–Name and address of prospective seller called the tenderer
–The prices at which the goods can be provided
–Period of delivery –Mode of delivery
-Tenders are delivered in sealed envelopes which are opened by the buyer on a specified date
The winning tender is usually awarded on the of the lowest quoted price although the buyer is not obliged to accept this especially if quality is likely to be low
Tenders are not binding unless accepted by the buyer.
After receiving replies to inquiry in form of price list, catalogue or Quotation, a prospective buyer will study the terms and conditions stated in them, and then may decide to buy products or not.
If a prospective buyer decides to purchase an item(s), he or she then places an order
An order is a document sent by a potential buyer to a seller requesting to be provided with specified products under specified terms and conditions
-An order issued for goods is called a local purchase order (LPO)
An order issued for services is called a local service order (LSO)
Ways of making an order
-Where written orders are made, the potential buyer keeps a copy of the order for use in verifying the goods ordered when they are delivered.
–A written order may contain the following;
On receiving the order, the seller sends the buyer an acknowledgement note
An acknowledgement note is a document sent by the seller to the prospective buyer to inform him/her that the order has been received and it is being acted upon.
After sending the acknowledgement note, the seller has to decide whether to extend credit to the buyer or not. At this stage, the seller has the following options;
A proforma invoice
This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer requesting the buyer to make payment for goods or services before they are delivered. It indicates that the seller is not willing to grant the buyer credit
Functions of a proforma invoice
Circumstances under which a pro-forma invoice may be used
Documents used at the Delivery stage
After the seller has accepted the order sent an acknowledgement note and where necessary the pro-forma invoice, the seller then prepares the goods for delivery to the buyer. This can be done in the following ways;
The main documents that are used at this stage are;
-A copy of the packing note is packed with the goods to make/help the buyer have a spot check.
The contents of a packing note include;
–Description of goods packed
-Quantities of goods packed
-The means of delivery
NOTE: A packing not does not contain prices of goods. This ensures that those people involved in checking and transporting goods do not know the value of goods. This is done as a precaution against theft.
-It contains the following;
-The means of delivery -A description of the goods
-The quantity dispatched -Date
-Name and address of buyer and seller
Functions of an advice note
-A delivery note is always made in triplicate (3), one copy remains with the seller and two sent to the buyer.
-When the goods reach the buyer, he/she confirms that the goods are the ones ordered for and that they are in the right condition by comparing the delivery note, the order and the goods. If the buyer is satisfied with the goods, he/she signs the two copies, retains the original and send the copy back to the seller. This serves as evidence that the goods have been received in the right condition and in the right quantities.
-Some businesses keep delivery books in which the buyer signs to indicate that goods have been received in good condition. A delivery book is used by the seller if he/she delivers goods by himself/herself as an alternative to a delivery note
The content of a delivery note includes the following;
This is a document prepared by a transporter to show that he/she has been hired to deliver specified goods to a particular buyer. This document is used when goods are delivered to the buyer by public means of transport e.g. by trains.
-The seller is the consignor, the buyer is the consignee and the goods the consignment
–The transporting company prepares the consignment note and gives the seller to complete and sign. The seller then returns the note to the transporter (carrier) who takes it together with the goods to the buyer.
-On receiving the goods, the buyer signs the consignment note as evidence that the goods were actually transported.
The content of a consignment note includes the following;
The contents of the goods received note include;
-When the goods are returned, the buyer informs the seller of the return by sending a goods returned note.
–A goods returned note is a document sent by a buyer to a seller to inform him/her that certain goods are being returned to the seller.
-Where the goods are returned because of damage, the note may be referred to as the damaged goods note.
The contents of the goods returned note include;
–When the seller receives the note together with the goods, he issues a credit note
This stage involves the seller requesting or demanding for payment from the buyer for the goods or services delivered.
Some of the documents used at this stage include:
This is a document sent to the buyer by the seller to demand for payment for goods delivered or services rendered.
There are two types of invoices namely:
Functions of an invoice
The contents of an invoice include the following:
The letters E and O.E (Errors and Omissions Excepted) means the seller reserves the right to correct any errors and omissions made in the invoice.
-On receiving the invoice, the buyer verifies the contents using the local purchase order and the delivery note. If the invoice is in order, the buyer makes arrangements to pay the amount stated.
Businesses which offer services issue a document called a bill, which serves the purpose of an invoice.
Differences Between the invoice and pro-forma invoice
| The invoice | The pro-forma invoice |
| 1) It is issued after goods and services have been delivered | 1) It is issued before goods and services have been delivered |
| 2) It shows the total value of the goods or services on credit | 2)Shows the total value of goods and services to be bought |
| 3) It is used to demand payment for products sold on credit | 3)It is used to demand for payment in advance for products to be bought |
| 4) Used as a basis for making payment for products already bought | 4)Used as a basis for preparing payment for products not yet bought |
| 5) Serves as a notice of payment for products bought on credit | 5) Serves as a Quotation for products to be bought. |
This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer (credit buyer) to correct an overcharge. It is used to inform the buyer that the amount payable by him/her has been reduced
An overcharge is an excess amount charged beyond the right price.
Causes of overcharge may include;
-The purpose of the credit note is to reduce the total invoice amount by the amount of the overcharge.
-A credit note is usually printed in red to distinguish it from other documents.
–Contents of a credit note include;
Reasons why a seller would send a credit note to a buyer/circumstances under which a credit note is sent to a buyer.
-When there is an overcharge in an invoice
-When the original invoice had indicated items that were not supplied
-When the buyer returns empty cases/crates that had been charged in the invoice.
-When the buyer returns some goods to the seller
-If the buyer was entitled to a discount which was not given or taken care of in the invoice.
This is a document sent by the seller to the buyer to correct an undercharge on the original invoice. It is used to inform the buyer that the amount payable by him has been increased.
-A debit note acts as an additional invoice.
-An undercharge arises when amount charged on products is less than their right price.
Causes of undercharge include:
Circumstances under which a debit note will be sent to the buyer
Differences Between a debit note and a credit note
| DEBIT NOTE | CREDIT NOTE |
| 1) Issued to correct an undercharge on the invoice. | 1) Issued to correct an overcharge on the invoive. |
| 2) Written on blue or black. | 2)Usually written in red |
| 3) Issued when containers have not been returned | 3) Issued when containers have been returned. |
Documents used at the payment stage
This is the final stage of a credit business transaction. It takes place after the invoice has been received and ascertained to be correct or where necessary, corrections made.
The documents used at the payment stage include;
This is a document issued to the buyer by the seller as proof that payment has been made.
-Payment can be done in cash, cheque, other forms of money or in kind
-The receipt also serves as a source document for making entries in books of accounts.
Contents of the receipt include;
-The issuance of a receipt by the seller to the buyer after receiving payment marks the end of the credit transaction between the seller and the buyer (where payment has been done in full)
-A receipt serves the same purpose as the cash sale slip
This is a document prepared by the seller and sent to the buyer, giving a summary of all the dealings/transactions between them during a particular period of time, usually a month. It has the following details;
-Debit column-increases in the amounts payable due to credit sales or under charge correction.
-Credit column-Decrease in the amounts payable due to overcharges corrected or payments recorded.
-Balance column-Amount owing after each transaction (Balance outstanding)
-The statement of account enables the buyer to ascertain the correctness of the transactions which have taken place with the seller over the stated period.
iii) IOU
An IOU (I owe you) is a document written by the buyer and sent to the seller to acknowledge a debt.
-It does not specify date when settlement will be made.
-It acts as evidence that a debt exists.
Summary of documents used in home trade
| Document sent by buyer | Document sent by seller |
| -Letter of inquiry | –Price list |
| –Order | –Catalogue |
| –Goods received note | –Quotation |
| –Goods returned note | -Tender |
| –IOU | -Acknowledgement |
| -Advice note | |
| –Packaging note | |
| –Delivery note | |
| –Consignment note | |
| –Invoice | |
| –Pro forma invoice | |
| –Credit note | |
| –Debit note | |
| –Receipt | |
| –Statement of account |
MEANS OF PAYMENTS
These are the methods or ways the buyer may use to settle debts arising from a business transaction. These are various means of payments that can be used. These means of payments can be put into the following groups;
This refers to the use of notes and coins to make payments. Currency notes and coins are issued by the central Bank of Kenya and are therefore legal tender
–Legal tender means everyone is obliged by law to accept them as a means of payment i.e. no one can refuse to accept them as they are backed by the law.Notes and coins are available in different denominations as follows;
Coins; 5cents, 50cents, sh.1, sh.5, sh.10 and sh.40
Notes; sh.10.sh.20,sh.50,sh.100, sh.200,sh.500 and sh.1000.
-Coins are suitable for settling small debts and are acceptable as legal tender up to a certain maximum e.g. 50cents coins the maximum is sh20 and sh.1 the maximum is ksh.100.
Advantages of cash as a means of payment:
Disadvantages of cash as a means of payment
Circumstances under which cash payment is appropriate
Commercial banks are financial institutions that accept deposits to and withdrawals from them.
They also lend money to customers. Examples of commercial banks include: Commercial bank of Kenya, National bank of Kenya, Barclays bank, and Co-operative bank e.t.c
-There are various means of payments provided by the commercial banks. They are:
This is a written order by an account holder with the bank (drawer) to the bank (drawee) to pay on demand a specified amount of money to the named person (payee) or the bearer
Parties to a cheque
Details on a cheque; they include:
Types of cheques
This is acheque that can be presented for payment over the counter. You present it and cash is paid to you.
This is acheque that bears two parallel lines on the face. This means the cheque cannot be cashed over the counter. The cheque is deposited in an account (payee’s account)
The payee then withdraws the money from his/her account
A crossed cheque can be opened by the drawer signing twice on its face.
-A crossing can be general or special
–General crossing-general crossings only contains the two parallel lines. This implies that the cheque will be paid through any bank in which it is deposited.
–Special crossings-Has other instructions included in the crossing i.e;
Dishonouring a cheque
A cheque is dishonored if the bank refuses to pay and returns the cheque to the drawer.
-A cheque can be dishonored due to the following reasons:
Advantages of using cheques
Disadvantages of using cheques
Circumstances under which a cheque is appropriate as a means of payment
-This is a cheque drawn on a bank i.e. a cheque drawn by one bank to another requesting the latter bank to pay a named person or institution a specified sum of money and charge it to the drawing bank
-It can also be drawn by a bank on the request of a customer. The customer fills in an application form obtained from a bank and hands it over to the bank together with the money she wants to transfer and a commission for the service.
-The bank then prepares the cheque and gives it to the applicant who can then send it to the payee
-A bank draft has the drawing bank’s guarantee for payment. It is therefore more readily acceptable than personal cheques.
-It is suitable when urgency is desired in the payment as it is more readily acceptable.
This is a means of payment provided by commercial banks to their current accounts holders who want to pay many people using one cheque/at the same time
-One cheque is drawn and is usually accompanied by a list of the people to be paid, the amount to be paid to each person and the addresses of the bank branches where the payment is to be made.
-The bank then ensures that a credit transfer is affected to the various bank branches and each payee is paid
-A credit transfer is usually used by employers to pay salaries to their staff members.
This is an instruction to a bank by an account holder to pay a named person or an organization a fixed amount of money at regular intervals over a specified period of time or until stopped
-It is a very useful means of payment for business people as it enables them to regularly pay their recurrent bills e.g. water, insurance, electricity, loan payment, hire purchase payment e.t.c
This is a cheque drawn by one bank to another requesting the latter to pay a specified sum of money to a named bearer, who usually would have bought that cheque from issuing bank. The cheque holder pays the value of the cheque plus the charges for the services to the issuing bank.
-Travellers cheques are usually issued in fixed denominations and are very convenient for travel purposes, hence their name. They enable a person to travel without having to carry a lot of cash. The cheques are also readily acceptable as a means of payment.
This is a method /means of transferring money offered by commercial banks to anybody who wants to send money to another
The sender is required to fill an application form and provide the following information among others:
-His/her name -The amount of money to be remitted
-Name of the payee -The bank where the money would be paid
The applicant is charged a commission and telegraph fee. The paying bank sends a telegram to the payee who has to identify himself/herself before the payment is made
The method is fast and safe.
These are plastic cards issued by financial institutions e.g. banks that enables a person to purchase goods and services from any business that accepts them.
Debit cards are used to make payments from money held in ones accounts and are therefore an alternative to cash payments. Examples are ATM cards.
EFT is a method of transferring money from one account to another where computers are used. The sender is required to fill an electronic fund transfer form provided by the bank which instructs the bank to transfer money from his/her account to a named account.
Information is then sent to the payee’s bank electronically and the amount in the account is increased accordingly. The method is very fast.
The post office provides means of payments that can be used to transfer money from one person to another
The means of payments provided by the post office to facilitate payments includes,
A money order facilitates the transfer of money from one person to another through the post office (and/or bank)
A money order is usually for a specified sum of money usually purchased with cash from the post office
A person wishing to send money using this method visits a post office and completes an application form. Some of the details contained/given in the form include:
The application form, money to be remitted and commission for the service is handed to the post office cleark who prepares the money order and gives it to the sender who may post it or send it to the payee.
-Telegraphic money orders, the post office sends a telegram to the payee informing him/her to go to the post office and claim the money.
-Before payment is made, the payee must;
-The sender of the money is left with a counterfoil which serves as evidence that money was sent and it can be used to reclaim the money if it did not reach the payee
-Money order may be open or crossed. A crossed money order bears two parallel lines drawn diagonally on its face and must be deposited in the bank account of the payee. It cannot be cashed over the counter at the post office.
-An open money order can be presented for payment at the post office counter.
Circumstances under which money order is appropriate
This is an Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) service offered by the postal corporation of Kenya, for sending and receiving money instantly from various destinations both locally and internationally.
-The person sending money fills in a form called ‘send form’ giving the following details;
-The sender hands over the form, the amount of money to be sent and the commission to the post office clerk for processing
-The transfer is done via the internet through a machine that gives a twelve-digit number for the transaction called the ‘Transaction control number’(TCN).The sender then conveys this number, amount sent and pay location to the recipient and instructions to the recipient to visit the named post office for payment. This message is usually conveyed through the quickest means possible such as a telephone call
-The sender is given a copy of the processed ‘send form’ as proof that money has been sent. The post office retains the original for record purposes.
-When the receiver visits the post office, he/she will fill a ‘receiver form’ giving the following details;
The receiver then identifies himself or herself by producing an ID card or passport before receiving the money.
-The recipient/payee is then given the money, a copy of the receive form as proof of having received the money. The paying post office retains a copy as proof of payment.
Advantages of using Posta pay as a means of payment
–Postal orders are sold by the post office for the purpose of remitting money
-They are available in fixed denominations of sh.5, 10.20,40,60,80,100 and 200
-On buying a postal order, the sender pays for both the face value of the postal order and a commission charged for the service
-Postal orders just like money orders are issued with counterfoils that the sender will keep as evidence of remittance in case the person to whom he/she remits the money does not receive it.
The sender writes the name of the payee on the postal order as a safety measure.
Payment to the bearer can be made in any post office with postal order facilities
Postal orders may also be crossed or open (see crossed and ordinary money orders)
Circumstances under which postal orders are appropriate
Differences between postal orders and money orders
| Postal orders | Money orders |
| a) It can be cashed at any post office | a) Can only be cashed at a specific post office |
| b) Are in fixed denominations | b)Varies according to the needs of the remitter |
| c) Does not require any application form to make a remittance | c)Requires the filling of an application form in making remittance |
| d) Can be cashed by the bearer | d)Can only be cashed by the payee |
| e) Value can be increased by affixing revenue stamps | e)Value cannot be increased by affixing revenue stamps |
Postage stamps may be used to pay small amounts of money. The person to whom the stamps are sent can then use them for sending mail and/or to pay someone else.
Premium bonds are issued by the post office in denominations of sh.10 and sh.20.They mature after a given period, after which one can cash them.
-Bearers can also enter into draws so as to win money.
-Premium bonds can be used to settle debts, but it is not a safe method because they can be cashed by anybody i.e. by the bearer.
Circumstances under which postage stamps and premium bonds are used
Means and payments which arise from private arrangements between the sellers and the buyers
There are various business documents that originate from private agreements between buyers and sellers. The buyer acknowledges the credit and accepts to pay at specified future dates by signing some documents. These documents include;
This is unconditional order, in writing, addressed by one person to another, requiring the person to whom it is addressed by one person to another, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to pay on demand, or at a stated future date, the sum of money on the bill to the drawer, or a named person or to a bearer.
-A bill of exchange is prepared by a creditor to a debtor when a creditor wants to be assured of payment by a debtor on a given future date or when asked to do so by the creditor
-If the buyer/debtor signs the bill “accepted” then he/she cannot deny responsibility for the debt since he/she has acknowledged responsibility for the date.
Procedure for preparing a bill of exchange
A bill of exchange is written by a person (creditor) to his debtor to seek assurance that the debtor would pay the debt.
Step 1.The creditor prepares the draft and sends to the debtor.
Step 2.The draft and after accepting the conditions laid therein, he/she signs on it and write the words “accepted”. He/she then sends it back to the creditor. At this point the draft becomes a bill of exchange.
Step 3.The creditor receives the bill and may:
Parties to a bill of Exchange
Essentials of a bill of Exchange
NOTE: A bill of exchange becomes a means of payment when it is presented (discounted) to the banks or negotiated.
Advantages of using a Bill of exchange
Disadvantages of using a Bill of Exchange
Circumstances under which a Bill of exchange is appropriate.
-When the creditor wants to be assured that the payment would be done
-Where the creditor wants money while the debtor is not able to raise it before the end of the credit period
-Where the creditor wants to use the debt to pay another debt.
Features of a promissory note
-After drawing and signing the promissory note, the debtor (borrower) sends it to the seller. (Lender)
-The seller/lender may keep it until maturity and then present it for payment or may discount it with the banks before maturity.
Similarities between a Bill of Exchange and a promissory note:
Differences between a promissory note and a bill of exchange:
| Promissory note | Bill of Exchange |
| –Drawn and signed by the debtor | –Drawn and signed by the creditor |
| –It does not need to be accepted | –It must be accepted by the debtor for it to be valid |
| –The drawer and drawee are one person | –The drawer is the creditor and the drawee is the debtor |
-IOU is an abbreviation of ‘I owe you’
-It is a written acknowledgement by a buyer of a debt arising from the purchase of goods and services on credit. It is written and signed by the buyer and sent to the seller
-If the seller accepts it, then the buyer can receive goods and services on credit.
Though the IOU does not usually indicate the specific date of payment, the buyer acknowledges the debt and accepts responsibility to pay at a suitable future date
NOTE: The use of IOU is restricted to commercial transactions involving parties who have dealt with each other for a long time; hence they know each other well.
–These are plastic cards that enable a person to purchase goods or services on credit from any business willing to accept the card
-They are both a means of payment and a term of payment
-This is a means of money transfer services provided by mobile phone service providers to their customers (subscribers)
-It can only be used to transfer money between people subscribed to the same mobile phone network e.g. from one safaricom subscriber to another safaricom subscriber, Airtel to Airtel e.t.c
-The sender must register for the money transfer service and is issued with a PIN (personal identification number)
-When money is sent, both the sender and the receiver will receive a message confirming the transfer.
-A person can send money anytime anywhere so long as he/she has value in his/her m-pesa, pesa pap account.
-Each mobile service provider has a range of value that can be transferred using this method.
-A small transaction fee is charges for the transfer i.e. for sending and withdrawing
Benefits of mobile money transfer services
TERMS OF PAYMENTS
These are the various agreements/conditions agreed upon between sellers and buyers regarding how debts arising from their transactions should be settled. These conditions include;
-How payment is expected
-When payment is expected
-What is included in the quoted price e.t.c.
Terms of payments are broadly categorized into two;
–This classification depends on whether the agreement is to pay for the products immediately or at a later date.
Cash terms of payment apply when a buyer is required to pay for goods or services immediately before or after delivery. They include the following:
–Mainly used in retail businesses where customers are required to pay as they get the goods or receive the service.
–This is where the buyer pays for the goods (or services) as soon as they are delivered to his or her premises.
–This is where the buyer is required to pay for the goods when making the order for the goods or the services.
Circumstances under which C.O.D and C.W.O are appropriate
-Prompt cash period allows them to examine the goods and check the invoice to certify its corrections
This means that goods or service are not paid for in full on delivery. They are instead paid in future in a lump sum or in several instalments.
The period within which a buyer is supposed to pay the seller is referred to as credit period and is expressed in terms of days.
-Terms of payments in credit transactions are usually agreed upon by the seller and the buyer depending on;
-In determining the credit worthiness of a buyer, the seller will consider;
Forms of Deferred payments (credit payments)
–Under these forms, goods and services are sold to the buyer who is expected to pay for them at a future date or within a given period
-The buyer may also be required to pay for goods or services on installments.
-Discounts may be allowed to encourage the buyer to pay on time.
-The ownership of the goods passes to the buyer immediately after entering the contract. The seller should however ensure the buyer will pay by:
Factors to consider when giving credit
NOTE: No interest is usually charged on open trade credit.
Examples of open trade credit
-Is a form of credit extended to a trader or a customer for a very short time, usually not more than a week
-It is a common form of credit between retailers and their customers.
-It is also referred to as prompt cash because payment is made within a short time.
–A form of credit extended when a seller allows the buyer to pay/settle his/her debt after one month
-The buyer can continue taking goods from the seller up to the end of the month.
-It is a form of credit usually allowed by retailers to salaried workers for goods such as food items and newspapers
iii) Budget Accounts
-Are usually operated by large scale retailers to approved customers
-The retailer keeps an account of the customer in his/her books
-To operate budget accounts;
iv)Trade credit
–This is credit given by a trader to another trader when goods are bought for selling
-Payments for the goods is made after selling the goods or within an agreed period of time
–Plastic money (credit cards) enables the holder to obtain goods and services on credit form specific suppliers (people willing to accept the cards)
-They also enable the holders to obtain money from specific banks and other specified financial institutions
-They are available to adults of approved credit worthiness
-Some credit cards can only be used locally while others like visa cards can be used both locally and internationally.
-When a customer makes a purchase using the card, the seller electronically verifies the validity of the card and whether the credit-card holder/customer has sufficient credit to cover the purchase. If all is well, the credit card customer signs a specific form that have been filled by the trader. Such forms are usually provided by the card company to the trader. The trader and the card holder retain a copy each and the other copies are sent either to the credit card company or to the trader’s bank.
–There are therefore 3 parties to a credit card;
-At regular intervals, the credit card company sends a statement of account to each card holder showing the outstanding balance at that time. The outstanding balance should not be greater than the allowed credit limit.
-Examples of companies that issue credit cards include; Barclays card, American Express, Access cards and Visa cards.
Advantages of credit card
Disadvantages of credit cards
To Hire: Means to use someone else’s property for a payment
Hire purchase: Is a method of hiring property with an option to buy.
-The term of payment for a hire purchase are;
-Goods sold on higher purchase are durable and expensive such as; vehicles, furniture, electronics e.t.c
-The buyer can only posses the commodity but not own it.Therefore’the buyer cannot sell the goods to another person before all installments are paid
-Ownership of the goods remains with the seller. The goods are ‘on hire’ to the buyer.
-After completing the payment (after the last installment has been made), a certificate is issued to the buyer as proof of transfer of ownership
-Incase the buyer fails to make payment/defaults in payment; the seller can repossess the goods. However if the buyer has paid two thirds of the total/hire purchase price at the time of defaulting, the seller has no legal right to repossess the goods.
-The seller can only recover the remaining amount of money through a court action
-The seller must display both the cash price and the hire-purchase price on the items to enable the buyers to decide under what terms they want to buy the goods.
-A written agreement has to be entered into by both the seller and the buyer. The agreement safe-guards the intervals of all of them
-Examples of hire purchase businesses operating in Kenya include; Africa Retail Traders (ART), Kukopesha, Singer and Amedo.
-For salaried people, the hire purchase has introduced a system where the installments are deducted directly from the buyer’s salary every month. This is called the check-off system. In this system, no deposits/down payments are required. The buyer’s employer takes up the duty of remitting the deposits to the seller on a monthly basis.
Advantages of Hire purchase
To the buyer
To the seller
Disadvantages of Hire purchase
To the buyer
To the seller
-In this form of credit selling, the buyer is not required to pay a down payment. Payment for the goods is made in equal installments spread over a period of time. These installments cover interest and related costs of selling.
Other features of installment buying
BUSINESS STUDIES FORM TWO NOTES
FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS
TOPIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
BUSINESS UNITS
A business unit is an organization formed by one or more people with a view of engaging in a profitable activity.
Business units are generally classified into private or public sector business units’ i.e.
Note: Private sector comprises of business organizations owned by private individuals while the public sector comprises business organizations owned by the government.
This is a business enterprise owned by one person who is called a sole trader or a sole proprietor. It is the most common form of business unit and usually found in retail trade e.g. in small shops, kiosks, agriculture e.t.c and for direct services e.g. cobblers saloons e.t.c
Characteristics/Features
Formation
The formation of a sole proprietorship is very simple. Few legal formalities are required i.e. to start a sole proprietorship, one need only to raise the capital required and then apply for a trading license to operate the business small fee is paid and the trade license issued.
Sources of capital
The amount of capital required to start a sole proprietorship is small compared to other forms of business organizations. The main source of capital is the Owners savings. Additional capital may however be raised from the following;
Management
The management of this kind of a business is under one person. The owner may however employ other people or get assistance from family members to run the business.
Some sole proprietorship may be big business organizations with several departments and quite a number of employees. However, the sole proprietor remains solely responsible for the success of failure of the business
Advantages of sole proprietorship
Disadvantages of sole proprietorship
Dissolution of sole proprietorships
Dissolution refers to the termination of the legal life of a business. The following circumstances may lead to the dissolution of a sole proprietorship:
This is a relationship between persons who engage in a business with an aim of making profits/ an association of two or more persons who run a business as co-owners. The owners are called Partners.
It is owned by a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 20 except for partnership who provide professional services e.g medicine and law which have a maximum of 50 persons.
Characteristics of partnership
Types of partnership
Partnerships can be classified/ categorized in either of the following ways:
Under this classification, partnerships can either be:
This means that incase the partnership cannot pay its debts; the partners only lose the amount of capital each has contributed to the business and not their personal property. However, there must be one partner whose liabilities are unlimited.
When partnerships are classified according to duration of operation, they can either be;
This is a partnership whose main activity is processing, manufacturing, construction or purchase and sale of goods.
This is a partnership whose main activity is to offer services such as legal, medical or accounting services to members of the public.
Types of partners
Partners may be classified according to;
-He/she can also be a person who was once a partner and has retired in form of a loan. This loan carries interest at an agreed rate.
-The quasi partner shares the profit of the business as a reward for using his/her name.
-Other types of partners include secret partners, retiring partners and incoming partners
-He may retire with the consent of all the other partners or according to a previous agreement.
iii) Incoming partner: Is one who is admitted to an existing partnership.
Formation
-People who want to form a partnership must come together and agree on how the proposed business will be run to avoid future misunderstanding.
-The agreement can either be oral (by use of mouth) or within down. A written agreement is called a partnership deed.
-The contents of the partnership deed vary from one partnership to another depending on the nature of the business, but generally it contains:
Once the partnership deed is ready, the business may be registered with the registrar of firms on payment of a registration fee.
In case a partnership deed is not drawn, the provisions of partnership act of 1963 (Kenya) applies. The act contains the following rights and duties of a partner:
Sources of capital
Advantages of partnership
Disadvantages of partnership
Dissolution of partnership
A partnership may be dissolved under any of the following circumstances:
INCORPORATED FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS
These are businesses that have separate legal entities from that of their owners. They include:
CO-OPERATIVES
-A co-operative society is a form of business organization that is owned by and run for the economic welfare of its members
-It is a body of persons who have joined together to do collectively what they were previously doing individually for mutual benefit.
Example
In Kenya the co-operative movement was started by white settlers in 1908 to market their agricultural produce. In this case, they knew that they could sell their produce better if they were as a group and not alone
Principles of co-operatives
Membership is open and voluntary to any person who has attained the age of 18 years. No one should be denied membership due to social, political, tribal or religious differences. A member is also free to leave the society at will
The principle is one man one vote. Each member of the co-operative has only one vote irrespective of the number of shares held by him or how much he buys or sells to the society
-Any profit/surplus made at the end of every financial year should be distributed to the members in relations to their contribution.
-Part of the profit may be retained/reserved/put in to strengthen the financial position of the society.
-A little or no interest is paid on share capital contributed (co-operatives do not encourage financial investment habits but to enhance production, to encourage savings and serve the members)
Co-operative societies should endeavor to educate their members and staff on the ideas of the society in order to enhance/improve quality of decisions made by the concerned parties.
Education is conducted through seminars, study tours, open days
C-operatives must learn from each other’s experience since they have a lot in common.
-Their co-operation should be extended to local national and international.
Features of co-operatives
Formation
-Co-operative societies can be formed by people who are over eighteen years regardless of their economic, political or social background.
-There must be a minimum of 10 persons and no maximum no.
-The members draft rules and regulations to govern the operations of the proposed society i.e. by-laws, which are then submitted to the commissioner of co-operatives for approval
-The registrar then approves the by-laws and issues a certificate of registration
-If the members are unable to draw up their own by-laws, the co-operative societies Act of 1966 can be adopted in part or whole
Management
-A co-perative society is composed/run by a committee usually of nine members elected by the members in a general meeting
-The management committee elects the chairman, secretary and treasurer as the executive committee members, who act on behalf of all the members and can enter into contracts borrow money institute and depend suits and other legal proceedings for the society
-The committee members can be voted out in an A.G.M if they don’t perform as expected.
TYPES OF CO-OPERATIVES SOCIETIES IN KENYA
May be grouped according to;
This is an association of producers who have come together to improve the production and marketing of their products.
Functions
-In this type of co-operative members are paid according to the quantity of the produce a member has delivered to the society.
Examples,
KCC-Kenya Co-operative Creameries
K.P.C.U-Kenya Planters Co-operatives Union
K.G.G.C.U-Kenya Grain Growers Co-operative Union
-These are formed by a group of consumers to buy goods on wholesome and sell them to the members at existing market prices.
-Their aim is to eliminate the wholesalers and retailers and hence obtain goods more cheaply
-The co-operatives allow their members to buy goods on credit or in cash
-Members of the public are also allowed to buy from the society at normal prices thereby enabling the society to make more profits
-The profits realized is shared among the members in proportion to their purchases i.ethe more a member buys, the buyer his/her share of profit
Examples;-Nairobi consumer co-operative union, Bee-hive consumer co-operative society and City-chicken consumer co-operative society
Advantages
Disadvantages
Consumer co-operatives are not popular in Kenya because of the following
Savings and credit co-operatives societies (SACCO’S)
-They are usually formed by employed persons who save part of their monthly salary with their co-operative society, through check-off system
-Their money earns goods interest and when one has a significant amount saved, he/she become entitled to borrow money from the society for any personal project e.g. improving their farms, constructing houses, paying school fees e.t.c
-The SACCOS charge lower interest on loans given to members than ordinary banks and other financial institutions.
-The societies have few formalities or requirements to be completed before giving a loan. These are:
-Profits earned by the SACCO’S maybe shared among the members inform of dividends.
-Most SACCO’S have insured their members savings and loans with co-operative insurance services (CIS).This means if a member dies his/her beneficiaries are not called upon to repay the loan and the members savings/shares is given to the beneficiaries.
-They are the main institutions that provide loans to most people who do not qualify for loans from commercial banks because they do not ask for securities such as title deeds required by the bank.
-These are co-operative societies composed of individuals who are either actual producers, consumers or people who join up together to save and obtain credit most conveniently
-Consumer co-operative societies and most SACCO’S are primary co-operative societies because they are composed of individuals.
-Most primary co-operative societies operate at the village level, others at district levels and a few at national levels.
-They are usually referred to as unions
-They are generally composed of primary co-operative societies as their members
-They are either found at district levels or at national levels.
Advantages of co-operative societies:
Disadvantages
Dissolution of co-operative societies
-A co-operative society may be dissolved under any of the following circum-stances.
LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES (JOINT STOCK COMPANIES)
Defination: A company; Is an association of persons registered under the companies act who contribute capital in order to carry out business with a view of making a profit.
The act of registering a company is referred to as incorporation. Incorporation creates an organization that is separate and distinct from the person forming it.
-A company is a legal entity that has the status of an ‘’artificial person”. It therefore has most of the rights and obligations of a human being. A company can therefore do the following;
–The owners (members) of a company are referred to as shareholders
FEATURES OF COMPANIES (LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES)
–A company in an artificial person and has the same rights as a natural person. It can therefore sue and be sued in a court of law, own property and enter into contracts in its own name.
–The members have limited liabilities.
–Companies have perpetual life which is independent of the lives of its owners. Death, insanity or bankruptcy of a member does not affect the existence of the company. (this is referred to as perpetual existence or perpetual succession)
– A company is created for a particular purpose or purposes.
Formation
-People who wish to form company are referred to as promoters
–The promoters submit the following documents to the registrar of companies:
-This is a document that defines the relationship between the company and the outsiders. It contains the following:
-Some companies end their names with “PLC” which stands for “Public limited company” which makes the public aware that although it is a limited liability company it is a public not private.
-The activities listed in this clause serve as a warning to outsiders that the company is authorized in these activities only.
-It also specifies the types of shares and the value of each share
-The declaration is signed by a minimum of seven promoters for public limited company and a minimum of two for private company.
-The memorandum of association also contains the names of the promoters
-The promoters signs against the memorandum showing details of their names, addresses, occupation and shares they intend to buy. Each signatory should agree to take at least one share.
-This is a document that governs the internal operations of the company
-It also contains rules and regulations affecting the shareholders in relation to the company and in relation to the shareholders themselves.
-It contains the following;
-Once the above documents are ready, they are submitted by the promoters to the registrar of companies. On approval by the Registrar and on payment of a registration fee, a certificate of incorporation (certificate of registration) is issued
-The certificate of incorporation gives the company a separate legal entity.
Sources of capital
-A share is a unit of capital in a company e.g. if a company states that its capital is ksh.100,000 divided into equal shares of ksh.10 each.
-Each shareholder is entitled to the company’s profit proportionate to the number of shares he/she holds in the company.
Types of shares:
-Non- cumulative shares are the ones whose dividends are not carried forward to the following year(s)
This refers to loans from the public to a company or an acknowledgement of a debt by a company
They carry fixed rate of interest which is payable whether profit are made or not.
They are issued to the public in the same way as shares.
They can be redeemable or irredeemable.
Redeemable debentures are usually secured against the company’s assets in which case they termed as secured debentures or mortgaged debentures.
NB: Where no security is given, the debentures are called unsecured /naked debentures.
These loans are repayable with interest of the agreed rates.
TYPES OF COMPANIES
Private limited company has the following characteristics;
Formation
-It must have a memorandum of association, article of association list of directors, declaration signed by a director or lawyer and certificate of incorporation.
Advantages of private limited company
Disadvantages of a private company
Advantages of public limited company
-They can also borrow money from financial institutions in large sums and have good security to offer to the lenders.
Disadvantages of public limited companies
DISSOLUTION OF A COMPANY
The following are the circumstances that may lead to the dissolution of a company:
THE ROLE OF STOCK EXCHANGE AS A MARKET FOR SECURITIES
DEFINATIONS
-Stocks are formed when all the authorized shares in a particular category have been issued and fully paid for.
-Stock exchange markets enable share holders in public companies to sell their shares to other people, usually members of the public interested in buying them.
-Companies that are not quoted cannot have their shares traded in the stock exchange market.
There is only one stock exchange market in Kenya i.e. The Nairobi Stock Exchange.
A person wishing to acquire shares will do so either at an IPO or in the secondary market. However, an investor cannot buy or sell stocks directly in the stock exchange market. They can only do so through stock brokers.
ROLES OF THE STOCK EXCHANGE MARKET
PUBLIC CORPORATIONS (STATE CORPORATIONS)
These are organizations formed by and/or controlled by the government (the government has a controlling interest). This means that the government owns more than 50% shares in the corporation. Where the government has full ownership, the organization is known as a parastatal
Examples
Characteristics/features of public corporations
Formation
-Some are formed by an act of parliament while others are formed under the existing laws.
-When formed by an act of parliament, the Act defines its status obligations and areas of operation. The Act outlines the following;
Management
-The public corporations are managed by a board of directors appointed by the president or the relevant minister
-The chairman and the board of directors are responsible for the implementation of the aims and objectives of the corporations.
-The chairman of the board of directors reports to the government (president) through the relevant minister.
-The managing director who is usually the secretary of the board of directors in the chief executive officer of the corporation
Sources of capital
–The initial capital is usually provided by the government as a vote of expenditure for the ministry concerned
-Those corporations jointly owned by the government and the public raise capital through the sale of shares
-financial institutions in form of loans
-Retained profits/profits ploughed back.
-Hire purchase
Advantages of public corporations
Disadvantages of public corporations
Dissolution of public corporations
They can only be dissolved by the government due to:
TRENDS IN FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS
This refers to the sharing of worlds resources among all regions i.e where there are no boundaries in business transactions
Some companies referred to as multinationals, have branches in many parts of the world e.g coca-cola company
Globalization has been made possible and effective through the development and improvement of information and technology organization i.e
This occurs when two independent business enterprises combine to form one large organization
Levels of combinations
Example; A company producing cotton (raw materials) combining with a textile industry.
Types of Amalgamation/combination
Amalgamations whether vertical or horizontal can be achieved in these ways;
-A holding company is one that acquires 51 percent or more shares in one or more other companies.
-The various companies entering into such a combination are brought under a single control.
-These companies are controlled by the holding company and are called Subsidiaries.
-The subsidiary companies are however allowed to retain their original names and status, but the holding company appoints some members to be on the board of directors of these subsidiaries, so as to control their activities.
-Holding companies are usually financial institutions because they are able to buy controlling shares in subsidiary companies
This refers to a business taking over another business by buying all the assets of the other business which then ceases to exist.
Example; Kenya Breweries took over the castle company in Kenya
This is where two or more business organizations combine and form one new business organizations.
-The merging companies cease to exist altogether.
This is a group of related firms/ companies that agree to work together in order to control output, prices and markets of their products – O. P. E. C (organization of petroleum exporting countries) is an example.
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS
BY THE END OF THE TOPIC, THE LEARNER SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
INTRODUCTION
Government involvement in business activities is one of the commercial duties it owes its citizens. It is the one that provides the necessary environment for investments to be undertaken by itself, or by the local and foreign investors. This, the government may do in various ways, these include;
Reasons for Government involvement in business
The following are the major reasons for the government’s involvement and participation in business activities;
METHODS OF GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN BUSINESS
The government gets involved in business activities through the following methods:
This refers to Rules and restrictions the government requires business units to follow in their business activities. Through this method, the government ensures high quality goods and services and puts in control measures to protect consumers from exploitation. The government regulation measures include;
A license is a document that shows that a business has been permitted by the government to operate. It is usually issued upon payment of a small fee.
Licensing is the process of issuing licenses to businesses. Some of the reasons why the government issues licenses include;
The government takes keen interest in training and advising people in business about business management strategies and better ways of producing goods and services. The government offers these services through seminars and courses. This is mainly done by the Kenya Business Training Institute (K.B.T.I). Reasons for government training include;
This is a government initiated and supported policy to encourage local business people to enter into business. This is aimed at increasing the volume and variety of goods and services traded in.
Trade promotion is classified as either external trade promotion or internal trade promotion.
Commercial attaches are officers sent by the country’s government to work with the embassies in foreign countries as support staff in the field of commerce. Their main duty is to look at the interests of their home countries’ exports e.g. cash crops and manufactured goods.
Duties of commercial attaches
To perform these duties, the commercial attaché needs to:
This is done by the government through the ministry of trade. The ministry carries out various activities
TRANSPORT
TOPIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
MEANING OF TRANSPORT
Transport is the physical movement of people and goods from one place to another. It helps bridge the gap between producers and consumers hence creating place utility.
Importance of Transport to Business
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORT
In order for a transport system to function efficiently it should have certain basic elements. These elements are:
This refers to anything i.e. vessel that is used to transport goods and people from one place to another. Units of carriage include: ships, trains, aeroplanes, motor vehicles, bicycles and carts. Units of carriage are also referred to as means of transport.
This is the driving force (source of power) that makes a unit of carriage to move.The power for most vessels may be petroleum products, electricity, human force or animal power.
It refers to either the route or path passes by the vessel. The route can be on land, on water or through air. Examples of ways are roads, railways, paths, canals, seaways and airways. The ways can be classified into either natural ways or manmade ways.
The vessel used to carry goods and people starts from one destination and ends up at another. At these destinations the loading and off-loading take place respectively. The loading and off-loading places are referred to as terminals or terminus. Examples of terminuses are bus stations, airports and seaports.
MODES OF TRANSPORT
Mode refers to the manner in which transport is carried out. There are three modes of transport namely:
This mode of transport involves movement of goods and people using units of carriage that move on dry land. The various means under this mode includes:
This involves human beings carrying goods on their heads, shoulders or backs. Human Porterage as a means of transport is the oldest kind of transport and is still very common in our society. The means is suitable for transporting light luggage over short distances. It is also appropriate where other means of transport are not available or convenient.
Advantages of Human Porterage
Disadvantages of human Porterage
iii. Not suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods
v.Relies on human energy which is exhaustible
Carts are open vessels usually on two or four wheels that are pushed or pulled by either human being or animals such as oxen and donkeys. The carts pushed or pulled by human beings are referred to as hand carts or mikokoteni. The ones pulled by animals, on the other hand, are called animal driven carts. Carts are used to carry relatively large quantities compared to human porterage. Like human porterage, they are not suitable for long distances. Types of goods that are transported using this means include, agricultural produce, water and animal feeds.
Advantages of carts
iii. Initial buying and maintenance cost is low
vii. Convenient for transporting goods over short distances
iii. Not suitable for transporting goods over long distances
These are means (units of carriage) of transport that ferry goods and people on roads. Vehicles are the most commonly used means of transport.
Vehicles are either passenger or goods carriers. Passenger carriers may be buses, matatus, taxis and private cars while goods are transported using Lorries, pick-ups, tankers and trailers. Vehicles are expensive to acquire and maintain. The convenience of vehicles may depend on the nature of the road on which they travel.
Some roads are impassible especially when it rains while others are usable throughout the year (all weather roads).Of special concern in road transport is the matatus. These are privately owned passenger vehicles which were introduced to supplement the existing mainstream transport companies that were inadequate at independence. They got their name from the amount of fare they used to charge originally, that is, mapeni matatu. The operators have to obtain the relevant documents such as insurance cover in order to be allowed to operate. Their owners may form associations which take care of their interests along given routes or in certain areas.
Advantages of matatus
iii. They are more flexible since they can change routes easily depending on demand
vii. They are cheaper to acquire as compared to buses
Disadvantages of matatus
iii. In some cases, touts use impolite language when dealing with passengers
vii. Their operation is concentrated on peak hours, rarely operating at night.
viii. They at times unexpectedly change their route hence causing breach of contract.
Advantages of vehicles
iii. Relatively cheaper over short distances
Disadvantages of vehicles
iii. Traffic jams in roads may cause delays
v.Some roads may be impassible especially during the rainy seasons.
Trains are vessels that transport goods and people on rails hence the term railways.
The terminuses of trains are the railways stations. Therefore; the goods to be transported by trains have to be taken to the railway station. Railway transport is suitable for heavy and bulky goods as well as passengers. There are two types of trains: cargo and passenger train.
Advantages of Trains
-Relatively secure as cases of theft and accidents are rare
-Enables a transporter to plan for the transport of his/her goods as trains follow a fixed timetable
-Economical for transporting heavy and bulky goods over a long distance
-Trains may have facilities for carrying special types of goods e.g. gas, petrol and vehicles
-Where shunting facilities are available trains may deliver goods up to or from the owner’s premises
Disadvantages of Trains
-Not flexible as trains follow a strict time table
-Railway lines are expensive to construct and to maintain
-Not all areas are served by railway lines
-Not suitable for transporting urgently required or perishable goods as it is slow
-Unsuitable for transporting goods over short distances
-Trains are expensive to acquire and maintain
This is the movement of liquids and gases from one place to another through a pipe. Products transported through pipes include water, gases, petrol and diesel. Solids that cannot be dissolved or damaged by water may also be transported through pipes as suspension. Examples coffee berries from machines to drying places. The pipeline is both a vessel and a way.
Products flow by the force of gravity or pressure from an original station. If the original terminal is at a higher level than the receiving terminal, the force of gravity is adequate to move the product. But if the receiving terminal is at a higher level than the original than the originating terminal, then power is required to pump the product uphill. For example, petroleum from Mombasa which is at sea level needs pressure to pump it to all the receiving stations.
Advantages of pipeline Transport
-It is labour saving as it requires minimal manpower
-It is environmentally friendly since it is free of noise or smoke
-It may be constructed in areas where it is difficult to construct roads or railway lines. For example, over rugged terrain
-Pipelines allow continuous flow of the goods being transported
-It ensures that road damage is reduced as the number of tankers is reduced on roads
-It helps to reduce accidents that may be caused by tankers on roads
-It reduces delays arising from congestion on roads
-Maintenance costs are reduced as it relies on gravitational force and booster stations along the way
-It may not be affected by adverse weather conditions
Disadvantages of pipeline Transport
-A leakage not detected in good time may lead to high losses
-Initial construction cost is high
-Accidents leakages may lead to environmental pollution
-It is unidirectional that is, travels only in one direction
-It can transport only one product at a time
-It is not flexible since once a line is laid, it cannot be adjusted according to transport patterns or demands
-Generates comparatively fewer job opportunities as it is capital intensive
-It is vulnerable to sabotage by enemies.
-Once laid, it is difficult to re route or re locate.
It is a mode of transport where the units of carriage transport goods and people on water. Water in this case includes; navigable rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The means of transport which are the units of carriage or vessels using this mode include; ships, dhows, boats, steamers and ferries. Water transport can be divided into inland waterways and sea transport.
This is transport carried out on lakes, rivers and inland canals. The Lake Victoria facilitates transport among the three east African countries i.e. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Ferries also connect the mainland to islands such as Rusinga Islands, found in Lake Victoria.
Water hyacinth has however been a threat to transport on the lake. Most rivers in Kenya are not navigable due to reasons such as:
This is where goods and people are transported in seas and oceans. All types of water vessels may be used in sea transport. Sea transport is important as it connects continents of the world thereby facilitating international trade. Kilindini in Mombasa provides a good natural harbor facilitating sea transport between Kenya and other countries of the world. Ferries also connect the island of Mombasa and the mainland.
Types of Water vessels
A ship is a large vessel that transports people or goods through water. Their sizes however vary depending on quantity of goods and passengers they carry. Ships help in connecting countries or places which borders the sea. They load and offload in terminals referred to as harbors found at sea ports. For example, the Kilindini harbor is found in the port of Mombasa.
Ships that transport people are referred to as passenger ship while those that transport goods are referred to as cargo ships. Cargo ships are c are convenient for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
Ships may also be classified as either liners or tramps.
Liners
These are ships that are owned and operated by shipping companies called conferences. Each conference is responsible for specifying the route on which each liner would operate the rates to be charged and setting the rules and regulations to be followed by the members.
Characteristics of liners
-Have fixed routes
-Follow a fixed timetable
-Charges are fixed
-Call at specified ports along the route at specified intervals
-Travel at regular intervals.
Tramps
These are ships that do not follow a regular route or time table. Their routes therefore depend on demand. During times when demand is high, they charge higher rates and when demand is low they lower their rates. Tramps can therefore be likened to matatus. Tramps may be owned by either individuals or firms.
Characteristics of tramps
-Do not have a fixed rate. They therefore move to wherever there are goods or passengers to carry.
-Have no set timetables. They therefore move according to demand
-Their fares change according to demand.
-Their travelling patterns are irregular and therefore cannot be relied upon
NB: Liners and tramps owners are in constant competition business. Traders therefore need to choose the type of ships to hire. Liners are however more popular than tramps among traders because of their reliability.
When a trader hires an entire ship to transport goods to a given destination, he/she and the ship owner signs a document called a charter party. This document shows the terms and conditions under which the goods would be transported.
Other information included in the agreement are destination, nature of the goods and freight charges. When the ship is hired to carry goods for a given journey the document signed is referred to as voyage charter. On the other hand, if the ship is hired to transport goods for a given period of time, the document signed is called time charter.
Ships may be specially built to carry special commodities. These may include tankers specially built to transport petroleum products and other liquids. Refrigerated ships may also be available to transport perishable commodities such as meat, fish and fruits.
These are water vessels used in transporting goods and people over short distances. They are therefore found in both inland water transport and also the sea transport.e.g the Likoni ferry in Mombasa carries people from and to the island of Mombasa and the main land.
Advantages of water transport
-Sea transport is economical to the owner as the number of employees to carriage volume ratio is less compared to road transport
-Suited for transporting heavy and bulky goods
-It is cheap as the way is natural and free
-Connects countries of the world which border the sea
-Special types of ships are available for transporting goods
-Large volume can be carried thereby reducing cost per unit
-Not affected by traffic congestion
-Some ships can be very luxurious for passengers and may even provide swimming pools.
-At the port/dock, there are many depots for storage of goods.
Disadvantages of water transport-
Sea-sickness, sea-pirates and storms may occur
-They are slow therefore not suitable for transporting perishable and urgently required goods
-It is expensive to construct and maintain artificial harbors
-Unfavorable weather conditions may affect water transport
-Sea transport is not accessible to land locked countries
-Lack of loading and off-loading facilities may lead to delay
-Cost of acquiring and maintaining ships is high.
-Theft of cargo and other valuables may occur during loading and offloading.
This refers to the movement of goods, people and documents by aircrafts. Aircrafts/ aeroplanes are the units of carriage and air the way. The terminals include airports and airstrips.
Aeroplanes are fast compared to other means of transport i.e. they are the fastest means of transport. They are therefore suitable for transporting urgently required goods like drugs and perishable goods Such as flowers over long distances.
Aircrafts may be classified as either passenger planes or cargo planes. Passenger planes transport people from one place to another. On the other hand, cargo planes transport light cargo to the required destinations. Aeroplanes may be fitted with special facilities for handling special goods. Aeroplanes are expensive to acquire and to maintain. Their operations may also be affected by weather conditions.
Advantages of Air Transport
-There is less handling of goods on the way since aeroplanes may move direct to the final destinations.
-The way does not require construction or maintenance as it is natural and free.
-Planes can move through places where other means cannot, such as over the earth poles and across high mountains/ planes are not hampered by physical barriers.
-Have efficient interconnections between airlines all over the world which makes it convenient
-Suitable for long distance travelers especially from one continent to another
-Very fast therefore suitable for transporting perishable and urgently required goods.
-Chartered planes can be used to reach remote areas.
-The movement of aircrafts is smooth therefore suitable for transporting fragile goods such as glassware and eggs.
-Passengers are given the highest degree of comfort and personal attention making it the most comfortable means of transport.
Disadvantages of Air Transport
-Causes noise pollution
-Air fields are not available in all places
-Cannot be conveniently used to carry heavy and bulky goods
-Expensive to acquire and maintain aircrafts
-Requires highly trained manpower e.g. air traffic controllers, pilots e. t. c
-Unfavorable weather conditions such as fog, mist and heavy rains may cause delay
-It is an expensive means of transport in terms of freight charges
-Not suitable for transporting inflammable goods such as cooking gas and petrol
-In case of accidents results are catastrophic/ accidents are rare but fatal.
-Has limited carrying capacity that should not be exceeded.
-It is not flexible.
-Most airfields/ terminals are located some distance away from town/ city centers and therefore require transport or railway links that are affected by jams occasionally causing delays.
-Recent hijackings by terrorists have made air transport an insecure means especially for transporting valuables.
This is a recent development in transport. It refers to the packaging of goods in standardized ‘box like’ containers designed for use in transporting cargo. The containers are mainly made of metal though a few are made of wood. They can either be hired or bought from firms that provide them. The hired containers are returnable to the owner after the goods have been transported.
Containers are designed in a way appropriate to transport goods by ships, train, lorry or by air. To safeguard the goods against risks such as theft and unfavorable weather conditions the containers are sealed immediately after goods have been packed. The sealed containers are then transported up to the final destination where they are off-loaded. The consignee can then break the seal.
Goods can be transported in containers as Full Container Load (F.C.L) or as Less Container Load (L.C.L).Full container load applies where the container is filled with goods belonging to one person. In FCL, goods are delivered to the consignee intact. On the other hand, less than container load applies where a container is filled with goods belonging to several consignors. This may be the case where a single consigner does not have enough goods to fill a container. When such a container reaches the destination, it is opened and the various consignees take their goods.
There are special handling facilities for loading and offloading containers onto and from the units of carriage.
Apart from the container depot at Mombasa, Kenya Ports Authority (K.P.A) has established inland container depots referred dry ports. An example of a dry port is found at Embakasi in Nairobi. The establishment of dry ports aims at relieving congestion at the sea port. It also aims at making handling of cargo easier and efficient for inland importers and exporters.
When containers are off loaded from ships at Mombasa, they are loaded into special container trains called railtainer which transports them by railway to the inland container depot at Embakasi. Containers can also be transported by specially designed trucks between the ports or from the port to consumer’s destination.
Advantages of containerization
-Minimizes the risks of loss or damage of goods as containers are sealed at source
-Containers are lifted with devices which make movement and handling easy
-Saves time and labour in loading and off-loading due to use of machines
-Containers sealed at source in presence of customs officials may not be opened until they reach their final destination. This reduces delay.
-Special containers are available for goods requiring special attention like chemicals.
-Insurance costs are relatively low as risks are less
-Space is saved when containers are used as opposed to when individual items are packed in the carrier.
-Can carry large quantities of cargo if packed well.
-Containers are tough structure, which offer protection to sensitive and fragile goods.
Disadvantages of containerization
-They are expensive and this increases the cost of transporting goods
-Contributes to unemployment since it is capital intensive
-Not suitable for transporting small quantities of goods.
-Requires special handling equipment which may be expensive
-May not be suitable for goods with irregular shapes.
-Training labour force is long and expensive.
-They may be used to smuggle illegal goods.
-The large trucks used on the road increase road damage and may increase accidents.
Factors that influence the choice of appropriate means of transport
iii. Reliability; The means chosen should be able to deliver the goods to the required place at the right time and in the right form.
vi.Distance; Some means of transport are suitable for long distances while others are suitable for short distances. If goods are to be transported for long distances, air, sea or railway transport would be appropriate, otherwise roads would be suitable for short distances.
vii.Availability of means; The means of transport to be selected should be based on its availability. For example, where there is only one means of transport, it would be the only one to be chosen.
viii.Flexibility; This is the ability of means of transport to be manipulated to suit the convenience of the transporter. Where flexibility is required, then the means that would provide such should be chosen. For example a matatu is usually more flexible than an aeroplane.
ix.Terminals; Some means of transport may have their terminals near the transporter than others. In this case, the transporter should choose the means whose terminals are conveniently accessible to facilitate loading and offloading of goods.
x.Value of goods to be transported- goods of high value require special handling and high security during transportation.
Trends in transport
Motor cycles are also being used as bodabodas in various areas. Similarly, the three wheeled vehicles commonly known as ‘Tuk Tuk’ is a major feature in cities and most towns.
REVISION QUESTIONS ON TRANSPORT
KCSE PAST PAER 1
Mode of transport Units of carriage
KCSE PAST QUESTIONS PAPER 2
COMMUNICATION
Meaning of communication
Note: The space between the sender (s) and the receiver (s) maybe as narrow as when people are talking to each other or as wide as between the North Pole and the South Pole.
Effective communication is vital/important for business in that it serves the following purposes.
Importance of communication (purposes)
For an organization to run smoothly there should be proper flow of information within the business and also between the firm and outsiders e.g. the manager may inform members of staff about a planned meeting. Similarly the business may receive a letter of inquiry from a customer
Through proper communication the organization is able to clarify confusing issues from within and without the firm for example in cases where there are many managers. It would be necessary to clarify the responsibilities of each manager.
Good/efficient communication enables the business to create a more positive image and a favorable reputation of itself to outsiders and overcome prejudices and negative attitudes that people may have against the business.
Proper communication enables the business to get new ideas make plans and ensure that they are implemented in the desired way.
Communication process
Communication is a process that involves interchange of information and ideas between two or more people. Communication therefore is a circular process i.e communication may lead to some reaction which in turn may generate further communications or feedback. This flow can be illustrated as below:
Message 3
Receivercdddd
Sender
Feedback
Lines of communication
Communication can be classified according to either the levels of the communicating parties or according to the nature of the message.
iii) Diagonal
This is where messages are passed between a senior and her/his juniors in the same organizations
Vertical communication can be divided into two parts
-Downward communication
-Upward communication
-Downward communication-This is a communication process which starts from the top manager to her/his juniors. This can be informed of:
-Upward communication-This is a communication process that starts from the juniors to the seniors and maybe in the form of:
This is communication between people of the same level (rank) in the same organization e.g. departmental heads in an organization may communicate to achieve the following:
One of the major characteristics of this type of communication is that there are less inhibitions. The people involved are more open and free with each other than in the case of people with different ranks.
iii) Diagonal communication
This is communication between people of different levels in different departments or different organizations e.g. an accounts clerk may communicate with a sales manager of the same organization or of different organizations. Diagonal communication enhances team work.
This can either be;
Formal communication
This is the passing of messages or information using the approved and recognized way in an organization such as official meetings, memos and letters. This means that messages are passed to the right people following the right channels and in the right form.
Formal communication is also known as official communication as it is the passing of information meant for office purposes.
Formal systems of communication are consciously and deliberately established.
Informal communication
This is communication without following either the right channels or in the right form i.e. takes place when information is passed unofficially. It is usually used when passing information between friends and relatives hence it lacks the formality.
Informal communication may also take the form of gossips and rumor-mongering.
Informal communication usually suppliments formal communication as is based on social relations within the organization.
Note: Both formal and informal communication is necessary for effective communication in an organization.
Essentials of Effective communication
For communication to be effective it must be originated produced transmitted received understood and acted upon. The following are the main essentials to effective communications.
This is the person from whom the message originates. He/she encodes the message i.e. puts the message in the communicative form.
This is the information to be sent. It is the subject matter of communication and may contain words, symbols, pictures or some other forms which will make the receiver understand the message
iii) Encoding; This is the process of expressing ones ideas in form of words, symbols, gestures and signs to convey a message
iv)Medium/channel; This refers to the means used in communicating. This could be in the form of letters, telephones and emails among others.
v)The receiver; This is the person for whom the message is intended. The receiver decodes the message for proper understanding.
vi)Decoding; This is the process of interpreting or translating the encoded message to derive the meaning from the message
vii) Feed-back; This refers to the reaction of the receiver of the message. This maybe a reply /response which the receiver sends back to the sender.
The above can be represented in a diagram as shown below;
FORMS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
Forms; These are channels or ways of passing on messages. The four main forms are:
iii )Audio –visual communication
Means; This is the device used to pass on information e.g. messages, letters, telephones e.t.c
This is where information is conveyed by talking (word of mouth)
It is also known as verbal communication
Means of communication
This involves two or more people talking to each other. The parties are usually near each other as much as possible to ensure effective communication.
It is suitable where subject matter of discussion require convincing persuasion and immediate feed-back.
It may be used during meetings, interviews, seminars, private discussions, classrooms e.t.c
It is the most common means of oral communication
Advantages of face-to-face communication
Disadvantages of face-to-face communication
ii)Telephone
This form of communication is commonly used in offices and homes. It is useful in sending messages quickly over short and long distances.
It is however not suitable for sending;
In Kenya telephone services are mainly provided by Telkom Kenya Limited. The subscriber is required to purchase the telephone equipment from the post office or other authorized dealers before installation.
Installation is done on application by the subscriber (applicant).He/she pays the installation fee in addition; the subscriber is sent a monthly bill with the charges for all the calls made during the month.
The charges for calls depend on the time spent time of the day of the week and distance of the recipient from the caller e.g. it is cheaper to call at night than during the day. It is also cheap to make calls during public holidays and weekends than on weekdays.
There are also mobile phones which have no physical line connection to exchange and may be fixed to a vehicle or carried in pockets. In Kenya these services are provided by safaricom, Airtel, orange and Yu mobile communications.
Advantages of Telephones
Disadvantages of Telephone
Reasons why mobile phones have become popular
iii)Radio calls
This involves transmitting information by use of radio waves i.e. without connecting wires between the sender and the receiver
The device used is called a radio telephone. It is commonly used in remote areas where normal telephone services are lacking or where telephone services are available but cannot be conveniently used e.g. policemen on patrol in different parts of a town
Radio transmission is a one way communication system i.e. only one person can speak at a time. It is therefore necessary for the speaker to say’over’ to signal the recipient that the communication is through so that the recipient can start talking. To end the conversation, the speaker says ‘over and out’
The radio calls are commonly used by the police, game rangers, researchers, foresters, ship owners and hotels situated in remote areas. They are also used for sending urgent messages such as calling for an ambulance and fire brigade
Note; Radio calls are not confidential since they use sound frequencies that can be tapped by any radio equipment that is tuned to that frequency
Advantages of Radio calls
Disadvantages of Radio calls
This is a means of communication used to locate staff or employers who are scattered in an organization or who are outside and need to be located urgently
When within the organization portable receivers, lighted signals, bells, loudspeakers etc are used
When outside the organization employees are contacted using portable receivers (pocket-size) used to send messages through sms (short message services)
The paying system can only be used within a certain radius. When using a portable receiver, the caller will contact the subscriber by calling the post office which will then activate the pager.
The subscriber is then informed to contact the originator of the message.
Paging is mostly used in emerging cases
v)Radio
Usually messages intended for a wide audience can be transmitted through a radio more quickly and economically than by using other forms of communication.;`
Radio is used for different reasons apart from advertising e.g for formal notices, and venue for activities
Advantages of oral/verbal communication
Disadvantages of oral/verbal communication
Written Communication
This involves transmission of messages through writing. It is the most formal way of communication because the information is in recorded form and can be used for reference
Means of written communication
(i)Letters
Letters are the most commonly used means of communication.
There are two categories of letters;
a)Formal letters
a)Formal letters; These include business letters and official letters.
Business letters are written to pass messages and information from businessmen to customers and vice versa e.g. letters of inquiry and acknowledgement notes.
It can also be used between employees and employers in an organization e.g. a complimentary note.
Official letters are letters between people in authority and others that touch on the activities of the organization e.g. an application letter for an advertised vacancy in an organization.
Formal letters have a salutation clause which usually starts with “Dear Madam “or “Dear Sir”. It also bears the addresses of both the sender and the recipient, a subject heading and a complimentary clause ending with “Yours faithfully”.
They are also known as Personal letters
This is a means of communication provided by the post office. The sender obtains the telegram form from the post office and fills the message on it in capital letters and hand it over to the post office employees at the counter. Alternatively the sender may use a telephone to read the message to the post office. The post office then transmits the message to the recipient post office.
The charges of a telegram are based on the number of words used, the more the words used the higher the charges. However there is a standing charge.
Telegrams are used for sending urgent messages.
Note; Due to changing technology telegrams have lost popularity. Short messages can now be sent by cell phones (mobile phones) using the short messages services (sms)
iii) Telex
This is a means of communication used to send short or detailed messages quickly by use of a teleprinter. The service is provided by the post office on application.
A message is sent by use of two teleprinters one on the senders end and another on the recipients end. When sending information through a teleprinter which is a form of electric typewriter producing different electric signals, its keys are pressed and automatically the message is printed at the recipient’s machine.
Telex saves time for both the sender and recipient as the messages are brief precise and received immediately. However, it’s an expensive means of communication
This involves transmission of information through a fax machine. Both the sender and the receiver must have a fax machine. These machines are connected using telephone lines
Fax is used to transmit printed messages such as letters, maps, diagrams and photographs. To send the information, one dials a fax number of the required destination and then the document is fed into the sender’s machine. The receiving machine reproduces the document immediately. It is used for long distance photocopying service.
v)Memorandum (Memo)
This is printed information for internal messages within an orgaanisation. It is normally used to pass information between departments or offices in an organization.
Memoranda have no salutation or complimentary clause. They are suitable for informing the officers within an organization of matters related to the firm.
A memo is pinned on the notice board of an organization if it is meant for everybody otherwise passed to the relevant staff.
This is a written communication used to inform a group or the public about past current or future events. It is usually brief and to the point. It can be placed on walls, in public places, on trees, in newspapers or on notice boards.
viii) Reports
These are statements/within records of findings recommendations and conclusion of an investigation/research. A report is usually sent to someone who has asked for it for a specific purpose.
viii) Circulars
These are many copies of a single letter addressed to very many people when the message intended for each is the same.
This is an outline of the items to be discussed in a meeting. It is usually contained in a notice to a meeting sent in advance to all the participants of the meeting. The notice of the meeting contains;
These are records of the proceedings of a meeting. Keeping minutes of certain meetings is a legal requirements e.g. companies
Keeping minutes for other meetings are for management purposes to ensure that decisions made at the meetings are implemented
Advantages of written communication
Disadvantages of written communication
3) Visual Communication
This is the process of passing information by use of diagrams, drawings pictures, signs, and gestures e.t.c
A photograph is an image (visual representation of an object as it appeared at the time when the photograph was taken
Photographs are self-explanatory and may not be accompanied by any narration or explanation. The recipient is able to get the message at a glance.
Refer to marks, symbols, drawings or gestures whose purpose is to inform the public about such things as directions, distances, dangers and ideas.
Examples; road signs, traffic lights and danger signs on electricity poles
This means of communication can only be effective if the meaning of the sign used is understood.
Graphs; These are used to show and illustrate statistical information
Charts; These are diagrams which show or illustrate the flow of an idea e.g. an organization chart illustrates the whole organization structure indicating the chain of command
Advantages of visual communication
The information may be obtained at once
Disadvantages of visual communication
4) Audio-Visual communication
This is a form of communication in which messages are sent through sounds and signs.
This form of communication ensures that the receiver gets the message instantly.
It is suitable where both the sender and the receiver know the meaning of specific sounds and signs.
Means of Audio-visual communication
A television can be a very suitable means of sending urgent messages especially when it gives live coverage of events.
Advantages of Audio-visual communication
Disadvantages of Audio-visual communication
5) Audio Communication
This is when the message is transmitted through sounds. Examples include
Other methods of audio communication include drums, alarms, and bells among others
Advantages of Audio communication
Disadvantages of Audio communication
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
Paging and sirens are suitable for short distances. For long distances, fax letters, telephone, e-mail may be appropriate
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication is said to be complete only when the recipient gets the message the way the sender intends it to be. When information is not received the way it was intended then it has been distorted. Distortion of a message is brought about by some communication barriers which may exists in the path of the message between the sender and the recipient. Some of these barriers are:
III. Negative Attitude: Attitude refers to the feelings of the communicating parties towards each other. It is important that there exists a mutual feeling of trust and respect between the parties concerned in order to avoid bias .If there is mistrust and prejudice then there may be deliberate or unintentional misunderstanding of the message involved.
VII. Ambiguities: it occurs when the sender express in a manner which leads to wrong interpretation. When the receiver interprets the message differently it automatically leads to communication breakdown.
VIII. Emotional responses: emotional responses such as those resulting from hunger or excitement may lead to distortion of message.
SERVICE THAT FACILITATE COMMUNICATION
Services that facilitate communication include:
Mailing services
This refers to handling of letters and parcels. They are offered by organizations such as postal corporation of Kenya (P.C.K) securicorl courier and Document handling Limited (D.H.L)
Some of the services offered by the postal corporation include:
The sender pays the normal postage fee plus a fee for special service. An example of such a service is Expedited Mail Service (EMS) speed post
These include surface mail and airmail.
Surface Mail: These include letters and parcels delivered by road, rail, water and hand.
AirMail: This consists of letters and light parcels delivered by air.
An express mail is/must be presented at the post office counter by the sender and the envelope clearly addressed and a label with the word “express” affixed. Normal postage plus an extra fee (commission) is charged
The mail is delivered to the receivers nearest post office from where the post office makeS arrangements to deliver the mail to the receiver within the shortest time possible.
NOTE: For speed post special arrangements to deliver the mail start at the sender’s post office whereas express mail, the arrangements start at the addressers post office.
Under this arrangement when addressing the letter, the words poste Restante must be written on the envelope clearly. The addressee must identify himself/herself when collecting the correspondence from the post office.
There is no additional charge made apart from normal postage charges. This service can only be offered for three months in the same town
This service is offered by the post office for sending articles of value for which security handling is required. A registration fee and a commission is paid. The commission depends on the weight of the article and the nature of registration. The sender is required to draw a horizontal and a vertical line across the faces of the envelope.
A certificate of registration is given to the sender. In case of loss, the sender may be paid compensation on production of the certificate of registration.
A green card is sent to the recipient. The card bears his name and the post office at which the mail was registered. The recipient will be required to identify himself before being allowed to posses the mail.
Items that may be registered include jewels, certificate, land title deeds e.t.c.
The service is useful/more common with firms which would like to encourage their customers to reply their letters. Customers are issued with reply card envelopes (or envelopes marked ‘postage paid’)
They can send letters to the business by using these envelopes/the card. The customers then place the card/envelope in the post box and the firms post office branch will deduct postage charges from the lump sum amount.
Courier Services
These are services where a service provider receives transports and delivers parcels or important documents to destinations specified by customers in return for payment of fees or charges.
Examples; Akamba bus service, Securicor courier services e.t.c
ii)Telephone services
Telkom Kenya, through the post office, provides telephone services which offer direct contact between people who are far apart. It makes conversation between people at any distance possible, as long as there are transmission facilities between them. Urgent matters can be discussed and consultations can take place so that instant decision or actions are taken. The telephone assists organizations to establish a fast and convenient machinery for its internal and external communication network.
These are hand held telephones with digital links that use radio waves. They are sometimes called cell-phones since they use power stored in a dry cell
In Kenya mobile phone services are provided by safaricom Ltd.(a subsidiary of Telkom Kenya)and Airtel communications Ltd(formally Kencel Communication Ltd)which is a joint venture between a French company and a Kenyan company, yu mobile services and Orange mobile services . This sector therefore greatly benefits from foreign investment to improve services.
The use of this service is popular. Apart from the provision of telecommunication service, cell phones have different attractive features or services such as short messages service (sms) whereby a caller can send a written message. Recent models of mobile phones enable the user to access the internet and send e-mail messages
Advantages
Disadvantages
iii) Broadcasting services
Communication commission of Kenya is a regulatory body that receives applications and issues licences for radio and television broadcasting stations.
Radio broadcasting is a very important mode of giving news and information to people in the whole world.
The liberalization of the communications sector in Kenya in 1999, Kenya has witnessed a mushrooming of F.m. Stations which are owned by private sector operators e.g. Kiss Radio, Easy fm,Classic fm,Family fm,Kameme e.t.c
They have helped to spread news and information countrywide. Before liberalization, Kenya Broadcasting corperation (KBC) radio was operating as a state owned monopoly.
Television broadcasting (telecasting) does not reach as wide an audience as radio broadcasting in Kenya. It however serves the same purpose of relaying news and information to Kenyans. Both radio and television stations are widely used for advertising purposes.
The T.V subsector has been liberalized since 1999 and a number of privately owned stations have emerged e.g. Kenya Television Network (KTN) Nation Television, Family T.V etc. Prior to that time KBC television was in operation as a state owned monopoly.
Other services that facilitate communication
Current trends and Emerging issues in communication
With the advancement of information technology (I.T) there has been a lot of revolution in communication.
The following are some of the current trends and emerging issues in communication;
These are privately owned kiosks where telephone services are sold. The owner of the kiosk must get authority from the service provider in order to run the bureau. The individual wishing to use the services of the bureau makes payments to the owner of the service. Other services offered by the bureau include selling of scratch cards for mobile telephones and credit cards for landline telephone services.
These are hand held telephones with digital links that use radio waves. They have become an important business and social tool. This is because most people and traders want some flexibility to be able to communicate whenever they are.
Other reasons that have led to the popularity of cell phones include:
This is a service provided through the internet for sending messages.
It is similar to sending a letter through the postal system only that it is done electronically.
-Messages can be sent to anyone on the network, anywhere in the world. For this to take place, computers have to be connected to each other to form a network.
-To communicate, one is required to have an email address e.g. raeform2@ yahoo.com. Messages arrive at the e – mail address immediately they are sent.
-It is only the addressee of the message who can retrieve the message since a password is required to access the mailbox.
-E – mail can also be used to send documents and photographs like certificates by scanning and attaching.
– More and more businesses are using e- Mail to communicate with other businesses, their customers and suppliers.
* QUESTION: OUTLINE THE ADVANTAGES OF USING E- MAIL AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
The internet links computers all over the world. Written and oral information is transmitted on the internet through the use of telephone wires, fibre- optic cables and wireless devices.
The internet has changed the way people communicate in the following ways;
The future office will rely largely on computers. Most of the communication will be done through computers. This may result in less use of paper, hence the use of the term “the paperless office”.
Vi ) Decline in the use of postal services
Decline in the use of postal services is a result of the impact of the internet. E-mail has become a popular and preferred mode of communication since it is fast and cheap. However, ordinary mail/ use of postal services may not be completely phased out since the government, businesses and people do not regard an e-mail as a binding or formal communication.
Vii) Transformation of language
The language used to pass and receive messages has evolved through time.e.g the youth have adopted the use of “sheng” in exchanging messages. such language is largely understood by its youthful users. There is also the use of cell phones to send short text messages; which are highly abbreviated and may use slang whose meaning is only known to the users e.g ‘av a gr8 day’.
COMMUNICATION REVESION QUESTIONS
-Communication is the process by which information is passed from one person or place to another.
(a) Vertical communication
Involves the flow of information either downwards or upwards, for example, from a senior employee to a junior employee
(b) Horizontal communication
Is also referred to as lateral communication which is passing of information between people of the same rank or status, for example from one departmental manager to another departmental manager
(c) Diagonal communication
Is communication of different people in different levels of management or departments for example a receptionist communicating to a production manager.
Formal communication is official and documented and follows certain rules for example a worker writing an official letter to an organization’s seniors. Informal communication does not conform to any time, for example communicating to friends and relatives.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
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WAREHOUSING
Warehouse: This is a building or a part of a building where goods are received and stored until need arises for them.
-Other terms used to refer to a warehouse are depot, a godown or a silo.
Warehousing; This is the process of receiving goods into a warehouse, protecting such goods against all types of hazards and releasing them to users when need arises for them
-There are three distinct stages in warehousing process namely:
Importance of warehousing to Business
Essentials of a warehouse
These are the features and resources a warehouse should have in order for it to function effectively.
These include:
Types of warehouses
-Warehouses can be broadly classified into three namely:
These are warehouses that are owned by private individuals/organizations for the purpose of storing their own goods only. They include:
These are warehouses for storing the wholesalers’ goods as they await distribution or sale. They need warehouses because they buy goods in bulk from producers and store them until they are needed by retailers.
-The wholesalers warehouses also act as showrooms i.e. they display their goods in the warehouse.
-These warehouses also enable the wholesalers to prepare their goods for sale e.g. branding, blending, packing and sorting may be carried out in the warehouse
-These warehouses are owned by producers and they are for storing goods prior to their demand.
-The producers may be manufactures of finished goods or farmers
-Such warehouses are built near the manufactures factories or the farmers production points.
-Manufactures who export may locate some warehouses near ports through which they export e.g Mumias sugar warehouse, Bamburi Portland cement warehouse e.t.c
Some large-retailers such as chain stores and supermarkets own warehouses for storing their large stores
-It becomes necessary for such business to have warehousing facilities due to their large and bulky purchases dictated by the nature of their business
-Goods are distributed from their warehouses to the retail outlets or to the branches
Advantages of private warehouses
Disadvantages of private warehouses
These are warehouses owned by individuals or organizations who do business by renting space. To those traders who are in need of storage facilities to store goods temporarily. They have the following characteristics;
Advantages of a public warehouses
Disadvantages of public warehouses
These are public warehouses for keeping imported goods until customs duties have been paid against them. They are mainly located at the points through which goods enter a country
-Imported goods are kept in this type of warehouses if the owner has not paid customs duties. Such goods are said to be “goods under bond”or “goods in bond”
–Bonded warehouses are so called because the owners of such warehouses give a ‘bond’ to the customs authorities i.e. a sum of money as guarantee that they will not release goods from the warehouses until customs duties have been paid.
-The importer may withdraw the goods either in part or in full after the customs duties have been paid for the goods he/she intends to collect.
-If the goods are sold while still in a bonded warehouse, the new owner of the goods pays the duty before taking them out of the warehouse.
-If the goods re-exported to another country while still in a bonded warehouse, the importer does not have to pay the customs duties e.g an importer may import some goods and further prepare them for sale inside a bonded warehouse and can then re-export them without having paid the customs duties
-When the importer pays the duties to the customs officials, a “release warrant” is issued. This is a document that enables the importer to have his/her goods released from a bonded warehouse
-Bonded warehouses have resident customs officials who monitor the movement of goods in and out of a bonded warehouse.
Features of a bonded warehouse
Advantages of bonded warehouse to the importer
Advantages of Bonded warehouse to the Government
Disadvantages of a bonded warehouse
Free warehouses
These are warehouses in which tax-free goods are kept awaiting sale or collection by owners
-Goods stored in these warehouses can be either locally produced, requiring no taxation or imported goods for which customs duties have already been paid.
NOTE: i) All warehouses apart from bonded warehouses are free warehouses since goods held in them are not subject to control by customs authorities. This includes all private and public warehouses
Advantages of free warehouses
Disadvantages of free warehouses
Current trends and emerging issues in warehousing
Warehousing technology is undergoing important changes in both building design and handling in storage equipment. These may include;
–Computerization has also greatly helped in monitoring the movement of stock in and out of storage. This has eased the handling, especially in loading and unloading of goods.
iii) Storage of goods-Storage is the condition of the goods at rest in their assigned areas of the warehouse. Most warehouses are currently using storage racks that permit replacement or retrieval of goods without disturbing neighbouring goods.
iii) Environmental pollution-Goods that expired or spoilt while in the warehouse are sometimes discarded in a manner or in areas that may cause pollution to the environment e.g. expired chemicals are sometimes thrown into rivers and oceans thereby endangering the marine life.
-Other times they are burned causing air pollution with toxic gases. Some goods when thrown on land are dangerous to human life
-To avoid the effects of improper disposal of expired or spoilt goods the warehouse owners should come up with methods that are environmentally friendly such as recycling of these goods. They should also be socially responsible for whatever goes out from their warehouses.
INSURANCE
Insurance-This is an undertaking or contract between an individual or business and an insurance an occurrence of risk(s) (i.e. against events whose occurrences are unforeseen but causes financial losses or suffering to the affected parties.
Risks are also referred to as contingencies, hazards or perils and include:
–Fire outbreak
-Accidents
-Thefts
-Deaths
-Disabilities
-Risks are real and unforseen. Methods to eliminate such risks has achieved very little and thus has necessitated the need for insurance.
Importance of insurance
Every business enterprise is exposed to a variety of risks e.g. fire, theft e.t.c.The occurrence of such risks often result in financial losses to the business. Insurance provides adequate protection against such risks in that, if a trader suffers losses as a result of insured risk, she/he is compensated, thus he/she is able to continue with business operations.
Insurance enables investors to invest in profitable yet risky business projects that would otherwise avoided.
Not all the money received as premiums (by the insurance companies) is used up for compensation to those who have been exposed to risk and suffered losses. The rest of the money is invested in other businesses to earn profits.
Insurance does provide employment opportunities to members of the public.
The profits earned are a source of revenue for the government i.e. insurance companies are profit-making organizations which generate revenue to the government through payments of taxes
The insurance industry have also established credit or lending facilities which the business community uses by borrowing. Loans are made available to the public for different investment projects in different sectors of the economy and also for personal requirements.
The insurance industry plays a crucial role in the development of urban facilities in major towns. Both residential and office buildings have been developed by insurance firms. The firms also participate in development projects in the areas where they operate. They contribute to development of a region by constructing and infrastructural facilities
THE THEORY OF INSURANCE
The insurance business relies on the law of large numbers in its operations. According to this law, there should be a large group of people faced with similar risks and these risks spread over a certain given geographical area.
Every person in the group contributes at regular intervals, small amounts of money called premium into a “common pool”. The pool is administered and controlled by the insurance company.
Pooling of risks
The insurance operation is based on the theory that just a few people out of a given lot may suffer a loss. There is therefore a “pooling of risks” i.e the loss of the unfortunate few is spread over all the contributors of the group, each bearing a small portion of the total loss. This is why the burden of loss is not felt by the individuals because it is “shared” by a large group.
Benefits of the “pooling of Risks” to insurance company
Terms used in Insurance
Insurance
This is a written contract that transfers to an insurer the financial responsibility for losses arising from insured risk.
Premium
This is the specified amount of money paid at regular intervals by the insured to the insurer for coverage against losses arising from a particular risk.
Risk
These are perils or events against which an insurance cover is taken. It is the calamity or problem a person or business faces and results into losses.
Note: The calculation of premiums depends upon the type of risk insured against. The higher the probability of the risk occurring, the higher the premium. The more the risks the business or person is exposed to the more the premiums payable.
Pure risk
This is a risk which results in a loss if it occurs and results in no gains if it does not occur. For example, if a car is involved in an accident, there will be a loss and if the accident does not occur there will be no gain or loss
Speculative risk
This is a risk which when it occurs, may result in a loss or a profit. For example, a person may buy shares at ksh.50 each, one year later the shares may be valued at ksh40 each meaning a loss of ksh.10
Alternatively, their value might not have changed or might have increased to ksh.45 each. Speculative risk lures people to venture into business in the first place.
Insured
This is the individual or the business that takes out the insurance cover and therefore becomes the policy holder
The insured pays premiums to the insurance company to be compensated should the risk insured against occur or cause loss.
Insurer
This is the business company that undertakes to provide cover or protection to the people who suffer loss as a result of occurrence of risks
Actuaries
These are people employed by an insurance company to complete expected losses and calculate the value of premiums.
Claim
This is a demand by the insured for payment from the insurer due to some loss arising from an insured risk.
Policy
This is a document that contains the terms and conditions of the contract between the insurer and the insured. Its issued upon payment of the first premium.
Information contained in a policy includes;
Actual value
This is the true value of the property insured
Sum insured
This is the value for which property is insured, as stated by the insured at the time of taking the policy.
Surrender value
This is the amount of money that is refunded to the insured by the insurer in case the former (i.e. the insured) terminates payment of the premiums before the insurance contract matures. The policyholder is paid an amount less than the total amount of the premium paid.
Grace period
This is term allowed between the date of signing the contract and the date of payment of the first premium. During this period the insurance contract remains valid. This period is usually a maximum of thirty (30) days.
Proposer
This is a person wishing to take out an insurance cover (prospective insured)
Cover note (Binder)
This is a document given by the insurance company to an insured on payment of the first premium while awaiting for the policy to be processed. It is proof of evidence that the insurer has accepted to cover a proposed risk.
Annuity
This is a fixed amount of money that an insurer agrees to pay the insured annually until the latter’s death. It occurs when a person saves a lumpsum amount of money with an insurer in return for a guaranteed payment which will continue until he/she dies.
Consequential loss
This is loss incurred by a business as a result of disruption of business in the event of the insured risk occurring.
Assignment
This is the transfer of an insurance policy by an insured to another person. Any claims arising from the transferred policy passes to the new policy holder called an assignee
Beneficiaries
These are people named in a life assurance policy who are to be paid by the insurer in the event of the insured
Nomination
This is the act of designing one or more people who would be the beneficiaries in the event of death of the insured. These people are called nominees
Average clause
This clause is usually included in policies to discourage under-insurance. The clause provides that the insured can only recover such proportions of the loss as the value of the policy bears on the property insured. It is usually included in marine or fire insurance policies.
The amounts recoverable are arrived at using the following formulae:
Compensation=value of the policy loss
Value of property
Example:
If a house worth kshs.800,000 and insured against fire for kshs.600,000 was damaged by fire to the tune of kshs.400,000,the insured would be compensated;
Compensation= (600,000 x 400,000)
800,000 (value insured x Actual loss)
Double insurance
This is taking of insurance policies with more than one company in respect to the same subject matter and the risk. It is significant because if one of the insurers is insolvent at the time the claim arises the insured can enforce his/her claim against the solvent insurer or if both insurers are solvent then they share compensation.
(Insolvency is a state where a business is not able to pay all its liabilities from its existing assets)
Co-insurance
This is an undertaking by more than one insurance company to provide insurance cover for the same risk for an insured. This will usually occur for properties that have great value and face great risk exposures that an insurer cannot successfully make compensation for e.g. value of aeroplanes, ships e.t.c
Co-insurance help spread risks to several insurers, each insurer covering only a certain proportion of the total value. The insurance company with the largest share is called the “leader” and acts on behalf of all the participating insurance companies’ e.g. in collecting premiums from the insured and carrying out documentation work, making claim after collecting each insurers premium contribution e.t.c
Note: Co-insurance is different from double-insurance in that in co-insurance company approaches another insurance company to help in covering the insured property while in double-insurance; it’s the insured who decides to approach different insurance companies to insure the same property against the same risk.
Re-insurance
‘Re-insurance’ means insuring again. This is a situation where an insurance company insures itself with a bigger insurance company called le-insurer for all or part of the risks insured with it by members of the public
Re-insurance indirectly insure an individuals risks.Re-insurance helps to reduce the burden on an insurance company when the loss is too high for a single insurer. When such losses occurs, the claim is met by both the insurer and re-insurer(s) proportionately (according to agreed percentages)
Note:
Re-insurance deal with the protection of insurance companies only, while insurance companies protect individuals and business organizations.
Factors that may make it necessary for an insurance company to Re-insure
Under-insurance
This occurs when the sum insured as contained in the policy is less than the actual value of the property e.g. A property of shs.500, 000 can be offered for insurance as having a value of shs.400, 000
Over-insurance
This is a situation where the sum insured is more than the correct value of property e.g. a person insures property of shs.300,000 for shs.600,000.If total loss occurs, he is compensated the correct value of the property i.e. that which he has lost
Agents
These are people who sell insurance policies on behalf of the insurance company. They are paid on commission that is dependent upon the total value of policies sold
Insurance Brokers
These are professional middlemen in the insurance process. They connect the people wishing to take insurance with the insurers. They act on behalf of many different insurance firms, unlike agents. Their activities include:
He receives a commission (reward) known as brokerage.
PRINCIPLES OF INSURANCE
Principles of insurance provide guidance to the insurance firms at the time they are entering into a contract with the person taking the cover. These insurance principles include:
It is therefore important that a prospective insured (person wishing to take insurance policy) has basic knowledge of these principles as stated in the insurance law.
The insurance principles include;
This principle states that an insurance claim cannot be valid unless the insured person can prove that he has directly suffered a financial loss and not just because the insured risk has occurred.
Going by this principle one cannot insure his parents or friends or other people’s property since he/she has no insurable interest in them. If such properties are damaged or completely destroyed, he/she will not suffer any financial loss.
For example, Mr.x has no insurable interest in the property of his neighbours.He does not suffer any financial loss should they be destroyed. This principle ensures that people are not deliberately destroying other people’s properties/life in order for them to receive compensation.
In life insurance (life assurance) it is assumed that a person has unlimited interest in his/her own life. Similarly it is assumed that one has insurable in the life of spouse and children e.g. a wife may insure the life of her husband, a father the life of his child because there is sufficient insurable interest.
The essence of this principle is that the insurer will only pay the “replacement value” of the property when the insured suffers loss as a result of an insured risk.
This principle thus puts the insured back to the financial position he enjoyed immediately before the loss occurred.
It is therefore not possible, then, for anybody to gain from a misfortune by getting compensation exceeding the actual financial loss suffered as this will make him gain from a misfortune.
This principle does not apply in life assurance since it is not possible to value one’s life or a part of the body in terms of money. Instead, the insurance policy states the amount of money the insured can claim in the event of death.
In this principle the person taking out a policy is supposed to disclose the required relevant material facts concerning the property or life to be insured with all honesty. Failure to comply to this may render the contract null and void hence no compensation.
e.g.
-A person suffering from a terminal illness should reveal this information to the insurer.
-One should not under-insure or over-insure his/her property.
This principle compliments the principle of indemnity. It does so by ensuring that a person does not benefit from the occurrence of loss.
According to this principle, whatever remains of the property insured after the insured has been compensated according to the terms of the policy, becomes the property of the insure.
Example
Assuming that Daisy’s car is completely damaged in an accident and the insurance compensates for the full value of the loss, whatever remains of the old car (now scrap), belongs to the insurance company
Scrap metal can be sold for some values and should Daisy take the amount she would end up getting more amount than the value of the car which will be against the principle of indemnity.
Note: This principle cannot be applicable to life assurance since there is nothing to subrogate.
This principle states that for the insured to be compensated there must be a very close relationship between the loss suffered and risk insured i.e. the loss must arise directly from the risk insured or be connected to the risk insured.
Example
However if the property burns down as a result of sparks from the fire-place, the proximate cause of the loss is sparks which are directly related to fire. So the insured is entitled for compensation.
CLASSES OF INSURANCE
Insurance covers are mainly classified into two,
The term assurance is used in respect of life contracts. It is used to mean that life contracts are not contracts of indemnity as life cannot be indemnified i.e. put back to the same financial position he was in before the occurrence of loss.(life has no money value, no amount of money can give back a lost or injured life)
Life insurance (assurance) is entered by the two parties in utmost good faith and the premiums payable in such life contracts depend on:
Types of policies
–Whole life assurance covers disabilities due to illness or accidents i.e. if the insured is disabled during the life of the policy due to illness or accidents, the insurer will pay him/her for the income lost.
This is whereby the insured pays regular premiums over a specified period of time. The sum assured is payable either at the expiry of the period (maturity of policy) or on death of the insured, whichever comes first.
The insured, at expiry of policy is given the total sum assured to use for activities of his own choice.(ordinary endownment policy)
-Where the insured dies before maturity of contract, the beneficiaries are given these amounts.
Note; The assured person may be paid a certain percentage of the sum assured at intervals until the expiry of the policy according to the terms of contract. Such an arrangement is known as Anticipated Endownment policy.
Advantages of Endownment policies
Differences Between a whole life policy and an Endownment policy
| Whole life | Endownment |
| i) Compensation is paid after the death of the assured
|
i) Compensation is paid after the expiry of an agreed period |
| ii) Premiums are paid throughout the life of the assured | Premiums are paid only during an agreed period |
| iii) Benefits go to the dependants rather than the assured | The assured benefits unless death proceeds the expiry of the agreed period |
| iv) Aims at financial security of dependants | Aims at financial security of the assured and dependants |
iii)Term insurance
The insured here covers his life against death for a given time period e.g. 1yr, 5yrs e.t.c.
If the policyholder dies within this period, his/her dependants are compensated.
If the insured does not die within this specified period, there is no compensation. However, a renewal can be taken.
This policy is normally taken by parents for their children’s future educational needs.
The policy gives details of when the payments are due.
The Government offers some types of insurance schemes which are aimed at improving/providing welfare to the members of the scheme such as medical services and retirement benefits.
A member and the employer contribute, at regular intervals, certain amounts of money towards the scheme.
Examples
Annuity
Characteristics of life Assurance
2.General insurance (property insurance)
This type of insurance covers any form of property against the risks of loss or damage. A person can insure any property he has an insurable interest in
General insurance is usually divided into:
This department covers all sorts of risks which occur by accident and includes the following;
-These provide compensation for partial or total loss to a vehicle if the loss results from an accident.
-The policy could either be third party or comprehensive.
–Third party policies cover all damages caused by the vehicle to people and property other than the owner and his/her vehicle. This includes pedestrians, fare-paying passengers, cows, fences and other vehicles
In Kenya, a motor-vehicle owner is required by law to have this policy before the vehicle is allowed on the roads. One can also take a third party, fire and theft policy.
Comprehensive policy covers damages caused not only to the third party but also to the vehicle itself and injuries suffered by the owner. Comprehensive policies include full third party, fire, theft and malicious damage to the vehicle.
-These policies are issued by insurance companies to protect the insured against personal accidents causing;
-If death occurs due to an accident, the insured’s beneficiaries are paid the total sum assured.
In case of a partial or total disability as a result of accident, the insured can be paid on regular periods, e.gmonthly as stipulated in the policy.
Compensation for injuries where one loses a part of his/her body can be done on a lumpsum basis.
The insured is also paid the value of hospital expenses incurred if hospitalized as a result of an accident.
These are policies that specifically provide cover for loss of cash and goods in transit between any two locations.
E.g. Goods and cash moved from business to the markets, from suppliers to business e.t.c
These policies cover losses caused by robbers and thieves
Burglary policies are enforceable only if the insured has met the specified safety and precautionary measures for protection of the insured items.
E.g.-How much money should be maintained in different kinds of safety boxes
-Positioning of each of the cash boxes is also an important precautionary measure.
NB: The control measures are aimed at reducing both the extent and probability of loss occurring
These policies cover the employers against loss of money and/or goods caused by their employees in the cause of duty.
-The losses may be as a result of embezzlement, fraud, arithmetical errors e.t.c
-The policies may cover specified employees or all the employees
7) Workmen’s compensation (Employer’s Accident liability)
These policies provide compensation for employees who suffer injuries in the course of carrying out their duties.
The employer insures his employee against industrial injuries i.e the employer is only liable for the compensation of workers who suffer injuries at work.
This insurance covers injury, damages or losses which the business or its employees cause to the public through accidents.
The insurer pays all claims from the public upto an agreed maximum
This policy covers firms against losses that might result from debtor’s failure to pay their debts.
iii)Marine Insurance
This type of insurance covers ships and cargo against the risk of damage or destruction at the sea. The main risks sea vessels are exposed to include; fire, theft, collision with others, stormy weather, sinking e.t.c
Types of Marine Insurance policies
The marine insurance covers are classified as Hull, cargo, freight and ship owners’ liability.
This policy covers the body of the ship against loss or damage that might be caused by sea perils.
Included here are any equipment, furniture or machinery on the ship.
A special type of marine hull is the part policy, which is for a specified period when the ship is loading, unloading or at service.
This type of policy covers the cargo or goods carried by the ship
The policy is taken by the owners of the sea vessels to cover the cargo being transported. It has the following sub-divisions.
Description of marine losses
The following are some of the losses encountered in marine insurance.
This occurs where there is complete loss or damage to the ship and cargo insured. Total loss can be constructive or actual.
In Actual total loss, the claims are as a result of the ships and/or cargos complete destruction. It could also occur;
-When a ship and its cargo are so damaged that what is salvaged is of no market value to both the insurer and the insured.
-When a ship is missing for a considerable period of time enough to assume that it has sunk.
–Constructive total loss occurs when the ship and/or cargo are totally damaged but retrieved. It may also occur;
-Where a ship and its cargo are damaged but of market value. This could be as a result of decision to abandon the ship and cargo as the probability of total loss appears imminent.
-If the cost of preventing total loss may be higher than that of the ship and its cargo when retrieved e.g. many lives may be lost in the process of trying to prevent total loss.
Fire insurance-This type of insurance covers property damage or loss caused by accidental fire. Cover is offered to domestic commercial and industrial premises, plant and machinery, equipment, furniture fittings stock e.t.c
-In order to claim for compensation as a result of loss by fire, the following conditions must be fulfilled;
There are several types of types of fire insurance policies. These include:
This covers or compensates the insured for the loss of profit suffered when business operations have
It is offered to protect future earnings of an enterprice after fire damage.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERAL INSURANCE
Factors to be considered when Determining Premiums to be charged
Procedure for taking a policy
Procedure of claiming compensation
INSURANCE AND GAMBLING
In most cases, insurance is erroneously taken to be the same as gambling in that small amounts are contributed by many people into a common fund which later benefits just a few people. They are however different and their differences include;
| Insurance | Gambling |
| -The insured must have insurable interest | -A gambler has no insurable interest |
| -Reinstates the insured back to the financial position just before loss | -Aims at improving the winners financial position |
| -The insured is expected to pay regular premiums for the insurance cover to remain in force | -Gambling money is paid only once |
| -Insurance involves pure risks | -Gambling involves speculative risks |
| -The event of loss might never occur | -The event of bet must happen to determine the winner and the loser. |
PAST KCSE QUESTONS
PRODUCT PROMOTION
Product is an item or service offered to the consumers at a price. Therefore, product promotion is the communication or any activity undertaken to inform the consumers, persuade and remind them to buy the product from the market.
The purpose/Importance of product promotion
Methods of product promotion
Product promotion may be carried out in the following ways:
This is a method of promotion where there is an oral presentation in the conversation with the prospective customer. It is done by with the use of salesmen who informs the prospective buyer of all the aspects of the product
Methods of personal selling
Personal selling can be carried out in the following ways;
A case where the sales person approaches the prospective customers after drawing their attention, explaining details of the product and even demonstrating how the product works in order to persuade the customer to buy.
Steps involved in personal selling through sales person
This is where the manufacturer of a given product gets a chance to display publicly to the prospective customer to inform them about the product. The prospective customers’ attention is then drawn to the product and more information is given to him about the product at the point where it is displayed.
Advantages of shows, trade fair and exhibitions
Disadvantages of shows, trade fairs and exhibitions
These are large rooms where goods are displayed, especially bulky and durable goods like cars, furniture’s, etc for the customer to see and be informed about them to stimulate their interest in them
The room allows the customer to get more information about the product from the sales person in the showroom
Advantages of showrooms
Disadvantages of showrooms
A gift is an item given to the customer free of charge after buying a product which it is pegged on or buying products of a given value. The gift may not necessarily be the same as the product bought, but they are meant to encourage the customer to buy more or give the customer opportunity to explore the product given as a gift.
Advantages of free gifts
Disadvantages of free gifts
This is a product on trial given to the customers freely to influence their demand towards the product. It mainly used when the product is new and the customer may have not known about the existence of the product
Advantages of free sample
Disadvantages of free sample
Circumstances under which personal selling is appropriate
Advantages of personal selling
Disadvantages of personal
This is the presentation of information about a product through public media such as newspapers, radios, billboards, etc
Types of Advertising
Advantages/Importance of advertising to the business
Disadvantages of advertising to the business
Advantages of advertising to the customer
Disadvantages of advertising to the consumer
Advertising media
These are channels or agents through which an advertisement message is conveyed to the target group. They includes both the print and electronic media which includes; newspapers, journals, magazines, posters, bill-boards, brochures’, radio, television, neon signs, etc
These are daily or regularly publications which contains advertisement. They includes, Daily nation, Standard, Taifa Leo, citizen, star, etc
Advantages of newspaper
Disadvantages of the newspaper
These are periodic publications meant to target a particular class or group of people. They may be published monthly, quarterly, annually, etc. The information reaches the targeted group as they read them
Advantages of magazines and Journals
Disadvantages of magazines and journals
A form of advertising that may contain the information about the product either in words, pictures or both for the customer to see and read.
Advantages of posters and billboards
Disadvantages of posters and billboards
A form of advertisement whereby vehicles such as trailers, matatus, buses, etc are used to carry and convey the advertisement message
Advantages of transit advertisement
Disadvantages of transit advertisement
These are small pamphlets carrying message and pictures about product being advertised.
Advantages of Brochures
Disadvantages of Brochures
This is a channel that allows for the advertised messages to be conveyed through sound to the listeners, with some background music accompanying the message
Advantages of Radio
Disadvantages of Radio
Television is a form of media advertisement where the written words are combined with motion pictures and sound to pass the information
Cinema is where the advertised messaged is conveyed during film shows in the cinema halls. It may be before or after the movie.
Advantages of Television (T.V) and Cinema
Disadvantages of Television (T.V) and Cinema
This is a form of advertisement where the message is passed to the public through the use of electrical signals transmitted through neon lights. They are usually common in the banks, airlines, jewel shops, etc
Advantages of Neon Signs
Disadvantages of Neon Signs
Advertising Agencies
These are businesses that specialize in advertising work and are hired to carry out the functions for other businesses. They are paid a commission for this
Functions of Advertising Agencies
This is the mentioning of the product or the organization in the mass media to make it be known to many people. There two types of publicity, that is free publicity (where the payment is not required) and Special featured publicity (where there is payment, for example sponsoring an event in the public)
Advantages of Publicity
Disadvantages of Publicity
A process of passing information with an intention of creating, promoting, or maintaining good will and a favourable image of the organization in the public. It involves informing the public about the firm’s achievement and how it is contributing to the community welfare and development, to get more approval of the public
Advantages of public relations
Disadvantages of public relations
This is where the items are arranged in the shops strategically, allowing the customers to see them easily. The arrangement is meant to attract the customer’s attention and induce them to buy goods as they pass close to the shop
Advantages of Point of purchase display
Disadvantages of point of purchase
A form of advertisement which is sent to the potential customers directly in the form of a mail, for example the pricelist being sent to the potential customers
Advantages of direct mail advertisement
Disadvantages of direct mail advertisement
A booklet that gives information about the product that the organization deals in. It gives the description about the product, the picture as well as the prices of the product.
Advantages of catalogue
Disadvantages of catalogue
An assurance given to the customer that the product will serve as expected if used according to the instructions given by the manufacturer. For the guaranteed period the seller will be willing to maintain repair or replace the product for the customer
Advantages Guarantee
Disadvantages of guarantee
This is a reduction in price of the commodity, allowing the buyer to pay less than what he would have paid the goods.
Types of discount
Sales promotion
These are activities carried out to increase the sales volume of a business. They are activities out of the ordinary routine of business that is carried out by the seller to increase his sales volume.
The methods of carrying out sales promotion includes all the methods of carrying out product promotion as discussed earlier, that is, shows and trade fair, showrooms, free gifts, free sample, personal selling, advertisement, window display, credit facilities, after sales services, etc
Factors to consider when choosing a promotion method
Ethical issues in product promotion
These are rules and regulations to be followed when carrying out promotion to avoid violating other people or businesses right. They include;
Trends in product promotion
The following are some changes that have taken place to improve the product promotion activities
BUSINESS STUDIES FORM THREE NOTES
THEORY OF THE FIRM
Defination:
–A firm may also be defined as a business enterprise under one management and control.
Example; Mumias sugar factory, Bata Shoe Company e.t.c
-Firms may be sole proprietorship, partnerships or companies. They may therefore be small e.g. an artisan or mechanic working in her/his garage or large like a multinational limited company producing many different products e.g. coca-cola company.
-A firm even though under one management and control may have several branches/plants.
NOTE: In the definition of the firm, we assume that a firm in a unit that makes decision with respect to the production and sale of goods and services in the regard, we assume that
–All firms are profit-maximisers i.e. they seek to make as much profit as possible.
–Each firm can be regarded as a single consistent decision making unit.
The life of all business enterprises/firms are therefore characterized by several decision-making processes which are all aimed at facilitating realization of the objectives(profit maximization) such decisions may include; what to produce and how much, where and when to produce, how much to invest and how much to price goods/services e.t.c
DECISION ON WHAT GOODS AND SERVICES TO PRODUCE
A firm makes a number of important production decisions. Some of the decision may involve;
NOTE: One production decision may lead to a series of decisions requiring to be made e.g.
-for a firm to decide on what goods and services to produce, market research to evaluate the likely success of the product is necessary.
-after establishing the viability of the product in the market, other activities like product design are carried out (the firm may consider redesigning existing products, introducing a product similar to the one in the market or developing a completely new product.
-production may then follow
Factors that influence decisions on what goods and services to produce
Certain factors have to be considered before committing a firm into production of either a new product, adopting or redesigning the existing product.
These factors include;
Product oriented firms: This is when the nature of the product itself (its functions and unique qualities) are enough to make sure that the product sells e.g. when cars were first developed, its uniqueness sold it
Market oriented firms; These are firms that produce products that are meant to meet the consumer needs e.g. over time cars are being developed to suit consumer needs.
In order to survive in a competitive market, firms must come up with products that consumers prefer.
Firms may therefore develop products which are not currently available or copy rivals ideas and improve on them
The level of technology has a strong influence on the product that a firm produces
New inventions and innovations often result in new products or improved products
-Improved technology may also reduce the costs of production. This means the same output maybe produced using less factors of production or more output may be produced using the same factors of production.
Senior management have the sole responsibility of deciding on what product to produce. A wrong decision may ruin rather than bailed the enterprise. The manager’s ability to design a viable product is therefore a vital factor in product development
In order to determine whether a product will be viable or not, the cost of production and the expected returns should be considered. Funds may only be approved for the product that promises long term benefits to the firm. So if the benefits of the product outweigh the costs, then such product will be developed and if not so, it will be dropped.
Capital refers to machines, equipment, factories, plants and other human made aids to production.
Both financial and physical capital facilitates the production process. The amount of capital in a business will therefore influence what goods it can produce and in what qualities i.e. a firm with physical capital that is very specific may not be able to produce other type of products e.g. a clothing factory may not be able to produce any other goods such as cement.
Other factors may include;
-Need of the consumers
-Need for better quality or more fashionable product
-Need for an easier to market product
-Unmet needs
-Need for a product for which factors of production and technology are easily available
COST OF PRODUCTION
Def: Cost: This is a payment made to the factors of production for their services.
Production costs thus refers to the expenses incurred in acquiring factors of production (inputs) The sum total of all payments to the factors of production engaged in its production.
Types of production costs:
Example: A student with only sh.50 may have to decide on whether to buy a text book or a pair of shoes. If she decides to buy a text book, the pair of shoes will have to be forgone because it’s not possible to buy both with only sh.500.
The opportunity cost of buying a text book in this case is the cost of the pair of shoes which was abandoned.
Costs may be classified according to their behavior in relation to various levels of output as follows:
These are expenses which do not change with changes in levels of output/quantity of output. These costs therefore remain the same whether the firm is producing anything or not i.e. whether production is maximum or zero.
Examples:
Output (units FC (sh)
100 200
200 200
300 200
400 200
500 200
This may be represented graphically as:
These are costs that vary proportionately with changes in levels of output. This means that when output decreases the variable costs decrease in the same proportion and when output increases, they also increase in the same proportion. If nothing is produced VC=0
Examples;
Output (units) variable cost (shs)
0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800
500 1000
This can be represented graphically as;
These are costs that vary in relation to changes in output but not proportionately e.g. if output doubles, the semi-variable costs might increase by half.
Those production costs that do not fit in either fixed or variable costs are semi-variable costs.
Example
-Thus semi-variable (semi-fixed) costs have both fixed and variable component.
Output (units) cost (sh)
0 4
1 10
2 18
3 24
4 27
5 32
Total cost is the sum of all costs incurred in the production at a given level of output i.e. the sum of fixed and variable costs
Total cost=Fixed costs+ variable costs.
–As output increases total costs will also increase.
Illustration
NOTE: It has been assumed that semi-variable costs are part of fixed and variable costs.
Costs can be classified according to the way they affect the product. They can either be direct or indirect costs.
These are costs that can be physically traced to the final product/process.
Examples
-These costs are also known as prime costs. They are usually variable costs.
Indirect costs (factory overheads)
These are costs which cannot be traced or directly identified in the final product i.e. they cannot be attributed to any specific output.
They also include the costs that appear in such small quantities that their effects are negligible.
Examples:
Indirect costs are also known as overheads. They are usually fixed costs.
Average costs
-Average costs refer to costs per unit output
-It is determined by dividing the total of a particular cost by the total output at each level of output.(They are also known as unit costs)
Types of Average costs
Average fixed cost (AFC) is the total fixed cost at each level of output divided by the total output at that level.
AFC=Total fixed costs
Total units produced
| Output (units) | Fixed costs (sh) | Average fixed costs (AFC) |
| 200 | 200 | |
| 100 | 200 | 2 |
| 200 | 200 | 1 |
| 300 | 200 | 0.66 |
| 400 | 200 | |
| 500 | 200 | |
AVC refers to total variable costs at each level divided by the total units of output produced at that level.
Average variable costs (AVC)=Total variable costs
Total units produced
| Output (units) | Variable costs (sh) | AVC |
| 100 | 200 | 2 |
| 200 | 400 | 2 |
| 300 | 600 | 2 |
| 400 | 800 | 2 |
| 500 | 1000 | 2 |
Average total cost (ATC) is divided by;
ATC=fixed costs variable costs
Total units produced
ATC/AC=AFC+AVC Thus
| Output (units) | Total cost | ATC |
| 100 | 400 | 4 |
| 200 | 600 | 3 |
| 300 | 800 | |
| 400 | 1000 | 2.5 |
| 500 | 1200 | 2.4 |
OR
| Output (units) | Average fixed costs (AFC) (sh) | Average v costs | ATC=AFC+AVC |
| 100 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| 200 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 300 | 0.66 | 2 | 2.66 |
| 400 | 0.5 | 2 | 2.5 |
| 500 | 0.4 | 2 | 2.4 |
(V) MARGINAL COSTS MC
The marginal cost is the change in total cost (ATC) which results from a unit change in output
Marginal cost is the cost of producing one extra unit of output
E.g. when total costs increase from sh.300 to sh.350 when an additional unit is produced, then MC=sh.50
LOCATION OF THE FIRM
Location; is the site or place from which the business operations/firm would be established.
The management has to make appropriate decisions concerning the location of the firm since a good location would lead to success while a bad location would lead to failure of the business enterprise.
Factors determining the location of the firm
The availability of raw materials is one of the factors that determine the location of firms. Firms should be located near the source of raw materials when:
Advantages of locating firm near source of raw materials:
-Transport cost of raw materials is minimized
-production process can run uninterrupted because of constant supply of raw materials thus continuous production
-storage cost of the raw material will be minimized
-It is easier for the firm to select the quality of raw materials required.
-Easier to get fresh raw materials/undamaged raw materials
This is divided into 3 categories; semi-skilled and unskilled labour
-Labour intensive firms must be located in areas where there is both abundant labour force and appropriate labour force.
-Firms requiring labour of any kind maybe located in the urban centres because in such areas labour is in plentiful supply
-Agricultural processing firms are found in the rural areas
-Location of the firms near the source of labour reduces the cost of transporting labour force to factories and also reduces time wasting in transporting labour from far.
A firm may be located near the market for its products to cut down on production costs .i.e to avoid the costs involved in transportation of the finished products.
Reasons locating near markets
-where the finished product is more bulky or more difficult than the raw materials, then the industry would be located near the market e.g. blocks and bricks used in building will be manufactured near the place where they are required than the source of raw materials because the finished product is more delicate to transport and is susceptible to damage.
-it reduces the cost of transporting the products to the market.
-To minimize the damage of the final product
-where the finished product is perishable or fragile, the industry should be located near the market to avoid breackages or spoilage. Examples are commodities like milk or bread which usually go bad very quickly and therefore need to be consumed immediately they are produced.
Efficient transport is the lifeline of modern businesses. Firms will choose those locations that have well-developed transport facilities such as roads, railway lines, seaports and airports because;
Poorly developed transport facilities may lead to:
-High transportation costs especially where raw materials or the finished products are bulky
-Delays in receiving the raw materials and distributing the finished products
-Where communication network is poor, business people will not be able to give or get information in time.
Fuel and power are required to run machines and ensures smooth operations for the business.
Water is required for cleaning, cooling and even as a raw material. They are therefore strong factors in determining the location of a firm i.e. firms that require a lot of power and water need to be located where there is adequate supply of these factors.
The government may formulate policies that may have implications on the location of the firms, especially with regard to physical planning. Such planning may be aimed at checking rural-urban migration, environmental degradation or for strategic concerns.
The government may therefore encourage the development of firms in some areas by offering concessions to industrialists such as:
Other factors:
Proximity to source of credit: Some firms that need credit to finance their operations from time to time might require locating near a reliable source for such funds
Availability of security services: This is an important consideration when deciding where a firm will be located as this has implications in almost all factors of production. Firms will tend to avoid locations that do not have adequate security.
Social amenities: Some firms take into account various activities and institutions that will benefit their employees. Such will include hospitals, schools, social halls or studios.
Availability for ample room for expansion: Businesses will tend to prefer locations that can provide ample room for expansion in future. This will eliminate the need for relocation when the firm experiences expansion
Climate: This is an important factor for agro-based businesses (such as floriculture, horticulture, dairy farming e.t.c) which have to seek locations with suitable climatic conditions
LOCALISATION AND DELOCALIZATION OF FIRMS
LOCALISATION OF FIRMS
Localisation of firms means the concentration of similar firms in one particular area/region.
Subsidiary industries usually develop around the main industries, either to use the by-products of the main industries or to supply them with component parts.
The factors which encourage localization of firms include:
Advantages of localization
Service industries/Ancillary services: It encourages the establishment of support business enterprises e.g. if many firms are located in one region, institutions such as banks, insurance companies and distributors are likely to set up businesses in the area to offer services required
Creation of pool of labour:When industries are concentrated in one area, people tend to migrate to that region in search of employment thus encouraging creation of a pool of labour force. This enables firms to meet their labour force requirements.
Creation of subsidiary industries:Localised firms are likely to attract others which use the finished products of the established firms as raw materials or selling raw materials to the existing firms.
Disposal of waste: Localised firms are able to easily dispose off their waste by either selling them to other firms for recycling or by jointly undertaking waste disposal projects.
Creation of employment: It encourages creation of employment opportunities in the region (it creates interests in the type of labour required thereby leading to creation of employment opportunities.
Development of infrastructure: Concentration of firms in one area encourages development of the necessary infrastructure such as water systems, roads, communication network, health and education facilities in the region
Economies of scale: Firms can combine to employ benefits of large-scale production for the benefits of consumers.
Reduction in costs: Firms that depend on each other for inputs or disposal of outputs are able to save on transport costs when they are located near each other.
Disadvantages of localization
Adverse environmental problems: Concentration of firms in one region may have a negative impact on environment in that region e.g. emissions from factories may cause both air and water pollution; there may also be noise pollution and poor disposal of refuse.
Unbalanced regional development: Localisation of firms may lead to regional imbalance in development. For instance, areas of industrial concentration tend to enjoy provision of social amenities in terms of roads, schools, hospitals and other facilities while other regions suffer. This may cause dissatisfaction among the citizens and disturb national cohesion and unity.
Rural-urban migration:Localisation of industries contributes to rural-urban migration. People migrate from rural to urban regions in search of employment and better living conditions. Such movements may cause;
Possible massive unemployment: A fall in demand of products produced by localized firms would result into a widespread unemployment in the affected area.
Strategic reasons: The concentration of firms in one area is risky for a country especially in times of war or terrorism activities as such are easy targets for attack. This may destroy the country’s industrial base/capability which may take many years to rebuild.
Dependence: Localisation of firms in one area creates an over-dependence on the products of a single industry. In case of a calamity, the supply of the product from the firms may be disrupted, resulting in serious shortages.
Delocalization of firms
Delocalization refers to establishment of firms in different parts of the country as opposed to localization where firms are concentrated in one area.
Delocalization is usually a deliberate government policy of encouraging establishment of firms in various parts of the country, and is applicable under the following circumstances:
-where there is need to curb migration to certain towns
-Due to need to reduce the rate of urban unemployment
-In order to achieve balanced economic development
-As a measure of reducing pollution and social evils in certain urban areas
Advantages of delocalization
Employment creation in many parts of the country: it provides employment opportunities to people living in rural areas thereby improving the peoples living standards and reducing rural-urban migration.
Balanced economic development/balanced regional development: economic development is initiated for many, if not all parts of the country. This promotes national cohesion and unity; and also reduces rural-urban migration.
Market for raw materials: delocalisation creates market for locally produced raw materials thereby creating employment and earning producers income.
Urbanization: This accelerates the rate of urbanizing in many parts of the country, especially to the rural areas.
Service delivery to rural areas/Development of social amenities: It encourages the growth of both social amenities such as hospitals, schools and security firms and infrastructure.
Reduces the effects caused by occurrence of war, terrorism attacks or earthquakes.
Disadvantages
ECONOMIES OF SCALE
Economies of scale are the benefits the firm or industry derives from expanding its scale of production/the advantages of operating on large scale.
There are two types of economies of scale;
These are advantages that accrue to a single firm as its production increases, independent of what happens in the other firms in the industry.
Internal economies of scale result from an increase in the level of output and cannot be realized unless output increases.
The internal economies of scale may be achieved by a single plant of the firm or they may arise from an increase in the number of plants.
The internal economies of scale include:
These are the benefits which a firm derives from large purchases of inputs or factors of production due to the discounts offered in the process e.g. trade and quantity discounts
The firms may also incur less cost per unit in transportation of the goods bought
Selling economies of scale arise from the distribution and sale of the finished product as the scale of production increases, i.e. it is likely to incur less cost per unit in areas such as advertising, distribution e.t.c
Large firms can also raise more funds through selling and buying of shares and debentures.
Diversification of markets or products can be done so that:
-Large scale firms are also able to obtain supplies from alternative sources so that failure in one does not significantly affect the activities of the firm.
Large firms are able to hire/employ specialized staff and management. This increases the firms efficiency and productivity i.e.
-the costs of hiring/employing the specialized staff/management are spread over a large number of units of output of variable cost of production.Thus,the cost of labour is minimized when production increases leading to increased profits.
These are benefits that accrue to a firm from the use of specialized labour and machinery. Large firms have access to large capital which they utilize to obtain those machines and hire the specialized labour.The machines use the latest technology and are put to full use, making the firm production more efficient i.e. cost of the machines and labour are spread over many units of output hence less costly but giving higher profits.
Large firms can afford to carry out research into better methods of production and marketing.(Research is necessary because of the increased competition in the business world today) This improves the quality of the products and increases the sales and profits made by the firm.
Large firms can easily provide social amenities to their employees including recreations, housing, education, canteens and wide range of allowances. These amenities work as incentives to boost the morale of the employees to work harder and increase the quality and quantity of output. This leads to higher sales and profits.
A large sized firm can establish warehouses to stock raw materials and therefore enjoy large stocks of raw materials for use when the raw materials are in short supply.Thus, the firm can avoid production stoppages that can be occasioned by shortages of the raw materials. The suppliers of such material may be sold at a higher price to realize profit.
External economies of scale:
External economies of scale are those benefits which accrue to a firm as a result of growth of the whole industry. They are realized by a firm due to its location near other firms. They include;
Diseconomies of scale
A firm cannot continue to expand indefinitely or without a limit.As a firm grows or industry expands, the benefits the firm can reap or get from such growth or expansion have a limit.
Any further expansion in the scale of production beyond the limit will actually create negative which would increase the cost of production.
The negative effects to a firm due to its size or scale of production are referred to as diseconomies of scale.
Diseconomies of scale are therefore the problems a firm experiences due to expansion.
Sources of diseconomies of scale
Diseconomies of scale may arise from:
There are two forms of diseconomies of scale fiz internal diseconomies and external diseconomies of scale.
Internal diseconomies of scale
These are the problems a firm experiences as a result of large scale production due to its persistent growth. They include;
These are the losses which may arise due to the failure of management to supervise and control the operations properly. This may be because the firm is large resulting into;
These are losses which may arise due to changes in consumer tastes. These may be as a result of;
When the output of a firm increases beyond a certain limit, some factors may set in to increase the average costs.e.g the overhead costs incurred in production and marketing activities may increase. This is because firms may intensify their promotional campaign, incur heavy transport expenses and be forced to offer generous discounts in an effort to attract more clients. All these are factors that may increase overheads without any corresponding increase in real benefits to the firm.
These are losses which may arise due to a firm’s inability to acquire adequate finances for its expansion. This will prevent the firm from expanding further thereby limiting its capacity to increase the volume of its output.
External diseconomies of scale
These are demerits that affirm experiences as a result of growth of the entire industry. These include;
-scramble for raw materials
-unavailability of land for expansion
-scramble for available labour
-competition for available market
-easy targets especially in times of war
Existence of small firms in an economy
As the firm grows in size, its scale of production increases.However, many firms remain small even though they face stiff competition from larger firms. Some of the reasons for existence of small scale firms include;
Large-scale production can only be sustained by a high demand for a product. If the demand for a product is low, it may not be advisable for a firm to produce on a large scale, hence it will remain small.
The nature of the product sometimes makes it impossible to produce in large quantities e.g. personal services e.g. hairdressing, painting or nursing can only be provided by an individual or a small firm.
Small firms have the considerable advantage of simplicity in organization. They avoid bureaucracy, wastage and managerial complexity associated with large scale organizations.
Where a firm intends to take advantage of simplicity, the proprietor may maintain its small firm.
Small firms are flexible i.e. one can easily switch from one business to another where an owner of a business wishes to maintain flexibility so as to take advantage of any new opportunity, he/she may have to maintain a small firm.
In a situation where proprietors want to avoid delay in decision-making, they may opt to maintain a small business as this would involve less consultation.
Many small businesses have the potential of expansion, yet their owners prefer to have them remain small believing that big businesses are difficult to run.
In situations where production costs rise too fast, such that diseconomies of scale set is very early, the firm has to remain small.
In order to retain control and independence, the owners of the firm may wish to keep it small.
In some situations, the laws may restrict the growth of a firm. In such circumstances the existing firms remain small.
As opposed to large scale firms, small firms require little amounts of capital to start and operate.
Implication of production activities on environmental and community health
As production activities take place in a given area, the environment and the health of the community around may be adversely affected by these activities. Some of these effects include:
This is caused by waste which is discharged into the atmosphere leading to contamination of the air. Such waste may be in funs of industrial emissions and toxic chemicals from the firms. These pollutants cause air-borne diseases. Acid rain due to such emission may also affect plants.
PRODUCT MARKET
The term ‘market’ is usually used to mean the place where buyers and sellers meet to transact business. In Business studies, however, the term ‘market’ is used to refer to the interaction of buyers and sellers where there is an exchange of goods and services for a consideration.
NOTE: The contact between sellers and buyers may be physical or otherwise hence a market is not necessarily a place, but any situation in which buying and selling takes place. A market exists whenever opportunities for exchange of goods and services are available, made known and used regularly.
Definition:
-The features are mainly in terms of the number of sellers and buyers and whether the goods sold are homogeneous or heterogeneous
-Product market is also referred to as market structure.
-Markets may be classified according to the number of firms in the industry or the type of products sold in them.
TYPES OF PRODUCT MARKET
The number of firms operating in a particular market will determine the degree of competition that will exist in a given industry. In some markets there are many sellers meaning that the degree of competition is very high, where as in other markets there is no competition because only one firm exists.
When markets are classified according to the degree of competition, there are four main types, these are;
The word ‘perfect’ connotes an ideal situation.
This kind of situation is however very rare in real life; a perfect competition is therefore a hypothetical situation.
This is a market structure in which there are many small buyers and many sellers who produce a homogeneous product. The action of any firm in this market has no effect on the price and output levels in the market since its production is negligible.
Features of Perfect Competition
Firms (suppliers) in such a market structure are therefore price takers i.e. they accept the prevailing market price for their products.
In this market structure, it is assumed that no barrier exists in entering or leaving the industry.
NOTE: The market (perfect competition) has normal demand and supply curves. The individual buyers demand curve is however; perfectly elastic since one can buy all what he/she wants at the equilibrium price. Similarly, the individual sellers supply curve is also perfectly elastic because one can sell all what he/she produces at the equilibrium price.
Perfect competition market hold on the following assumptions;
Examples of perfect competitions are very difficult to get in the real life but some transactions e.g. on the stock exchange market, are very close to this.
Criticism of the concept of perfect competition
In reality, there is no market in which perfect competition exists. This is due to the following factors:
MONOPOLY
A monopoly is a market structure in which only one firm produces a commodity which has no close substitutes.
Some of the features in this market structure are:
Price discrimination may be facilitated by conditions such as;
Market separation may be based on the following factors;
Sources of monopoly power
Advantages of monopoly
Disadvantages of monopoly
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
Monopolistic competition is a market structure that falls within the range of imperfect competition i.e. falls between perfect competition and pure monopoly. It is therefore a market structure that combines the aspects of perfect competition and those of a monopoly.
Since it is not possible to have a market that is perfectly competitive or a market that is pure monopoly in real world, all market structures in real world lie between the two and are thus known as imperfect market structures.
In a monopolistic market, there are many sellers of a similar product which is made to look different. This is known as product differentiation. These similar products are made different through packaging, design, colour, branding e.t.c
The following are the assumptions of a monopolistic competition.
OLIGOPOLY
This is a market structure where there are few firms. The firms are relatively large and command a substantial part of the market. It is a market structure between the monopolistic competition and monopoly.
Types of Oligopoly
Oligopoly may be classified according to the number of firms or the type of products they sell. They include:
Features of oligopoly
This feature explains why a firm in oligopolistic market faces two sets of demand curves resulting to a Kinked Demand Curve. One curve, for prices above the determined one, which is fairly gentle and the other curve for prices below the determined one which is fairly steep.
CHAIN/CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION
Introduction
Costs incurred by middlemen while distributing goods
CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTING VARIOUS PRODUCTS (refer to Inventor book three pages 50 to 53)
ROLES OF MIDDLEMEN
The following are some the roles performed by middlemen in the chain of distribution
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE SELECTING A DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL
Factors that influence the choice of a distribution channel include the following:
Questions
NATIONAL INCOME
This is the total income received by the providers/owners of the factors of production in a given country over a given time period.
Terms used in national income
CIRCULAR FLOW OF INCOME
Assumptions/features of circular flow of income
Factors affecting the circular flow of income
The factors include the following:
Injections
Withdrawals
APPROACHES USED IN MEASURING NATIONAL INCOME
National income is arrived at summing expenditure on all final goods and services (that have reached the final stage of production). Such expenditure is divided into:
Therefore national income = C+I+G+(X – M)
Problems associated with expenditure approach
Problems related to this method
Assignment: Read and make short notes on Output approach (refer to Inventor book three pages 65 – 66).
USES OF NATIONAL INCOME STATISTICS
put their money. The statistics provide relevant information concerning the performance of each sector.
Factors which influences the level of national income.
Reasons why high per capita income is not an indicator of a better living standard in a country
Questions
THE CASHBOOKS AND THE LEDGER
The cash book
This is a special ledger which is used to record cash and cheque transactions.
It contains only the cash in hand and cash at bank (i.e. cash and bank) accounts
This ledger is used to record business expenses and incomes (gains). It contains all the nominal accounts.
This ledger is used in recording private accounts i.e. confidential and valuable fixed assets and the personal accounts of the proprietors such as capital accounts and drawing accounts.
The general ledger contains all other accounts that are not kept in any other ledger e.g. buildings, furniture and stock accounts.
-Personal accounts of debtors or creditors who do not arise out of sale or purchase of goods on credit are found in the general ledger e.g. debtors as a result of sale of fixed asset on credit and expense creditors.
These are accounts that the business considers to be confidential and are not availed to everybody except the management and the owners.
-These accounts may be personal or impersonal.
-They include capital account, drawings accounts, trading, profit and loss accounts.
Types of ledgers
The following are the main types of ledgers that are used to keep the various accounts
This is the ledger in which accounts of individual debtors are kept.
-It is used to record the value of goods sold on credit and the customers to whom the credit sales are made, hence contains the personal names of the debtors.
-It is called a sales ledger because the accounts of debtors kept herein are as a result of sale of goods on credit. An account is kept for each customer to which is debited the value of credit sale. Payment made by the debtor are credited to the account and debited in the cash book.
The purchases ledger contains accounts of creditors i.e. contains the records of the value of goods bought on credit and the suppliers of such goods.
It is a record of the debts payable by the business due to credit purchases.
An account is kept for each creditor to the credit side of which is posted the value of.
This category of ledger accounts includes all other accounts that are not personal in nature e.g. buildings, purchases, rent, sales and discounts received.
Impersonal accounts fall into two types
These accounts are also used to draw up the balance sheet.
-All expenses, revenues, sales and purchases are hence nominal accounts.
-The main business expenses include purchases,sales,returns,insurance,stationary,repairs,depreciation,heating,discount allowed, lighting interests,printing,wages,rent,rates and advertising.
The value of losses is included in the same side as the expenses when drawing up the final accounts though it is not an expense.
-The income (revenues) include sales,returns,claims out, interest receivable, dividends receivable and commission receivable. Profit is usually categorised together with these incomes when drawing up the final accounts.
Classification of ledger accounts
Many businesses handle few transactions, hence they have few records to keep. Their accounts can thus be kept in a single ledger referred to as the general ledger
As a business grows the volume of transactions increases. This single ledger, therefore, becomes very bulky with accounts and it becomes difficult to make reference to it.
In order to simplify the recording of transactions and facilitate reference to the accounts, ledger accounts are usually classified and each category kept in a special ledger.
NOTE (i) Since many transactions are cash transactions which are normally recorded in the bank and cash accounts a need arises to remove them from the main/general ledger to a separate ledger called the cash book.
(ii) The number of ledgers kept depends on the size of the business.
Classes of accounts
All accounts can be classified into either personal or impersonal accounts.
-These are account of persons
-They relate to personal, companies or associations.
-They are mainly accounts of debtors and creditors.
NOTE: capital account is the proprietors personal account, showing the net worth of the business hence it is a personal account.
-The account balances of these accounts are used to draw up the balance sheet.
-In the ledger, the trial balance total is not affected.
Purpose of a trial balance
The purpose of a trial balance include:
i-The rule of double entry has been adhered to or observed/ complied with.
ii-There are arithmetical errors in the ledger accounts
Limitations of a trial balance
Even when the trial balance totals are equal, it does not mean that there are no errors made in the ledgers. This is because there are some errors that do not affect the trial balance.
A trial balance only assures the book keeper that the total of debit entries is equal to total credit entries. The errors that do not affect the trial balances are:
Dr.sales a/c
Cr.Lydius a/c instead of
Dr.Lydius a/c
Cr.sales a/c
TRIAL BALANCE
-A trial balance is a statement prepared at a particular date showing all the debit balances on one column and all the credit balances on another column.
NOTE: A trial balance is not an account but merely a list of assets, expenses and losses on the left and capital liabilities and incomes (including profits) on the right.
-The totals of a trial balance should agree if the double entry has been carried out correctly and there are no arithmetic errors both in the ledger as well as in the trial balance itself.
-If the two sides of a trial balance are not equal, it means there is an error or errors either in the trial balance or in the ledger accounts or in both.
Errors that may cause a trial balance not to balance
BUSINESS STUDIES FORM FOUR NOTES
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
These are prepared at the end of a given trading period to determine the profit and losses of the business, and also to show the financial position of the business at a given time.
They includes; trading account, profit and loss account, trading profit and loss account and the balance sheet.
They are also referred to as the final statements.
The trading period is the duration through which the trading activities are carried out in the business before it decides to determines it performances in terms of profit or loss. It may be one week, month, six months or even a year depending on what the owner wants.
Most of the business use one year as their trading period. It is also referred to as the accounting period.
At the end of the accounting period, the following takes place;
Determining the profit or loss of a business
When a business sells its stock above the buying price/cost of acquiring the stock, it makes a profit, while if it sells below it makes a loss. The profit realized when the business sell it stock beyond the cost is what is referred to as the gross profit, while if it is a loss then it is referred to as a gross loss.
It is referred to as the gross profit /loss because it has not been used to cater for the expenses that may have been incurred in selling that stock, such as the salary of the salesman, rent for the premises, water bills, etc. it therefore implies that the businessman cannot take the whole gross profit for its personal use but must first deduct the total cost of all other expenses that may have been incurred.
The profit realized after the cost of all the expenses incurred has been deducted is what becomes the real profit for the owner of the business, and is referred to as Net profit. The net profit can be determined through calculation or preparation of profit and loss account.
In calculating the gross profit, the following adjustments are put in place
Therefore Net sales = Sales – Return inwards
Therefore Net Purchases = Purchases + Carriage inwards – Return Outwards – Drawings
Gross profit is therefore calculated as follows;
Gross Profit = Sales – Return inwards – (Opening stock + Purchases + carriage inwards – Return outwards – Closing stock)
Or
Gross profit = Net sales – Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)
COGS = Opening Stock + Net Purchases – Closing stock
Net Profit = Gross profit – Total expenses
Trading Account
This is prepared by the business to determine the gross profit/loss during that trading period
It takes the following format:
Name of the business
Trading Account
Dr For the period (date) Cr
| Shs Shs
Opening stock xxxxxx add Purchases xxxxx add Carriage inwards xxx less Return Outwards xxx less Drawings xx xxxxx Goods available for sale xxxxxx Less Closing Stock xxx Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS) xxxxxx Gross profit c/d xxxx xxxxxx
|
Shs Shs
Sales xxxxxx Less Return inwards xxx Net sales xxxxxx
xxxxxx Gross profit b/d xxxx |
The trading account is completed by the time the gross profit b/d is determined
For example
The following balances were obtained from the books of Ramera Traders for the year ending may 31st 2010
Sales 670 000
Purchases 380 000
Return inwards 40 000
Carriage outwards 18 000
Return outwards 20 000
Carriage inwards 10 000
Additional information:
Required; Prepare Ramera Traders trading account for the period ending 31st May
2010
Ramera Traders
Trading Account
Dr For the period ending 31/5/2010 Cr
| Shs Shs
Opening stock 60 000 add Purchases 380 000 add Carriage inwards 10 000 less Return Outwards 20 000 less Drawings 5 000 365 000 Goods available for sale 425 000 Less Closing Stock 70 000 Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS)355,000 Gross profit c/d 275,000 630,000
|
Shs Shs
Sales 670 000 Less Return inwards40 000 Net sales 630 000
630 000 Gross profit b/d 275 000 |
NB:Carriage outwards is not an item of Trading account, but profit and loss account as an expense.
Importance of Trading account
Profit and Loss account
In preparation of this account, the gross profit is brought down on the credit sides, with all other revenues/income of the business being credited and the expenses together with the net profit being debited. Net profit = Total Revenues (including Gross Profit) – Total expenses
Name of the business
Profit and Loss Account
Dr For the period (date) Cr
| Shs
Expenses Insurance xxx Electricity xxx Water bills xxx Carriage Outwards xxx General expenses xxx Provision for Depreciation xxxx Discount allowed xxx Commission allowed xxxx Rent paid xxxx Any other expense xxxx Net profit c/d xxxx xxxxxx
|
Shs
Gross profit b/d xxxxxx Discount received xxx Rent income xxx Commission received xxx Any other income received xxx
xxxxxx Net profit b/d xxxx |
The Profit and Loss Account is complete when net profit b/d is obtained. In the trial balance, the revenues/incomes are always credited, while the expenses are debited, and the same treatment is found in the Profit and Loss Account. (Any item that is taken to the Profit and Loss Account with a balance appearing in the Debit (Dr) side of a trial balance is treated as an expense, while those appearing in the Credit (Cr) side are revenue e.g. discount balance appearing in the Dr Side is Discount Allowed, while the one on Cr side is Discount Received)
For example
The following information relates to Akinyi’s Traders for the period ending March 28th 2010. Use it to prepare profit and loss account.
Gross profit 100 000 Discount received 12 000
Salaries and wages 20 000 Power and lighting 10 000
Opening stock 150 000 Rent income 10 000
Commission allowed 15 000 Commission received 16 000
Repairs 10 000 Discount allowed 8 000
Provision for depreciation 6 000 Carriage outwards 4 000
Akinyi Traders
Profit and Loss Account
Dr For the period ending 28th March 2010 Cr
| Shs
Expenses Power and lighting 10 000 Carriage Outwards 4 000 Salaries and wages 20 000 Provision for Depreciation 6 000 Discount allowed 8 000 Commission allowed 15 000 Repairs 10 000 Net profit c/d 65 000 138 000
|
Shs
Gross profit b/d 100 000 Discount received 12 000 Rent income 10 000 Commission received 16 000
138 000 Net profit b/d 65 000 |
In case the expenses are more than the income, then the business shall have made a net loss, and the loss will be credited.
Net profit/loss can also be found through calculation as follows;
Net profit/loss = Gross profit + Total other revenues – Total expenses
For the above example;
Total other revenues = 12 000 + 10 000 + 16 000= 38 000
Total expenses = 10 000 + 4 000 + 20 000 + 6 000 + 8 000 + 15 000 + 10 000
= 73 000
Therefore; Net profit = Gross profit + Total other revenues – Total expenses
= 100 000 + 38 000 – 73 000= 65 000
Importance of Profit and Loss account
Trading, Profit and Loss Account
This is the combination of trading account and trading profit and loss account to form a single document. It ends when the net profit/loss brought down has been determined. That is;
Name of the business
Trading, Profit and Loss Account
Dr For the period (date) Cr
| Shs Shs
Opening stock xxxxxx add Purchases xxxxx add Carriage inwards xxx less Return Outwards xxx less Drawings xx xxxxx Goods available for sale xxxxxx Less Closing Stock xxx Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS) xxxxxx Gross profit c/d xxxx Xxxxxx
Expenses Insurance xxx Electricity xxx Water bills xxx Carriage Outwards xxx General expenses xxx Provision for Depreciation xxxx Discount allowed xxx Commission allowed xxxx Rent paid xxxx Any other expense xxxx Net profit c/d xxxx xxxxxx
|
Shs Shs
Sales xxxxxx Less Return inwards xxx Net sales xxxxxx
xxxxxx Gross profit b/d xxxx
Discount received xxx Rent income xxx Commission received xxx Any other income received xxx
xxxxxx Net profit b/d xxxx |
End Year Adjustments
The following items may require to be adjusted at the end of the trading period
Adjustment on revenues
The revenue may have been paid in advance in part or whole (prepaid revenue) or may be paid later after the trading period (accrued revenue).
Prepaid revenue is subtracted from the revenue/income to be received and the difference is what is treated in the profit and loss account or trading profit and loss account as an income, while the accrued revenue is added to the revenue/income to be received and the sum is what is treated in the above accounts as the actual revenue.
Only the prepaid amount and the accrued amounts are what are then taken to the balance sheet.
Adjustment on the expenses
The expenses may have been paid for in advance in part or whole (prepaid expenses) or may be paid for later after the trading period (accrued expenses).
Prepaid expenses is subtracted from the expenses to be paid for and the difference is what is treated in the profit and loss account or trading profit and loss account as an expense, while the accrued expenses is added to the expenses to be paid for and the sum is what is treated in the above accounts as the actual expenses.
NB: Only the prepaid amount and the accrued amounts are what are then taken to the balance sheet.
Adjustment on fixed assets
The fixed assets may decrease in value, due to tear and wear. This makes the value to go down over time, what is referred to as depreciation. The amount of depreciation is always estimated as a percentage of cost.
The amount that shall have depreciated is treated in the profit and loss account or T,P&L as an expense, while the value of the asset is recorded in the balance sheet, less depreciation.
For example;
Dr. (shs) Cr. (shs)
Sales 980,000
Purchases 600,000
Returns 80,000 20 000
Carriage in 40,000
Carriage out 3,000
Stock (Jan 1st 1999) 120,000
Rent 60,000 45 000
Discount 15,000 25 000
Motor vehicle 150 000
Machinery 250 000
Debtors 120,000
Salaries 18,000
Commission 7,000 12 000
Capital 178,000
Insurance 15 000
Creditors 240,000
Cash 122 000
1 540 000 1 540 000
Additional information
Required: Prepare trading profit and loss account for the period ending 31st December 1999
Adjustments: Provision for depreciation;
Machinery = = 7 500
(New balance of machinery = 250 000 – 7 500 = 242 500. The 242 500 is taken to the balance as Machinery (fixed asset), while 7 500 is taken to the trading profit and loss account as expenses)
Motor vehicle = = 15 000
(New balance of Motor Vehicle = 150 000 – 15 000 = 135 000. The 135 000 is taken to the balance as Motor Vehicle (fixed asset), while 15 000 is taken to the trading profit and loss account as expenses)
Paka Traders
Trading, Profit and Loss Account
Dr For the period 31/12/1995 Cr
| Shs Shs
Opening stock 120 000 add Purchases 600 000 add Carriage inwards40 000 less Return Outwards20 000 620 000 Goods available for sale 740 00 Less Closing Stock 100 000 Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS)640 000 Gross profit c/d 260 000 900 000 Expenses Insurance 15000 Carriage Outwards 30000 Salaries 18 000 Provision for Depreciation Motor vehicle 15 000 Machinery 7 500 22500 Discount allowed 15 000 Commission allowed 7 000 Rent paid 60 000 Net profit c/d 174 500 342 000
|
Shs Shs
Sales 980 000 Less Return inwards 80 000 Net sales 900 000
900 000 Gross profit b/d 260 000 Discount received 25 000 Rent income 45 000 Commission received 12 000
342 000 Net profit b/d 174 500 |
The net profit/loss may be taken to the balance sheet.
The items that have been adjusted will be recorded in the balance sheet less the adjustment.
The Balance Sheet
The balance sheet will show the business financial position in relation to assets, capital and liabilities. The adjustment that can be made will be on Fixed assets and capital only. That is;
Fixed assets are recorded less their depreciation value (should there be provision for depreciation) as the actual value.
Actual value of assets = Old value – depreciation.
Capital is adjusted with the following; Net capital, Drawings and additional investment. i.e.
Closing Capital/Net capital (C.C) = Opening/initial capital (O.C) + Additional Investment (I) + Net profit (N.P) or (less Net Loss) – Drawings
CC = OC + I + NP – D
Where:
Opening Capital: – the capital at the beginning of the trading period
Closing capital: – the capital as at the end of the trading period
Additional Investment: – any amount or asset that the owner adds to the business during the trading period
Net profit: – the profit obtained from the trading activities during the period. In case of a loss, it is subtracted.
Types of Capital
The capital in the business can be classified as follows:
Working Capital = Total Current Assets – Total Current Liabilities
Capital Employed = Total Fixed assets + Working Capital
Or
Capital employed = Capital Invested + Long term liabilities
Name of the business
Balance Sheet
As at (date)
| Shs shs
Fixed Assets Land xxxxx Buildings xxxxx Motor Vehicle xxxxx Any other fixed assets xxxxx xxxxxx Current Assets Stock xxxx Debtors xxxx Bank xxxx Cash xxxx Prepaid Expenses xxxx Accrued revenues xxxx Any other current assets xxxx xxxxxx
xxxxxx |
Shs shs
Capital xxxxx Add Net profit xxxx Add additional investt xxx Less drawings xxx Net Capital xxxxx Long term liabilities Long term loan xxxx Any other xxxx xxxx Current liabilities Creditors xxxx Short term loan xxxx Accrued expenses xxxx Prepaid revenues xxxx Any other xxxx xxxxx xxxxxx |
Example 00A: The following information were extracted from the trial balance of Mwema traders on 31st December 2010
Sales 750 000 Furniture 288 000
Purchases 540 000 Electricity expenses 16 000
Sales return 24 000 Motor vehicle 720 000
Return outwards 30 000 Rent expenses 2 500
General expenses72 000 Capital 842 500
Commission received 24 000 Bank Loan 250 000
Cash 156 000 Creditors 216 000
Debtors 244 000
Additional Information
-Motor Vehicle 15% p.a. on cost -Furniture 6% p.a. on cost
Required
-Owner’s equity -Borrowed capital -Working capital -Capital employed
Adjustments:
Motor Vehicle = = 108 000
Therefore Motor vehicle = 612 000
Furniture = = 17 280
Therefore furniture = 270 720
Mwema Traders
Trading, Profit and Loss Account
Dr For the period 31/12/2010 Cr
| Shs Shs
Purchases 540 000 less Return Outwards30 000 510 000 Goods available for sale 510 000 Less Closing Stock 72 000 Cost Of Goods Sold (COGS)438 000 Gross profit c/d 288 000 726 000 Expenses General expenses 72 000 Electricity expenses 16 000 Less Electricity prepaid 4 000 12 000
Rent expenses 2 500 Accrued rent exp 3 500 6 000
Provision for Depreciation Motor vehicle 108 000 Furniture 17 280 125 280 Net profit c/d 96 720 312 000
|
Shs Shs
Sales 750 000 Less Return inwards 24 000 Net sales 726 000
726 000 Gross profit b/d 288 000 Commission received 24 000
312 000 Net profit b/d 96 720 |
Mwema Traders
Balance Sheet
As at 31/12/2010
| Shs shs
Fixed Assets Motor Vehicle 612 000 Furniture 270 720 882 720
Current Assets Stock 72 000 Debtors 244 000 Electricity prepaid 4 000 Bank 50 000 Cash 156 000 526 000
1 408 720 |
Shs shs
Capital 842 500 Add Net profit 96 720 Net Capital 939 220
Long term liabilities Bank Loan 250 000
Current liabilities Creditors 216 000 Accrued rent 3 500 219 500
1 408 720 |
Basic Financial Ratios
A ratio is an expression of one item in relation to the other. It is used to compare the groups of related items in the business, for the purpose of assessing the performance of the business. They include:
This is the comparison of gross profit as a percentage of cost of goods sold. i.e.
Mark-up =
= 100
For example: in (example OOA) above, determine the mark-up of the business.
Mark-up =
Gross profit = 288 000
COGS = 438 000
Mark-up = 100
= 65.75%
(This implies that the Gross profit of the business is 65.75% of its cost of goods sold)
This is the expression of the gross profit as a percentage of net sales. That is:
Margin =
= 100
For example: in (example OOA) above, determine the margin of the business
Margin =
Gross profit = 288 000
Net sales = 726 000
= 100
= 39.67%
(This implies that the gross profit of the business is 39.67% of the net sales)
Relationship between margin and mark-up
Since margin and mark-up are all the expression of Gross profit, it is possible to change one to the other.
Mark-up can be changed to margin as follows:
If the mark-up fraction =
Margin fraction =
For example: in the above example,
Mark –up = 65.75%
=
=
Margin fraction =
= x 100
= 39.67%
If the margin fraction =
Mark-up fraction =
For example: in the above example,
Margin = 39.67%
=
=
Mark-up fraction =
= x 100
= 65.75%
This is the ratio of the current assets to current liabilities. It can also be expressed as a percentage. That is:
Current ratio =
= current assets: current liabilities
Or
Current ratio = x 100
For examples: in (example OOA) above, determine the current ratio;
Current assets = 526 000
Current liabilities = 219 500
Current ratio =
= = 1052: 439
Or
= x 100
239.64%
This is the rate at which the stock is bought or sold within a given period of time. It is obtained by;
Rate of stock turnover (ROST) =
Average stock =
In (example OOA) above, determine the rate of stock turnover;
The cost of goods sold = 438 000
The closing stock = 72 000
The opening stock = 0
Therefore
The average stock =
= = 36 000
Rate of stock turnover (ROST) =
=
= 12.17 Times
This is the expression of net profit as a percentage of the capital invested. That is;
Return on capital = x 100
It can be given as a ratio or a percentage.
For example: in (example OOA) above, determine the return on capital of the business
Net Profit = 96 720
Capital invested/owner’s equity = 939 220
Return on capital = x 100
= x 100
= 10.33%
This shows how fast the business can convert its current assets excluding stock to settle its current liabilities. That is;
Quick ratio =
It is given in ratio form.
For example: in above (example OOA), determine the quick ratio;
Current assets = 526 000
Stock = 72 000
Current liabilities = 219 500
Quick ratio =
=
= 2.07 (or 207 : 100)
Importance of Financial Ratios
MONEY AND BANKING
Barter trade
This is a form of trade where goods and services are exchanged for other goods and services.
Benefits
Limitations of Barter trade
MONEY SYSTEM
Money is anything that is generally accepted and used as a medium of exchange for goods and services.
Features/ characteristics of Money
For anything to serve as money, it must have the following characteristics:
Functions of Money
DEMAND FOR MONEY
This is the tendency or desire by an individual or general public to hold onto money instead of spending it. It also refers to as liquidity preference.
Money is held by people in various forms:
REASONS (MOTIVES) FOR HOLDING MONEY
The transaction motive can further be divided to;
The amount of money held for this motive will depend on the factors such as:
SUPPLY OF MONEY
This is the amount of money/ monetary items that are in circulation in the economy at a particular period of time. They include the following;
Factors influencing supply of money
BANKING
This is the process by which banks accept deposit from the public for safe keeping and lending out the deposits in form of loans.
A bank is a financial institution that accepts money deposits from the public for safe keeping and lending out in terms of loans.
COMMERCIAL BANKS
These are financial institutions that offer banking services with a profit motive. Their activities are regulated by the Central bank.
Functions of commercial banks
TYPES OF ACCOUNTS OFFERED BY COMMERCIAL BANKS
This is an account where money deposited can be withdrawn on demand by the customer by means of a cheque. This means that money can be withdrawn at any time during the official working hours so long as the account has sufficient funds.
This account is also referred to as demand deposits.
Features characteristics of current accounts
Advantages of current account
Disadvantages of current account
This is an account operated by individuals and firms that have money to save.
Features of Savings account
Advantages of Savings account
Disadvantages Savings account
Requirements for opening an account
The following are some of the requirements for opening either a current account or a savings account:
NB: Once these requirements are fulfilled, the bank allocates the customer an account number, upon payment of an initial deposit.
This account is also known as time Deposit account. It is maintained by those who have money not meant for immediate use.
Once money is deposited, there are no withdrawals until the time expires.
Advantages of Fixed deposit account
Disadvantages of Fixed deposit account
REQUIREMENTS TO OPEN AND OPERATE A BANK ACCOUNT
NON- BANK FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
These are financial institutions that offer finances for development purposes to individuals and organizations.
These institutions address themselves to the needs of specific sectors in the economy.
They offer the finances inform of either short term or long term loans.
The following are some of the non-bank financial institutions in Kenya
They are mainly formed to finance housing activities that is they either put up houses and sell to the individuals or offer mortgage finance to those who wish to put up their own houses. They includes Housing Finance Corporation of Kenya (HFCK), National Housing Corporation (NHC)
These are development banks which are formed mainly to provide medium term and long term finances, especially to the manufacturing sector. They perform the following functions
They includes the following Kenya Industrial Estates (KIE), Development Finance Company of Kenya (DFCK), Industrial Development Bank (IDB), Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation (ICDC)
These are co-operative societies that are formed to enable members save and obtain loans at most conveniently and favorable conditions. They are formed by those engaged in similar activities. They includes: Mwalimu Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies; Afya Savings and Credit societies; Harambee Savings and Credit Societies
These are companies that assist in creating confidence and sense of security to their clients as well as offering financial assistance to their clients. Their functions include;
They includes the following: Stallion Insurance Company; Madison insurance company; Blue shield insurance company
These are financial companies formed to provide small scale and medium size enterprises with finance. They also carry out the following functions
They includes the following: Kenya Women finance Trust (KWFT), Faulu Kenya
These are institutions formed to promote the agricultural sector. They carry out the following
Differences between commercial banks and non-bank financial institutions
| Commercial Banks | Non-Bank Financial Institutions |
| (i) Offer all types of accounts
(ii) Provide both short term and medium term finances to their customers (iii) Their finance is not restricted to any sector (iv) May offer foreign exchange services (v) Their finance is mainly for working capital (vi) Participate in clearing house as they offer cheque (vii) Offer facilities for safe keeping of valuable items such as title deeds (viii) Always in direct control of the central bank (ix) May offer overdraft facilities to their customers |
(i) Offer only two types of accounts savings and fixed deposit
(ii) Mainly provide medium term and long term finances (iii) Their finance is restricted to a particular sector (iv) Do not provide foreign exchange services (v) They provide capital for development (vi) Do not participate in clearing house since they don’t offer (vii) Do not offer facilities for safe keeping of valuable items (viii) Not usually in direct control of the central bank (ix) Do not offer overdraft facilities to their customers
|
THE CENTRAL BANK
This is a bank established by the government through the act of the parliament to manage and control the monetary matters in the country. It was formed to perform the following functions;
Monetary policy refers to the deliberate move by the government through the central bank to manipulate the supply and cost of money in the economy in order to achieve a desirable economic outcome. They do this through the use of various tools of monetary policies which includes the following: Bank rates; Open market Operation (OMO); Cash Liquidity ratio requirement; Compulsory deposit requirement; Selective credit control; Directives; Request.
They may increase or decrease the interest rate at which they lend to the commercial banks to enable them increase or decrease the rate at which they lend money to their customers in the economy to enable the government achieve the desirable economic development in the country
When they increase their lending interest rate, the commercial banks also raise their lending rates to the consumers to reduce the number of people obtaining loans, leading to a reduction of money supplied in the economy.
When they decrease their lending interest rate, the commercial banks also decreases their lending rates to the consumers, increase the amount of money supplied in the economy
This is where they regulate the supply of money in the economy by either selling or buying the government securities (treasury bills or bonds) in the open market. That is when they want to increase the supply in the economy, they buying the securities from the members of the public who had bought them to increase more supply of money in the economy.
When they want to reduce the amount of money in circulation they will sell the government security to the public in the open market, to mop up/reduce the excess supply in the economy
The payment of the securities takes money from the individuals accounts in the commercial banks, reducing the amount that the individual can use in the economy, while when buying the central bank pays the security holders in their respective accounts in the commercial banks, increasing the amount that they can use in the economy
Here the central bank expect the commercial bank to keep a certain proportion of their total deposits in form of cash to enable them meet their daily needs, while the rest are held in liquid assets. This proportion can be reduced by the central bank to reduces the amount of money held by the commercial banks in order to reduce the amount of money spent by the commercial banks in cash, reducing the amount of money in supply, or they may increase the proportion to be held by the commercial banks to enable them increase the amount of money they spent in cash, increasing the amount of money in supply
Cash ratio =
The commercial banks are required to maintain a certain amount of deposits with the central bank which will be held in a special account where the money stays frozen. This reduces the amount of money that the commercial banks hold and are able to spend in their operation, influencing the supply of money in the economy.
The deposit may be increase to reduce the amount of money in the commercial banks, or reduced to increase the amount of money in the commercial banks
The central bank may issue a special instruction to the commercial bank and other financial institution only to lend more in a particular sector to control the amount of money reaching the economy. The instruction may be removed, if the bank feels that the supply in the economy has reduced and needs to be increased
The central bank may issue a directive to the commercial banks on the interest rate they should charge on their lending and to increase or reduce the margin requirement for borrowing to make it harder or easier for the customers to obtain loan.
Margin requirement is the proportion of money expected to be raised by the client to finance the project he/she wants to obtain the loan for, before being given a loan to complete the project with.
The central bank may appeal to other financial institutions to exercise restrain in their lending activities to the public to help in controlling the money supply
Trends in Banking
These are the positive changes that have taken place in the banking sector to improve their service deliveries to their customers. They include;
Advantages of m-banking
However this development has also come with its challenges, which includes:
Disadvantages of m-banking
Agency banking is whereby a retail stores, supermarket, or any other commercial businesses are authorized by the financial institutions to carry out financial transactions on their behalf. They may offer the following services
Advantages of agency banking
REVISION EXERCISES
PAPER 1
| Description | Type of account | |
| (a) | Account holders required to deposit a specific initial amount as well as maintaining a minimum balance. | |
| (b) | Account holders may deposit and withdraw money whenever they want without maintaining a minimum balance. | |
| (c) | Banks pay interest on deposit at comparatively higher rates. | |
| (d) | Money may be deposited at any time and interest is earned if a specific balance is maintained. |
PAPER 2
Financial institutions
The country
Conditions that he should satisfy before the bank can grant him the loan
PUBLIC FINANCE
Public finance refers to the activities carried out by the government associated with raising of finances and the spending of the finances raised (it is the study of how government collects revenue and how it spends it)
The components of public finance are;
Purpose of public finance
Sources of public finance
There are two major sources of public finance i.e.
g.Public debt (Government borrowing)-This is the money that the government borrows when public revenue is insufficient to meet all its financial obligations.
Government borrowing is also referred to as national debt. It includes all outstanding borrowing by the central government, local authorities and government corporations.
These are two majorly two sources of public debts:
This refers to borrowing by government from firms and individuals within the country. This may be done through:
Open market operation; the government sells its securities such as treasury bonds and treasury bills. This however has a disadvantage of causing ‘crowding out effect’ where the government leaves the private investors with little to borrow from.
This refers to government borrowing from external sources. It may either be on a bilateral or multilateral basis.
Bilateral borrowing is where the government borrows directly from another country.
Multilateral borrowing is where the government borrows from international financial institutions such as international monetary fund (IMF), World Bank, African Development bank e.t.c.such bodies get finances from various sources which they lend to their member countries who are in need of such funds.
Generally, external borrowing has strings attached. The borrowing country is expected to meet some set conditions, sometimes adversely affecting some sectors of the economy.
The total internal borrowing (internal debt) added to the total external borrowing (external debt) constitutes the national debt.
Classes of public (National debt)
These are two classes of national debt:
This is borrowed money used to finance project(s) that can generate revenue. Such projects, once started may become self sustaining and may contribute towards servicing/repaying the debt. E.g. money used to finance irrigation schemes, electricity production e.t.c.
This is borrowed money that is used to finance activities that do not generate any revenue. Examples are money used to finance recurrent expenditure e.g. payment of salaries or for famine relief e.t.c
Dead-weight debt is a burden to members of the public since they are the ones who are expected to contribute towards its repayment.
Factors to consider before the government decides whether to borrow internally or externally
This refers to how the government spends the finances it has raised on behalf of its citizens.
Categories of government expenditure
This refers to government spending that takes place regularly e.g. payments of salaries to civil servants, fuelling of government vehicles e.g.
Every financial year, the government must allocate funds to meet such expenditure.
Recurrent expenditure is also known as consumption expenditure.
This is also referred to as capital expenditure .It is government spending on projects that facilitate economic development. Such projects includes construction of railway lines, roads, airports, rural electrification e.t.c
Once completed expenditure on such projects ceases and may only require maintenance.
This is expenditure on things/people who do not directly contribute to a country’s national income. Such expenditure include money spent on famine relief, pension, bursaries e.t.c
PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC/GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
These are the considerations that are necessary before any expenditure can be incurred by the government.
They include:
TAXATION
Tax: is a compulsory payment by either individuals or organizations to the government without any direct benefit to the payer.
Taxation-refers to the process through which the government raises revenue by collecting taxes.
Purposes/reasons for taxation
Factors that determine the amount of money raised through taxation
Principles of taxation
These are the characteristics that a good tax system should have. They are also referred to as the cannons of taxation.
A good tax system should be;
Horizontal equity means that those at the same level of income and circumstances should pay the same amount of tax.
Vertical equity means that those earning higher incomes should pay proportionately higher amounts of tax than those earning less.
IMPACT AND INCIDENCE OF TAX
Impact of tax: The burden of tax on the initial person
Incidence of tax: The final resting place of the tax burden.
The person on whom tax is initially imposed may either bear the whole burden or pass part or the whole burden to someone else. E.g. for manufactured goods, the impact of the tax is on the manufacturer and the manufacturer may pass the incidence of the tax to the consumer.
If the manufacturer only passes part of the burden to the consumer, then the incidence of the tax wil be partly on the manufacturer and partly on the consumer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TAXES
Taxes are classified according to;
In this case, taxes are classified according to the relationship between the amount paid on tax and the income of the tax payer. These are:
This is a type of tax where the rate/amount paid increases proportionately with increase in income.e.g tax may be as follows
Income Rate
0-5000 20%
5001-10000 25%
10001-15000 30% e.t.c
-In progressive tax, those with higher income rates remit a higher proportion of their income as tax compared to those in lower income brackets.
This type of tax is based on the belief that one only needs a certain amount in order to have a decent standard of living.
Advantages of progressive tax
Disadvantages of progressive tax
This is a type of tax that takes a higher proportion of low income earners as compared to high income earners. The fax burden falls more heavily on the poor (opposite of progressive)
Example: sales tax where people pay the same amount irrespective of the level of income.
The assumption is based on the understanding that the one who deems it necessary to buy a certain products considers the utility derived from it to be equal to its price, which includes tax.
This is a type of tax where the rate of tax remains the same irrespective of the level of income or value of property to be taxed e.g. if the rate is 20% then a person who earns ksh.5000 will pay 20/100 x5000=ksh.1000
Ksh.10, 000 will pay 20/100×10,000=ksh.2000 e.t.c
Example: corporation tax where companies are expected to pay a fixed proportion of their profits as tax.
This is a type of tax where the tax rate increases up to a given maximum after which a uniform tax rate is levied for any further income.
Classification according to impact on the tax-payee
Based on the impact, the tax has on the tax payer; tax may be classified as either:
These are taxes where the impact and the incidence of the tax are on the same person. It is not possible to shift/pass any part of the tax burden to anybody else.
This type of tax is based on incomes, profits and property of individuals as well as companies.
They include:
This is a tax that is imposed on incomes of individuals and is usually progressive in nature.
Example pay-As You-Earn (PAYE) for salaries.
In most cases it is paid through check-off system where the employer deducts it from the employee’s salary and remits it to the tax authorities.
This is tax levied on profits of companies. It is usually proportional in nature.
This is tax paid in areas such as conveyance of land or securities from one person to another.
This type of tax is imposed on property transferred after the owners’ death. The tax helps in raising government revenue and also in redistributing income since the inheritor has not worked for it.
This is tax levied on personal wealth beyond a certain limit.
This is tax levied on gains realized when a fixed asset is sold at a price higher than the book value.
This is tax imposed on the value of property transferred from one person to another as a gift. The tax is designed to seal loopholes whereby a wealthy person may try to avoid tax by transferring his/her property to a friend or a relative as a gift.
This type of tax is progressive in nature. It however does not affect transfers between spouses or to charitable organizations.
Merits/advantages of direct taxes
It can also be raised or reduced according to the needs of the economy.
DEMERITS OF DIRECT TAX
These are taxes in which the impact is on one person and the incidence is partially or wholly on another person. The tax payer may shift either the whole or part of the tax burden to another person.
Such taxes are usually based on the expenditure on goods and services and include the following:
For the following reasons.
Its purpose includes:
MERITS OF INDIRECT TAX
DEMERITS OF INDIRECT TAXES
INFLATION
Control of Inflation
The govt. may adopt the following policies depending on their situation to reduce inflation to manageable levels. They include:
This is a deliberate move by the govt. through the central bank to regulate and control the money supply in the economy which may lead to demand pull inflation. The policies include;
These are the measures taken by the govt. to influence the level of demand in the economy through taxation process. They include;
These are laws made by the govt. to help in controlling the inflation. They include;
Outline measures that the government may employ to control the following types of inflation;
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
Economic Growth
This is the increase in the productivity of a country which can be seen in the continued increase in the national income over a period of years.
It can be measured by taking the average percentage of increase in national income over a period of time (number of years) and be assumed to be the average rate of economic growth in the country
Economic Development
This is the quantitative change or increase in a country’s national income over the years, accompanied by favorable changes in the structures within the country that leads to general improvement of the individual well being, as well as the entire nation
A country may experience economic growth without experiencing economic development. This is because the increase in the national income may be as a result of people working for long hours without any time for rest, recreation and other development to occur in their body. This will make them not to have better living, despite the fact that the national income shall have increased.
The expected structural changes to be realized in a case of economic development include;
Outline the differences that exist between economic growth and economic development
| Economic Growth | Economic Development |
| i) An increase in size of the country’s National income | i) An increase in the size and quality of the country’s National income |
| ii) Number of people living in absolute poverty can increase despite the increase in national income | ii) Number of people living in absolute poverty does not increase |
| iii)Increase in national income could be due to increase in income of only few people | iii) Increase in national income is attributed to general increase of incomes of majority of the people in the country |
| iv) No tendency to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor | iv)Tends to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor |
Underdevelopment
This refers to a situation whereby the economic growth is in the negative direction (decreasing) accompanied by uneven distribution of wealth and decrease in quality and quantity of the factors of production available
Characteristics of Underdevelopment
Goals of Economic Development
The following are the changes that economic development seeks to put in place, which in Kenya they have been joined together in what is referred to as the millennium development goals. They includes
Some includes
Factor which may hinder development in a country
The rate of a country’s economic development may be influenced negatively by the following factors
Development Planning
This is the process through which the country establishes their objectives to be achieved, identify the resources that will be required and put in place the strategies or methods of acquiring the resources and achieving their pre-determined objectives.
In most cases their objectives or goals are the goals of economic development
The plan will prioritize the objectives to be achieved and even brake it down in to targets that if achieved with the planned strategy and resources, the objective shall have been achieved.
Need for economic planning
It enhances the following
Problems encountered in development planning
Problems at the planning stage
Problems at the implementation stage
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
A trade involving the exchange of goods and services between two or more countries. If the exchange is between two countries only, then it is referred to as bilateral trade, but if it is between more than two countries then it is referred to as multilateral trade.
Advantages of International Trade
Disadvantages of International trade
Terms of Trade
This refers to the rate at which the country’s export exchanges with those from other country. That is:
Terms of trade =
It determine the value of export in relations to import so that a country can know whether it’s trade with the other country is favourable or unfavourable
Favourable terms of trade will make the country spent little on import and gain a lot of foreign exchange from other countries
For example;
Then table below shows trade between Kenya and China in the year 2004 and 2005, with the Kenyan government exporting and importing to and from china, and China also importing and Exporting from and to Kenya.
| Year | Average prices of export | |
| Kenya | China | |
| 2004 | 1000 | 4000 |
| 2005 | 1200 | 6500 |
Calculate the Terms of trade for;
Solution:
Kenya
= x100
= 120%
= x 100
= 162.5%
= x 100
= 73.8%
This implies that Kenya is importing from China more than it is exporting, leading to unfavourable terms of trade i.e. when the percentage is less than 100%, it implies unfavourable terms of trade.
China (work out)
The average prices is the various prices of the individual export or import items divide by their number
Factors that may lead to either favourable or unfavourable terms of trade
The country is experiencing a favourable terms of trade if:
The country will experience unfavourable terms of trade if;
Reasons for differences in terms of trade between countries
The terms of trade may differ due to:
Balance of trade
This is the difference between value of country’s visible exports and visible imports over a period of time. If the value of visible/tangible export is higher than the value of visible/tangible imports, then the country experiences favourable terms. If less than the invisible value, then the country is experiencing unfavourable. The country is at equilibrium if the value of visible export and import is the same
Balance of payments
This is the difference in the sum of visible and invisible export and the visible and invisible imports. If positive then it means the country is having favourable terms, while if negative, then it means unfavourable It goes beyond the balance of trade in that it considers the following
Balance of Payment account
This is the summary showing all the transactions that have taken place between a particular country and the rest of the world over a period of time. The transaction may arise from
Components of balance of payments account
The balance of payment account is made up of the following
iii)Official settlement account/Cash account/foreign exchange transaction account
Balance of payment on current account
This is the account that is used to determine the difference between the value of the country’s visible and invisible imports and exports. That is
Balance of payment on current account = (visible export + invisible export) – (visible import + invisible import)
In the account, the payments for the visible and invisible imports are debited while the receipts from visible and invisible exports are credited that is
Dr current account Cr
| Payments for imports
(Visible and Invisible) |
Receipts from exports
(Visible and Invisible) |
The balance of payment on current account may be;
For example;
A given country had the following values of visible and invisible export and import during the year 2004 and 2005
| Trade | 2004 (shs) | 2005 (shs) |
| Visible export | 18926 | 29954 |
| Visible imports | 22780 | 32641 |
| Invisible exports | 6568 | 19297 |
| Invisible imports | 5239 | 16129 |
Required
Prepare the country’s balance of payments on current account for the years 2004 and 2005 and comment on each of them.
Dr current account year 2004 Cr
| shs
Visible imports 22780 Invisible imports 5239 Total 28019 |
Shs
Visible export 18926 Invisible export 6568 Total 25494 Deficit 2525 |
The country experienced unfavourable balance of payment on current account in the year 2004, since they imported more than they exported
Dr current account year 2005 Cr
| shs
Visible imports 32641 Invisible imports 16129 Total 28019 Excess 481 |
Shs
Visible export 29954 Invisible export 19297 Total 49251
|
The country experienced favourable balance of payment on current account in the year 2005, since they exported more than they imported
Balance of payments on capital account
This account shows the summary of the difference between the receipt and payments on the investment (capital). Receipts are income from investments in foreign countries while payments are income on local investments by foreigners paid out of the country.
The capital inflow includes investments, loans and grants from foreign donors, while capital outflow includes dividends paid to the foreign investors, loan repayments, donations and grants to other countries.
In the account the payments are debited, while the receipts are credited. That is;
Dr capital account Cr
| Payments
|
Receipts
|
The account may be;
The combined difference on the receipts and payments on both the current and capital accounts is known as the overall balance of payments.
The official settlement account
This account records the financial dealings with other countries through the IMF. It is also called the foreign exchange transaction account, and is always expected to balance which a times may not be the case. That is;
Balance of payment disequilibrium
This occurs when there is either deficit or surplus in the balance of payments accounts. If there is surplus, then the country would like to maintain it because it is favourable, while if deficit, the country would like to correct it.
Causes of balance of payment disequilibrium
It may be caused by the following;
Correcting the balance of payment disequilibrium
The measures that may be taken to correct this may include;
Terms of sales in international trade
Here the cost trading which includes the cost of the product, cost of transporting, loading, shipping, insurance, warehousing and unloading may be expensive. This makes some of the cost to be borne by the exporter, as some being borne by the importer. The price of the goods quoted therefore at the exporters premises should clearly explain the part of the cost that he/she is going to bear and the ones that the importer will bear before receiving his/her goods. This is what is referred to as the terms of sale
Terms of sales therefore refers to the price quotation that state the expenses that are paid for by the exporter and those paid for by the importer.
Some of the common terms include;
Documents used in International trade
It shows the following;
International Financial Institutions
Some of the institutions that play a role in international monetary system include;
This bank operates like the central bank of the central banks of the member countries. Its objective includes the following;
This bank was formed to promote the economic and social progress of its regional member countries in Africa. It main source of finance is the members’ contributions and the interest charged on the money they lend members.
Its functions include;
This was formed to provide long term financial assistance to the low income countries that cannot obtain loan from other financial institutions at the prevailing terms and condition. Their loans may recover a longer repayment periods with no interest except the commitment fees and service charge which is minimal. They fund activities, which includes;
The World Bank was formed to carry out the following functions;
Economic Integration
This occurs where two or more countries enter into a mutual agreement to cooperate with each other for their own economic benefit. They may do this by allowing free trade or relaxing their existing trade barriers for the member countries.
Economic integration may occur in the following forms;
This is a case where the member countries agree to abolish or minimize tariffs and other trade restrictions but the individual countries are free to impose restrictions on non-member countries. They includes; Preferential Trade Area (P.T.A), European Free Trade Area (E.F.T.A), Latin America Free Trade Area (L.A.F.T.A), etc.
This is where the members of the free trade area may agree not only to abolish or minimize their tariffs, but also establish a common tariff for the exchange of goods and services with the non member countries. They include; Economic Community of West Africa States (E.C.O.W.A.S), East Africa Custom Union (E.A.C.U), Central Africa Custom and Economic Union (C.A.C.E.U)
This is where the member countries allow for free movement of factors of production across the borders. People are free to move and establish their business in any member country. They include; East Africa Common Market (E.A.C.M), European Economic Community (E.E.C), Central American Common Market (C.A.C.M), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
This is where the members of the common market agree for put in place a common currency and a common central bank for the member countries. They even develop common infrastructures which includes railways, communication networks, common tariffs, etc
Importance of economic integration
Economic integration will ensure the following benefits for the member countries;
Free Trade Area
This is a situation where there is unrestricted exchange of goods and services between the countries. It has benefits/advantages similar to those of economic integration.
Disadvantages of free trade area
Some of the problems it is likely to bring include;
Trade Restrictions
These are deliberate measures by the government to limit the imports and exports of a country. They are also known as protectionism and includes the following;
Reasons for trade restrictions
Advantages of trade restrictions
Disadvantages of trade restriction
Trends in International Trade
However EPZ’s have the following problems/disadvantages
E-commerce has the following benefits/advantages:
THE STOCK EXCHANGE MARKET
This is a market whereby the buying and selling of shares and other securities takes place. Shares are the smallest units of capital that can be sold to persons by a company for them to become share holders. Other securities traded in this market includes debentures (a unit of loan sold by the companies to the members of the public), government bonds (a long term borrowing certificate by the government from its people) and government treasury bills ( a short term borrowing certificate by the government from its people).
Common terms used in stock exchange
In the stock exchange market only registered/listed/quoted companies are allowed to sell their shares. A quoted/listed company is a company that has been registered as a member of the stock exchange market.
The quoted companies can sell their shares through the Initial Public Offer (I.P.O) or normal trading in the market.
IPO is the initial price that the company will float its shares to the members of the public to buy/subscribe to for the first time. These shares are said to have been issued in the primary market. After the IPO the shares are then accumulated as stock and traded on in the stock exchange market (secondary market).
All the trading of the shares is done through the company’s agents or brokers.
Procedure of buying shares:
Procedure for selling shares:
Roles of stock exchange market
They perform the following roles:
SOURCE DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS OF ORIGINAL ENTRY
These are documents containing the information that makes basis of making entries in the books of accounts. They act as evidence that the transaction actually took place. They includes
The incoming invoice will be used to record the information in the purchases journals/diary, while an outgoing invoice will be used to record information in sales journals/diaries
Books of original entries/Journals/Diaries/day’s books/Subsidiary books
These are books where the transactions are listed when they first occur, with their entries being made on a daily basis before they are posted to their respective ledger accounts. The information in the source documents are used to make entries in these books. The books of original entries include:
This is used to record credit sales of goods before they can be recorded in their various ledgers. The information obtained in the outgoing invoice/invoice issued is used to record the information in this journal as the source document
The overall total in the sales journal is therefore posted in the sales account in the general ledger on credit side and debtors account in the sales ledger as a debit entry
Sales journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Invoice no | Ledger folio | amount |
Example:
The following information relates to Tirop traders for the month of June 2010
June 1: Sold goods to wafula on credit of ksh 200, invoice no 0114
2: Sold to the following debtors on credit; Wanjiru ksh 400, Musyoka ksh 300, Wafula ksh 300
5: sold goods on credit to Wanjiru of ksh 300
10: Sold goods to the following on credit Kanini ksh 100, Wafula ksh 500, Wanjiru ksh 600
12: Sold goods on credit to musyoka of ksh 350
Required:
Prepare the relevant day book for the above transactions; hence post the various amounts to their respective individual accounts
Sales journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Invoice no | Ledger folio | amount | |||
| June 2010:
1 2 2 2 5 10 10 10 12 15 |
Wafula Wanjiru Musyoka Wafula Wanjiru Wanjiru Wafula Kanini Musyoka Totals posted to the sales account (Cr) |
0114
|
SL SL SL SL SL SL SL SL SL
GL |
200 400 300 300 300 600 500 100 350
3050 |
(Post the rest to their individual debtors account)
This is for recording the goods that the customers/debtors have returned to the business. It uses the information in the credit note issued as a source document to prepare it. The information is therefore recorded to the return inwards account in the general ledger, while the individual’s entries are reflected (credited) also in their respective debtors account for double entry to be completed. It takes the following format
Sales return journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Credit note no | Ledger folio | amount |
For example;
Record the following transaction for the 2007 in their relevant diaries, hence post them to their respective ledger accounts;
May 1: goods that had been sold to M Okondo of shs 2600 on credit was returned to the business
“ 2: G. Otuya returned good worth shs 1320 that was sold to him on credit to the business
“ 8: the following returned goods that had been sent to them on credit to the business H Wati shs 3500, Muya shs 4700 M Okondo shs 2900
“ 12: G Otuya returned goods worth shs 5400 that were sold on credit to the business
“ 30: Goods worth sh 8900 that had been sold on credit to G Otuya were returned to the business
Sales Return journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Credit note no | Ledger folio | amount | |||
| May 2007:
1 2 8 8 8 12 30 |
M Okondo G Otuya H Wati Muya M Okondo G Otuya G Otuya Totals posted to Return Inwards a/c (Dr) |
|
S.L S.L S.L S.L S.L S.L S.L
GL |
2600 1320 3500 4700 2900 5400 8900
29320 |
(Post the entries to the individual ledger a/c’s (Cr))
Purchases Journal
This is used to record the credit purchase of goods. The totals are then debited in the purchases account in the general ledger, while the individual’s creditors accounts are credited. It used the invoices received/incoming invoices as it source document. It takes the following format;
Purchases journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Invoice no | Ledger folio | amount |
For example
The following information relates to Mikwa Traders for the month of April 2011. Record them in their relevant day’s book, hence post the entries to their relevant ledger accounts.
April 2011;
“ 2. Bought goods worth shs 25 000 on credit from Juma, Invoice no 3502
Purchases Day book
| Date | Particulars/details | Invoice no | Ledger folio | amount | |||
| April 2011:
2 3 6 8 8 8 15 18 24
|
Juma Kamau Juma Juma Kamau Wamae Wamae Kamau Juma Totals posted to the Purchase account (Dr) |
3502 2607 3509 3605 3700 3750 3762 3802 3812
|
PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL
GL |
25 000 16 500 12 700 25 200 17 500 45 000 9 200 17 000 36 000
204100 |
(Post the individual entries to their relevant accounts in the ledger (crediting))
This is used to record goods that have been returned to the creditors by the business, reducing the value of the goods that had been purchased. It uses the credit note received as the source documents, with the totals being in the purchases return account while the individual creditor’s accounts are debited in their respective ledger accounts. It takes the following format
Purchases return journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Credit note no | Ledger folio | amount |
For example:
Record the following transaction in the purchases return day book for Njiru’s traders for the month of June 2010, hence post the information into their relevant ledger accounts.
June 2010;
“ 3. Returned goods worth shs 400 that had been bought from Nairobi stores, credit note no 56
“ 8. Return goods of shs 1 200 to Matayos store, Credit no 148
“19. Had some of their purchases returned to the following; Njoka enterprises shs 700, credit note no 205, Nairobi Stores shs 600, credit note no 58, Matayos store shs 1 000 credit note no 191
“26. Returned goods worth shs 1 800 to Njoka enterprise credit note no 210
“30. Return goods worth shs 1 020 to Matayos store, credit note no 200
This is used to record all the cash and cheques that have been received in the business. They may be many that posting directly in the cash book may be tedious and are therefore first recorded here. It totals are posted to the cash and bank accounts in the general ledger (Dr), while the individual accounts are credited in their respective accounts in the ledger. It uses the cash receipt issued and bank slips received as the source documents. It takes the following format;
Cash receipt journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Receipt no | Ledger folio | Disc allowed | cash | bank |
This is used to record cash and cheques that have been issued to the creditors/out of the business. Its totals are credited (Cr) in the cash and bank account and the individual accounts are debited (Dr) in their respective accounts It uses the cash receipt received and bank slips issued as the source documents. It takes the following format;
Cash Payment journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Receipt no | Ledger folio | Disc received | cash | bank |
For example:
Record the following transactions into their relevant day books of Onyango traders, hence post the entries to their respective ledger accounts and balance them off;
May 2011:
“1. Cash sales amounting to ksh 3 000, receipt no 0112
“2. Paid the following creditors by cheque after having deducted a cash discount of 10% in each case; H. Mwangi ksh 1 500, J. Mwaniki ksh 1 600, N. Mugo ksh 1 200
“3. Receive the following Chaques from debtors in settlement of their debts after having deducted 5% cash discount in each case; Lucy kshs 22 800 cheque no 0115, Otieno kshs 8 550 cheque no 0011, Martha ksh 1 330 cheque no 0016
“5. Paid for repairs in cash kshs 16 000, receipt no 0251
“10. Paid Juma in cash kshs 9 500, receipt no 0295
“14. Cash sales kshs 17 000, receipt no 02714
“15. Banked kshs 6 000 from the cash till
“15. Received cash from Mary of kshs 13 500, receipt no 0258
“16. Cash sales of kshs 26 400 was directly banked, bank slip no 40152
“20. Cash purchases of kshs 8 920, receipt no 117
“22. Cash purchases of kshs 15 200 was paid for by a cheque, cheque no 512
Cash receipt journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Document no | Ledger folio | Disc allowed | cash | bank |
| May 2011
1 3 3 3 14 15 15 16
|
Sales Lucy Otieno Martha Sales Cash Mary Sales
Totals to be posted to the cash and bank a/c (Dr) |
0112 0115 0011 0016 02714
0258 40152 |
GL SL SL SL GL “c” SL GL |
1200 450 700
2 350 |
3 000
17 000
13 500
33 500 |
22 800 8 550 1 330
6 000
26 400
65 080 |
(Post the totals and the entries to their respective accounts)
Cash Payment journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Document no | Ledger folio | Disc Received | cash | bank |
| May 2011
2 2 2 5 10 15 20 22
|
H. Mwangi J. Mwaniki N. Mugo Repairs Juma Bank Purchases Purchases
Totals to be posted to the cash and bank a/c (Cr) |
0251 0295
117 512 |
PL PL PL GL PL “c” GL GL |
166.70 177.70 133.30
477.30 |
16 000 9 500 6 000 8 920
40 420 |
1 500 1 600 1 200
15 200
19 500 |
(Post the totals and the entries to their respective accounts)
This is used to record money that has been set aside to make payments that does not require large amounts, such as cleaning, staff tea, posting letters, etc. it is always kept by the petty cashier, under the supervision of the main cashier. The amount received by the petty cashier is always debited, while the payments made from the same is credited. The credit side also contains the analytical columns for various items of expenditure. The amount credited is also extended to the analysis column for the specific item. At the end of the stated period, the petty cash book is balanced, and the totals are posted to their individual accounts. The individual’s accounts are debited with the totals of the analytical columns, while the cash account is credited by the main cashier for the total that was spent in the petty cash book.
Petty cash book can also be operated on an imprest system, where the petty cashier receives a given amount of money at an intervals (imprest) to spend, and report back to the main cashier at the end of the period on how the money has been spent and the balance still remaining for re-stocking (reimbursed), and only the amount spent can be reimbursed so that at the beginning of the period the petty cashier will always have the full amount (cash float).
For example:
A petty cashier of sina chuki traders operate a petty cash book on an imprest of kshs 2 500 on a monthly basis. On 1st February 2010, she had cash in hand of shs 150 and was reimbursed the difference by the main cashier to restore her cash float. The following payments were made during the month of February 2010
Feb; 1. Travelling expenses kshs110
Required;
Prepare a petty cash book from the above information and post the totals to the relevant ledger accounts.
Sina Chuki Traders
Petty Cash Book
For month of Feb. 2010
| Receipt sh | L.F | Date | Details | Vouch no | Total sh | Travel exp | Office exp | Staff tea | postage | Telephone | Ent. | Ledger a/c |
|
150 2 350
2500 22 |
C.B |
2010
Feb 1 1 1 2 3 4 10 15 18 20 25 26 27 28 28 |
Bal b/d Reimbursement Travelling exp Correcting fluid Sugar Stamps Telephone Entertainment Stamps Bread Fare Duplicating ink Entertainment Telephone Atieno Totals Bal c/d
Bal b/d |
110 200 180 255 255 130 100 148 200 250 400 100 150 2478 22 2500 |
110
200
310 |
200
250
450 |
180
148
328 |
255
100
355 |
255
100
355 |
130
400
530 |
150 150 |
The totals in the analytical columns are Debited in the individual accounts, with the petty cash book totals being credited in the cash account.
This one is used to record purchases or sales of fixed assets of the business on credit. These assets do not form part of the stock since the business does not deal in them, however the business may decide to buy or sell them for one reason or the other.
In this journal, the account to be debited begins at the margin, while the account to be credited is indented from the margin, with a narration below them put in brackets. The narration simply explains the nature of the transaction that has taken place. The individual entries are then posted to their respective accounts by either debiting or crediting depending on the transactions. It takes the following format;
General journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Ledger folio | Dr shs | Cr shs |
For example:
Journalise then following transactions which took place in the business of J Opuche during the month of March 2005
March 5; Purchased office furniture on credit for shs 25 000 from miugiza Furniture Limited
10; Sold old duplicating machine for shs 15 000 to samba academy on credit
15; Bought a new motor vehicle for shs 800 000 from explo motors Ltd, paying shs 300 000 in cash and balance was to be settled at a later date
18; Sold old vehicle to Mara Secondary school for shs 500 000 on credit
25;The owner converted personal electronic calculator valued at shs 9 000 into business asset
27; Sold old computers valued at shs 20 000 for shs 15 000 on credit to Mara secondary school
30; Sold old dining chairs worth shs 10 000 to Maendeleo for shs 15 000 on credit
General journal
| Date | Particulars/details | Ledger folio | Dr shs | Cr shs |
| March 2005
5
10
15
18
25
27
30
|
Office Furniture a/c Miugiza a/c (Being a credit purchase of office furniture from Miugiza) Samba Accademy a/c Duplicating Machine a/c (Being credit sales of duplicating machine to Samba academy) Motor vehicle a/c Cash a/c Explo Motors a/c (Being purchase of motor vehicle from explo. motors, paying part in cash and part on credit) Mara Sec sch a/c Motor vehicle a/c (being the credit sale of old motor vehicle to mara sec sch) Calculators a/c Capital a/c (being conversion of private calculator to business asset) Mara Sec. Sch. a/c Loss on disposal a/c Computer a/c (being credit sale of old computers to Mara school at a loss of 5 000) Maendeleo a/c Furniture a/c Gain on disposal a/c (being the credit sale of dining chairs to maendeleo at a gain of 5 000) |
|
25 000
15 000
800 000
500 000
9 000
15 000 5 000
15 000
1 384 000 |
25 000
15 000
300 000 500 000
500 000
9 000
20 000
10 000 5 000
1 384 000 |
The entries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, with the ones debited in the journals being debited and the ones credited being credited.
The Journal proper can also be used to show the opening entries and the closing entries. That is;
The opening entries are the entries of the assets and liabilities at the beginning of the trading periods to facilitate the opening of different accounts for them. They are the balance b/d for the assets and liabilities of the business.
The assets to be debited are recorded first, followed by the liabilities and capital to be credited. In case the capital is not given, it can be calculated using the book keeping equation, that is A = C + L. the narration then follows the entries.
The opening entries are necessary when;
For example;
The following balances were extracted from Martine’s store that did not keep complete records, and would like to start keeping on 1st January 2011. Prepare for them their relevant subsidiary book to show the balances.
Shs
Motor vehicles 230 000
Machinery 40 000
Creditors 10 000
Debtors 5 000
Cash in hand 20 000
Stock 10 000
Insurance prepaid 5 000
Bank 25 000
Premises 335 000
Capital 660 000
Martine’s Store
General journal
On 1st January 2011
| Date | Particulars/details | Ledger folio | Dr shs | Cr shs |
| 2011 January 1 | Premises
Motor vehicle Machinery Debtors Cash Insurance prepaid Bank Stock Capital Creditors (being the records of assets, liability and capital at the beginning of new period)
|
335 000
230 000 40 000 5 000 20 000 5 000 25 000 10 000
670 000 |
660 000 10 000
670 000 |
At the end of the trading period the business asses how it carried out its trade and the amount of profit it made by preparing the Trading profit and loss account and the balance sheet to show its financial position. These are prepared by the information obtained from the ledgers. That is, all the nominal accounts (sale, purchase, expenses and revenue accounts), both opening and closing stocks are transferred to the trading profit and loss account through the trial balance and general journals, while the rest are taken to the balance sheet.
Uses of general journal;
In the table below, indicate the books of original entry that the information obtained from the given source documents are used to prepare
| Source Document | Books of Original entry |
| Sales Invoice/invoice issued/Invoice retained/invoice copy | Sales journals |
| Purchases Invoice/Invoice received/Original invoice | Purchases journals |
| Credit note issued/Credit note retained/Credit note copy | Return inwards/Sales return journals |
| Credit note received/credit note original | Return outwards/purchases return journals |
| Original receipt/Receipt received | Cash payment/Analysis cash book/ Cash book |
| Receipt copy/Retained receipt | Cash receipt journal/Analysis cash book/cash book |
| Petty cash voucher | Petty cash book |
Uses of Journals
Assignment:
(Exercise 1B pages 50 and 51, Nos16 and 18 in Inventor book 4, KLB Students book)
501 – FRENCH SYLLABUS
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
The objectives of teaching French in secondary schools are to:
1) equip learners with the basic communicative skills for effective communication where
French is required;
2) give learners access to oral and written materials in French;
3) facilitate further studies in Francophone institutions;
4) promote global peace through the understanding and appreciation of the cultures of
French-speaking peoples and through a more positive perception of foreign peoples and
their cultures.
1.0.0 SKILLS
1.1.0 LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS
These two skills should be developed side by side. Learners should be able to listen to a
variety of oral materials in French and extract information from them. They should be able to
communicate orally in real life situations and should articulate correctly. They should
understand the meaning and functioning of prosody (intonation, rhythm, liaison, etc.) and use
it in their speech.
1.2.0 READING SKILLS
Learners should have been exposed to authentic documents from a variety of written sources
such as comics, magazines, readers, newspapers, brochures, etc.
1.3.0 WRITING SKILLS
Writing and reading skills both demand visual recognition and comprehension of words and
structures. The two skills complement each other.
1.4.0 SPEECH ACTS AND GRAMMAR
It is vital for any language learner to both master and correctly use grammatical structures.
Since language is a vehicle of communication, grammatical structures and vocabulary should
have been learnt within communicative situations. Speech acts and grammar constitute the
content.
2.0.0 LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS
2.1.0 Specific Objectives
By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:
a) respond to instructions and to other varied stimuli;
b) answer the telephone and convey oral messages;
c) answer questions on everyday topics;
d) manipulate in conversation the grammatical structures and vocabulary learned;
e) ask for and give directions to places;
f) express an opinion and give reasons;
g) narrate experiences in different tenses;
h) comment on oral information;
i) talk about personal experiences using a wide range of vocabulary;
j) dramatize real life situations (role-play);
k) extract information from recorded audio-visual material;
l) appreciate French spoken at varying speeds and in different registers (niveaux de langue);
m) speak with reasonable fluency and accuracy of articulation, liaison and intonation on a
variety of topics within their own experiences;
n) express themselves orally using a wide range of vocabulary and grammatical structures.
2.2.0 READING SKILLS
2.2.1 Specific Objectives:
By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:
a) read with understanding materials like advertisements, simple comics, novels,
dialogues and notices etc;
b) independently read materials from various sources e.g. newspaper articles, etc.;
c) read materials such as timetables. signs, poems, etc, to enable them to cope with a
francophone environment;
d) extract and manipulate information from the above texts;
e) read aloud set passages.
2.3.0 WRITING SKILLS
2.3.1 Specific Objectives
By the end of the course, the learner should be able to use correctly the vocabulary and
grammatical structures to:
a) write compositions based on a series of pictures;
b) write narratives (free composition);
c) write informal and formal letters and CVs;
d) write other functional/situational compositions e.g. dialogues;
e) write answers/questions to given stimuli. e.g. programmes, recipes, posters,
dialogues etc.;
f) answer complex questions;
g) solve puzzles;
h) fill in blanks, tables, forms etc.
2.4.0 SPEECH ACTS
2.4.1 Specific Objectives:
By the end of the course, the learner should be able to use the followings speech acts
and grammatical structures:
a) Making contact with others by:
· greeting/saying farewell;
· welcoming;
· apologising/giving apologies;
· attracting attention of someone;
· showing doubt;
· receiving calls/telephoning;
· confirming a statement;
· thanking someone;
· asking someone to wait/hold on/repeat;
· refusing politely;
· spelling names etc.;
· encouraging someone;
· giving/responding to instructions;
· talking about export/import.
b) Saying how one feels:
· expressing admiration, impatience, value judgement, a preference, a wish, interest,
an opinion, agreement, obligation, regret;
· expressing need and reason for doing something;
· giving advice;
· congratulating;
· making a comparison;
· saying one remembers/forgets.
c) Describing an item:
· Question/answer on identification, number, price, weight, size, colour, quantity.
d) Describing a person
· question/answer on name, identity, nationality, presence, place of residence,
languages spoken, profession, family, age, abilities/knowledge, habits/lifestyle
· question/answer on health, appearance, character
· saying one is new/late etc.
e) Describing an action
· Leisure activities
· Journeys
· Saying what one has done or one is going to do
· Recalling a past occasion
f) Describing an event
· question/answer on plans, projects, events
· recalling a past event
· question/answer on nature and sequence of events
g) Giving advice on
· Professions
· Health
· Ethical behaviour/social integrity
h) Describing place and time
· question/answer on date, time, distance
· question/answer on time for doing something
· making a reservations
· question/answer on place of work/school
· question/answer on where one is going
· question/answer on position of an object.
i) Communicating with others
· using formal and informal expressions in speech and in writing;
· asking for/giving advice, formation;
· writing a job application and CV;
· responding to advertisements;
· reassuring;
· promising
· announcing news;
· sending e-mail;
· asking someone to do something;
· offering/asking for something e.g. assistance;
· discouraging ;
· giving orders;
· wishing someone good luck etc.
2.5.0 GRAMMAR
2.5.1 Content
3.0.0 LEXICAL
3.1.0 Specific Objectives
By the end of the course, the learner should be equipped with vocabulary and idiomatic
expressions related to the topics below:
3.2.0 Content
a) The French-speaking world;
b) The socialization aspect of humanity;
c) The family and its many concepts;;
d) The school and related activities
e) Professions and careers;
f) Leisure and hobbies;
g) Health and environmental issues;
h) Transport and travel;
i) Tourism and other economic activities;
j) Media and information technology.
4.0 ANNEX: VERBS
The following list of verbs is the minimum required for the course.
Irregular verbs
aller naître savoir
apprendre devoir partir sortir
avoir dire permettre sourite
battre dormir pouvoir suivre
boire écrire prendre tenir
comprendre étre promettre venir
condutire faire recevoir vouloir
connaitre lire revenir
courir mettre rire
croire mourir
4.1.0 Regular –er verbs
adorer écouter préparer
aider enseigner présenter
aimer entrer raconter
apporter fermer regarder
arriver frapper regretter
bavarder garder rencountrer
cacher goûter rentrer
causer habiter rester
chanter jouer retourner
chasser laisser saluer
chercher manger sembler
commencer marcher soigner
conseiller mesurer souhaiter
continuer monter tomber
couter montrer travailler
crier nager traverser
cultiver oublier trouver
danser parler visiter
dejeuner passer voler
demander pecher voyager
desirer penser
dessiner pleurer
detester porter
diner poser
donner pousser
4.2.0 Verbs with some irregular forms
achester essayer ouvrir
completer jeter peser
envoyer nettoyer préferer
espérer offrir
regular – ir verbs
choisir
finir
grandir
grossir
maigrir
punir
remplir
saisir
regular-re verbs
attandre
descendre
perdre
rendre
répondre
4.3.0 Reflexive Verbs
s‟am user se raser
s‟appeler s‟ reveiller
s‟ approch er de se sauver
s‟ approch er de se souvenir de
s‟asseoir se taire
se baigner se trouver
se brosser
se coucher
se dépêcher
se déshabiller
se peigner
se doucher
s‟habiller
s‟inquéter
s‟intaller
se laver
se lever
se promener
se rappeler
4.4.0 Impersonal Verbs
§a vaut
il faut
il pleut
il s‟agitde
il ya
SECTION B.
SECTION C.
rainfall 8 mks
production. 5mks
MARKING SCHEME.
SECTION A.
2 x ½ = 1 mark.
2 x ½ = 1 mark.
4 x ½ = 2 marks.
2 x ½ = 1 mark.
4 x ½ = 2 marks.
4 x ½ = 2 marks.
6 x ½ = 3 marks.
1 x 2 = 2mks (mark as a whole)
4 x ½ = 2 marks.
x ½ = 2 marks.
x ½ = 2 marks.
x ½ = 2 marks.
x ½ = 2 marks.
x ½ = 1 mark.
x ½ = 1 mark.
x ½ = 1 mark.
x ½ = 1 mark.
– foal
1 x 1 = 1mark
1 x ½ = 1 mark.
1 x 1 = 1 mark
SECTION B.
4 x 1 = 4mks.
1 x 6 = 6marks.
1 x 3 = 3 marks.
1 x 3 = 3mks.
1 x 6 = 6mks.
1 x 4 = 4 marks.
27.a. Fresh market tomatoes
1 x 5 = 5mks
1 x 4 = 4mks
is the number of plants lawns growing in a given area of land after germination.
1 X 2 = 2 marks.
(mark as a whole)
SECTION C.
1 x 5 = 5 mks.
1 x 6 = 6 mks.
1 x 6 = 6mks.
1x 3 = 3mks.
1 x 12 = 12 marks.
(Award for stating correct practice)
Award for practice for explanation)
1 x 8 = 8 mks.
1 x 5 = 5mks.
= 5mks.
(mark as a whole) 1 x 3 = 3mks.
1 x 7 = 7mks.
Section A .
(ii) State the importance of the colour of a soil in soil forming process (2 marks)
(ii) List TWO internal parasites that attack sheep. (1 mark)
(ii) Give TWO pests that are disease vectors in crops (1 mark)
ration? (2 marks)
(ii) What is decortication? (1 mark)
areas. (1 mark)
Section B
(i) Name the class of animal represented by the above digestive system. (1 mark)
(ii) Label the parts indicated by the letters. (4 marks)
P ___________________________
Q ___________________________
R ___________________________
S ___________________________
(iii) State one function of P and S (2 marks)
(iv) Give ONE reason why rabbits and donkeys are able to digest cellulose material. (1 mark)
(b) State TWO methods commonly used in wood treatment. (2 marks)
(c) Give FOUR maintenance practices done on live fence. (2 marks)
(d) Give ONE disadvantage of using stones for building. (1 mark)
(b) State FOUR effects of plant diseases on crop production. (4 marks)
(c) List TWO diseases and TWO pests that attack bananas in the field. (2 marks)
(b) Give FOUR ways in which farmers adjust to risk and uncertainties. (2 marks)
(c) State FOUR crucial questions a farmer would be trying to answer when preparing
a partial budget. (2 marks)
32.(a) Describe the production of dry beans on a piece of land that has been follow under the following headings.
(i) Ecological requirement (5 marks)
(ii) Land preparation and planting. (5 marks)
(iii) Field management (5 marks)
(b) (i) Give THREE causes of Blossom end rot? (3 marks)
(ii) What is Blossom end Rot? (2 marks)
(b) Give the advantages of hedges (3 marks)
(c) Outline the maintenance of the fence. (3 marks)
(d) What information is found in calving records? (3 marks)
(e) What are aspects of wind that affect crop production? (3 marks)
(f) Briefly describe the effect of parasitism in livestock production. (6 marks)
34.(a) What characteristics make cassava an important food crop in most parts of Kenya? (14 marks)
(b) Name TWO diseases of cassava. (2 marks)
(c) State TWO symptoms of each disease named above. (4 marks)
agRICULTURE II
MARKING SCHEME
* Fur
* Meat
* Manure
* Transport
* Hide (2 x1/2 = 1)
2.(i) * Topography / drainage
* Living organism / vegetation
* Climate – man – time
* Parent rock (4mks)
(ii) * Influence soil temperature whereby dark colour soils absorb and retain more
heat hence activities and survival of microbes. (2 mks)
* Proper disease and pest control
* Proper breeding
* Proper control of worms
* No need to provide grit as birds pick it from the soil
* Less feed used
* Manure is evenly spread to the runs, this helps vegetation to regenerate. (4×1/2 = 2)
(i). Have hump (i). No hump
(ii). Resist high temperatures (ii) Cannot resist high temperatures
(iii) Have dew lap (iii) No no dew lap / small
(iv) Have high tropical diseases and (iv) Have low resist tropical diseases and pests
pests
(v) Can walk for long distance in (v) Cannot walk for long distance in search of
pasture search of pasture and water. Pasture and water.
(vi) Have long calving interval (vi) Have short calving interval (4 x 1/2 = 2)
* To turn the soil (2 x 1/2 = 1)
* Nutritional (2 x 1/2 = 1)
(ii) – Tapeworm
– Liverfluke (2 x 1/2 = 1)
* Use of crop rotation (2 x 1/2 = 1)
(ii) * Aphid
* Whitefly (2 x 1/2 = 1)
* Crushes
* Beehive / Breeding structures
* Homestead
* Fences
* Silos
* Cribs (4 x 1/2 = 2)
* Availability of feeds
* Palatability
* Physiological status / health
* Fleshing
* Trimming
* Salting / drying (4 x 1/2 = 2)
* Addition of mineral, water and thin outer albumen. (1mk)
(ii) Removal of the fleshy tissues from the fibres of sisal. (1mk)
* To supply soil nutrients
* Improve soil structure ( 3 x 1/2 = 11/2 )
* Mature faster (2 x 1/2 = 1)
* Controlling pests and diseases
* Proper harvesting of honey to avoid killing bees
* Siting beehive away from the public road. (4 x 1/2 = 2)
* Produce a lot of seeds
* Allotophetic
* Smoothening effect
* Some are parasitic (4 x 1/2 = 2)
* Leaf content of the forage material
* Method of handling and curing the material
* Form in which material is fed to the animal
* Species of forage used
* Amount of foreign material in forage. (4 x 1/2 = 2)
* Use of acid fertilizers (1mk)
* Permanent / stay long
* Good penetration
* Harmless to wood and metal fastener (4 x 1/2 = 2)
Section B.
* Time of application e.g. pre-post plant
* Mode of action e.g. systemmatic / non-systemmatic
* Easily drained area
* Near source of water
* Should be free from stumps and roots
* Should be fertile and well drained soil (4 x 1 = 4)
(ii) P – Rumen
Q – Recticulum
R – Omasum
S – Absoption (4 mks)
(iii) P – Digestion of cellulose
S – Abomsm of water (2 x 1 = 2)
(iv) * They digest in the ceaca (1mk)
* Has antibodies that enable the calf to resist diseases
* Clean the bowel
* Contain vitamins any (Any 1 x 1 = 1)
* Silt
* Clay (3 x 1 = 3)
29.(a) * Clearing of bushes / grass
* Levelling
* Water drainage system around the structure to be made. (4 x 1/2 = 2)
(b) * Painting with old engine oil
* Soaking in dieldrin
* Applying chemicals using pressure
* Charring
* End diffusion / sap displacement / sap stream (4 x 1/2 = 2)
(c) * Prunning
* Gapping
* Weeding
* Controlling pests and diseases (4 x 1/2 = 2)
(d) * Expensive to transport / buy
* Requires labour to shape them
* Requires skills / techniques when laying (1 x 1 = 1)
30.(a) * It is faster in pest control than other methods
* The results of pesticides can be predicted.
* More effective (1 x 2 = 2)
(b) * Lower yields / quantity
* Lower quality of crop production
* Causing poisoning to consumers
* Increase production costs (4 x 1/2 = 2)
(c) * Banana diseases – Cigar end rot, Panama disease, Sigatoka ( 1 /2 x 2 = 1)
* Banana pests – Banana weavil, Banana thrips, Nematodes ( 2 x 1 /2 = 1)
31.(a) Risk is the difference between the expected and the actual outcome and it could be
estimated while uncertainty is a situation in which the outcome cannot be estimated .
( 1mk)
(b) * Diversification
* Selecting a more reliable enterprise
* Insurance
* Guranteed prices
* Input rationing ( 4 x 1 /2 = 2)
(c) * What extra cost the farmer is going to incur
* What revenue is foregone as at the proposal
* What extra revenue is to be earned
* What costs are saved as a result of the proposal ( 4 x 1 /2 = 2)
Section C.
BEANS
32.(a) (i) Ecological requirements
* Well drained loam soils
* Beans require moist soils through out growing period
* Moderate rainfall
* No rain at harvesting time
* Irrigation can be done (5 x 1 – 5)
(ii)Land Preparation
* Clear land before onset of rains
* Cultivate land to required tilth not so fine (medium tilth)
* Seeds should be dried before planting – select seeds for planting
* Plant at the onset of rains
* Planting is done by placing 2 – 4 seeds per hole
* Spacing (30 x 15)cm
* Apply Diammoniun phosphate at rate of 200kg/ha before planting. ( 5×1=5)
(iii) Field Management
* Weeding done before flowering
* Weeding done when soil is dry
* Hand weeding is done
* During dry months irrigate land
* Use furrow irrrigation
* Control of diseases such as Bacterial Halo/blight and Anthracose, planting resistant varieties.
* Pest control by use of Benomyl Copper fungicide or mancazeb
* Pests include bean aphid; bean bruchids; Spotted borer, American
bollworm, Beanfly, Golden ring moth ( 5×1=5)
(b)(i) * Too much Nitrogen
* Too dry and too wet conditions
* Calcium deficiency ( 3mks)
(ii) Physiological diseases that occur when tomato plants are exposed to too dry and too wet conditions, calcium deficiency ( 2mks)
33.(a) (i) Live fence e.g. (a) Hedges and growing trees (b) Electric fence
(ii) Dead fence e.g.
* Post and wire i.e. barbed wire, plain wire
* Post woven wire rail fence
* Wall fence e.g. stone break
* Trench fence ( 2mks)
(b) * Has more aesthetic value i.e natural
* Act as a windbreak and controls soil erosion
* It is easy and cheaper to establish
* May be a source of fodder to livestock
* It can be a source of firewood. ( 3mks)
(c) * Replace any broken / rotten post
* Any loose fence wire should be tightened appropriately
* Trim the hedge and any gaps filled, the fencing posts should be treated first with preservatives such as old engine oil, creosate or charred. ( 3mks)
(d) * Sex of the calve
* Date of birth
* Breed of the mother / dam
* Weight
* Breed of size ( any given 3mks)
(e) * Strength
* Direction
* Humidity ( 3 x 1 = 3)
(f) * Cause wounds
* Low quality
* Cause irritation
* Spread diseases
* Reduce quality of product
* Increase cost of production ( 6 x 1 = 6)
* Gives good yield in poor soils
* Require less labour
* Sheds its leaves during dry season thus reduce water evaporation
* Has low nutrient requirement
* Resistant to certain pests and diseases
* Can be used as flour and boiled ( 7 x 2 = 14)
(b) Diseases of cassava
(i) Cassava mosaic (1mks)
Symptoms
* Leaves turn yellow
* Reduced yield
* Stunted growth
* Distorted leaves (2mks)
(ii) Brown streak (1mks)
Symptoms
* Old leaves develop yellow buds at veins
* Brown patches on tubers (2mks)
(iii) Bacterial blight (1mks)
Symptoms
* Leaves develop brown patches
* Shoot tips turn brown
* Wilting of leaves that easily fall off (2mks)
AGRICULTURE III
PART I
SECTION A:
(4 mks)
(b) (i)Pyrethrum is propagated by which means? (1 mk)
(ii) What is cutting back in pyrethrum growing? (1 mk)
(i) Improvement of soil structure. (2 mks)
(ii) Improvement of water holding capacity. (2 mks)
SECTION B:
(ii) Candling and kindling.
(iii) Undersowing and oversowing.
(b) State three benefits of giving a pregnant dairy cow a special diet for 6 weeks
before calving. (2½ mks)
(c) List four signs of infertility in dairy cows. (2 mks)
(b) What is meant by seed inoculation? (1 mk)
machinery? (List four). (2 mks)
(b) Give four ways through which a farmer may improve production efficiency without necessarily incurring extra cost. (2 mks)
SECTION C:
32.(a)i. How is the nitrogen element lost from the soil? (5 mks)
(b) (i) Describe how high quality farm yard manure could be made and stored. (5 mks)
(ii) Outline the factors which influence the quality of farmyard manure. (2 mks)
(b) Outline the procedure for clean milk production. (10mks)
(c) Why are goats suited to most parts of Kenya? (6 mks)
(i) Cause. (1 mk)
(ii) Symptoms. (2 mks)
(iii) Control measures. (2 mks)
(d) State five signs of a good layer among a flock of hens. (5 mks)
AGRICULTURE III
2 = Serial number.
3 = Number of crossing. (1 ½ mks)
(b) (i) Splits (1 mk)
(ii) Removal of old stems upto the level of foliage. (1 mk)
improved. (2 mks)
– Tubers become discolored . (any two 2×1 = 2 mks)
– Docking knife.
SECTION B:
– It is expensive. (2×1 = 2 mks)
– To assist in credit acquiring. (2×1 = 2 mks)
– Tse-tse fly control.
– Reafforestation.
– Afforestation. (4 x ½ = 2 mks)
22.(a)- Collecting pen.
(b) – Remove mud from hooves/clean hooves. ( ½ mk)
25.(a)- Cutting/making ditches/channels on farm.
– Giving birth in pigs. (1×1 = 1 mk)
(b) – Is observation of the inner part of the egg against strong light.
– Is the giving birth in rabbits. (1 x 1 = 1 mk)
(c) – Less seed rate applied/establishment of pasture under an already growing crop/nurse crop
– More seeds rate applied/establishment of a pasture legume/grass on an existing grass
pasture. (1 x 1 = mk)
28.(a)- High milk production.
(b) – High quality colostrum.
(c) – Absence of estrous.
29.(a)- Build up of pest or diseases.
31.(a)- Cushions/prevents rubbing together of moving parts in machinery.
(b)- Use of improved or modern farming methods.
32.(a)- Denitrification.
(b) – Nirtogen fixation by root nodules bacteria and free living bacteria.
(c)(i)- Plant material is placed on concrete floor indoors.
(ii)
33.(a)- Animal infested by zoonotic diseases animal infested by par.
(b) – Ensure that the cows are clean and healthy.
(iv) – Milker – should be healthy i.e. free from zoonoses.
– Should be clean always.
(v) – Best for mastitis before milking. Using a strip cup, animals having mastitis should be milked last to avoid spread of diseases.
(vi) – Milk storage and handling.
1mk for explanation x 5 =5mks) =10 mks)
(c) – Goats are tolerant.
(b)
Developing
Embryos
Egg in feaces larval
Forms
In snail
Animal eats cyst
Encycited
Cercarian
Drawing 2 ½ mks
Description 2 ½ mks
(c) Foot and mouth:
Causes – virus type A, C and D. (1 mk)
Symptoms:
Control:
(d) – Signs of good layers:
AGRICULTURE IV
SECTION A.
(2mks)
be inseminated (1mk)
(2mks)
SECTION B
poultry (2mks)
SECTION C
maize? (10mks)
– High milk production is obtained
– Allows higher stocking rate
– Animals make maximum use of fodder without wastage
– Rapid accumulation of manure
– Minimises outbreak of diseases
– Avoids overgrazing
(4 x ½ = 2mks)
(c)
– To obtain a strong, heavy and healthy calf at birth
– To increase milk production in the next lactation
– To allow accumulation of body reserves used in the formation of colostrum
(b)
(i) Foot and Mouth disease
(ii) Anthrax
(iii) Rinder pest
(iv) Lampiy sick disease
(v) Rabies
(2 x 1 = 2mks)
(c)
– Vaccinate birds at regular interval
– Isolate affected birds/destroy affected birds
– Disinfect the house before bringing in new stock
– Impose quaratine in the farm
– Ensure proper farm hygiene
(4 x ½ mks = 2mks)
where as marketing is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods
and services from producers to consumers (2mks)
(b) An imperfect market is a situation in which some buyers, some sellers or both have limited
knowledge of goods and services offered for sale at various forces/few buyers and sellers
/different, goods in to the market.
(c) The Price of mangoes go down. (1mk)
(ii) – Causes infertility in cows
– Damaged uterus caused by abortion
– Infection such as viginitis, brucel lossis;
– Retained placenta
– Blocked fallopian tube as a result of infection
– Lack of essential nutrients like vitamin E
– Frematin: a heifer born twin with a bull is 90% infertile
Mating
– Young females should be mated when they are 6 – 7 months old
– Old females should be mated after kindling
– Take the doe to the bucks hutch for mating
– Have one back to give does
Preparation for Kindling
– Gestation period 31 days (one month)
– Clean and put in a nest box nestling materials four days to kindling
– Place the box in the darkest corner of the hutch since the doe likes kindling where it is
dark
Rearing the Kindles
– Regularly check the nest to remove sick, weak and dead babies
– Check daily to ensure that all the babies feed well
– Feed kindles on mothers milk for the 2 ½ – 3 weeks
– They allowed to stay with mother until 8th week when they are weaned
(8 x 1 = 8mks)
AGRICULTURE V
SECTION A.
(a) Name any two pests that attack bean pods in the field (1mk)
(b) Give four examples of French beans/Green beans (2mks)
(a) Name any four livestock attacked by trypanosomiasis disease (2mks)
(b) What organism causes Gall sickness disease in livestock (1mk)
(a) Name the system of breeding where low grade female is mated to pure bred sire (1mk)
(b) Give two classes of concentrate feedstuffs (1mk)
SECTION B
27.(a) State three important characteristics of Hereford breed that makes it particularly suitable
for beef production (3mks)
(b) What three major character expressions would you look for in the performance records of a
dairy cow for breeding (3mks)
(c) Give the period of sexual maturity in months in each of the following livestock (2mks)
(i) Sow
(ii) Ewe
28.(a) Explain ways of improving the quality and quantity of crop yields. (13mks)
(b) Explain the effect of soil PH on crop production (7mks)
AGRICULTURE V
MARKING SCHEME
6.a. – American bollworm (reject bollworm alone)
– Flower thrips ( 2x ½ = 1mk)
(b) – Primeur
– Long tom
– Saxa
– Master Piece
– Monel (4 x ½ = 2mks)
9.(a) – Cattle (reject cow or bull alone)
– Sheep
– Goats
– Pigs (4 x ½ = 2mks)
(b) – Protozoa – Anaplasma marginale (1mk)
– Amount of feed received
– Amount of feed used
– Type of feed
– Balance in stock
– Remarks
23.(a) – High body temperature/high fever
– Starring coat
– Discharges in the mouth and nose
– Watery eyes
– Diarrhoea and dysentery
– Red mucus membrane of the mouth, nose
– Emaciation
– Grinding of teeth
– Death in 2 – 10 days in acute cases but may live for 3 or more weeks in less acute cases
(4 x ½ = 2mks)
(b) – Age of animal
– Sex of the animal
– Colour of the animal
– Body conformation
– Change of climate
– Environment
– Size of the herd/flock
– Body conditions/fatigue/weakness
– Animal movements
(c) (i) – More tedious to the operator
– Requires more than one person
– Slower/work output less
– Animal tires quickly
– Attack by diseases makes it difficult to use the animals
– A piece of land has to be set aside to grow fodder crop or develop pasture for animals (4 x ½ = 2mks)
(ii) – Many chicks can be hatched at ones time
– It is possible to plan when to hatch chicks (2 x ½ =1mk)
organisms which cause disease. (1mk)
(b) – Use of lethal temperature
– Drying
– Irrigation/flooding the field
– Suffocation
– Physical destruction
– Use of physical barriers
– Use of electro magnetic radiation (4 x1 = 4mks)
(c)(i)– Cassava mosiac
–Brown streak (2 x 1 = 2mks)
(ii) – Hot and cold disease in coffee
– Leaf wrinkle
– Elgon dieback in coffee
– Blossom end-rot in tomatoes
– Thick necked condition in onions (2 x ½ = 1mk)
25.(a) – Making mortar
– Making concrete
– Making concrete blocks
– Making anil (3 x 1 = 3mk)
(b) – Nearness to water source
– Slope of the land/levelness of the area
– Drainage of soil
– Nearness to mainfield
– Freedom from pests and diseases/weeds
– Shelter from winds (4 x ½ = 2mks)
(c)(i) – Ponds
– Dams/weirs
– Storage tanks (2 x ½ = 1mk)
(ii) – Expensive/high initial cost
– High labour demand/easy transmission of diseases
– Difficult to maintain the strength/ concentration of dipwash (4 x ½ = 2mks)
26.(a)(i) For attachment of all parts of the plough
(ii) For attachment of the mouldboard, share and landslide
(iii) Cuts the furrow slice horizontally
(iv) For attaching depth rod that can be adjusted before and also during ploughing
(4 x ½ = 2mks)
(b) – Lubricate land wheel bearing
– Repair/replace wornout shares
– Tighten loose bolts and nuts
– For long storage with old engine oil to prevent rusting
– Store properly under a shed (reject shade) ( 3 x 1= 3mks)
(c) Mouldboard plough Disc plough
(i) Not used in a field with obstacles/ (i) Used in a field with obstacles /rolls over
cannot ride over stones, roots roots, stones
(ii) Inverts furrow slice completely/leaves (ii) Does not invert furrow slice completely/
a clean field leaves a rough field
(iii) Operates at uniform depth/share (iii) Cuts at varying depths as it rides over
furrows same depth once set obstacles
(iv) Rigid, easily broken by obstacles (iv) Not easily broken by obstacles as it rides
over them
(v) Requires more tractors power to pull (v) Requires less tractor power to pull it when
when operating operating
( 3 x 1 = 3mks)
27.(a) Hereford
– Fairly large body/weighs 80 – 1000 kg
– Good depth and width/compact body
– Fast growth and reach market weight early
– Efficient food converter into flesh (3 x 1=3mks)
(b) – Character expressions
– Ability to milk/easy milk let-down
– Quantity of milk produced
– Butterfat content /quality of milk
– Number of calves born by the cow
– Ability to resist diseases
– Weight gain/growth rate of calf born by the cow (3 x 1 = 3mks)
(c) (i) Sow – 4 – 6months
(ii) Ewe – 8 – 12 months ( 2 x 1 = 2mks)
28.a – Plant appropriate feeds depending on ecology
– Planting healthy seeds/materials/certified seeds
– Early planting
– Proper seed bed preparation/correct tilth
– Weed control
– Disease control
– Pests control
– Soil and water conservation/terracing
– plant at correct spacing
– Proper seed rate
– Application of inorganic fertilisers
– Irrigation watering
– Gapping
– Thinning
– Crop rotation
– Timely harvesting ( 13 x 1 = 13mks)
(Award a full mark for a well explained point)
(b) – Influences availability of soil nutrients
–Influences activity of soil micro-organisms/nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria
– Influences balance of different micro-organisms by influencing their competitive ability
– Influence presence of disease organisms/fungus and bacteria
– Influence soil borne pests e.g nematodes in acidic soils
– Influences the type of fertiliser to be applied whether acidic or alkaline
– Influences concentration of iron and Aluminium to injurious or toxic levels to crops
( 7 x 1 = 7mks)
moisture
– Apply 1 tablespoonful/DSP fertiliser per hole/100 – 150 kg DSP per hectare
– Mix the fertiliser with the soil to prevent seed scorching
– Apply well decomposed organic manure
– Place 1 or 2 seeds per hole and cover with the soil ( 8 x 1= 8mks)
(iii) Field operation
– Thinning soon after germination when soil is moist
– Gapping/replanting soonest for uniform growth
– Uproot with a jembe/panga or use chemical herbicides eg, MCPA, 2, 4- D
– Control diseases using appropriate chemicals/uproot and burn infected crop
– Control pests using appropriate pesticides e.g maize stalk borer use dipterex/uproot and burn
infected crop
– Irrigate during dry weather (5 x 1 = 5mk)
(iv) Harvesting
– Start 4 – 5 months after sowing depending in variety and altitude
– Done during dry weather
– Harvest when leaves and cobs dry
– Cut the stalks, remove the cobs or open the ear, break the cobs and then cut the stalks
– Put in the sun to dry, snell, winnow, dry the grains to include 12 – 13%, treat with actelic
dust before storage (3 x 1 = 3mks)
30.(a) Fowl pox disease
(i) – Chicken
– Turkeys
– Pigeons
– Other birds
(Poultry alone is correct) (1 x 1= 1mks)
(ii) – Virus ( 1 x 1 = 1mk)
(iii) – Symptoms of attack
Dipheritheritic type
– Yellowish, raised lesions inside throat and mouth mucus membrane
– Difficulty in breathing & swallowing
– Watery discharges from the eyes and nose at early stages
– Loss of appetite
– Dullness
– Emaciation and death may occur (5 x 1 = 5mks)
(iv) Cutaneous type
– Injuries/lessions on combs, wattles/lessions at first are small and greyish white and later
turn yellowish brown and bigger in size
– Lessions on the, vent, feet and under the wings
– Loss of appetite, emaciation and death (3 x 1 = 3mks)
(iv) Remove affected birds and kill
– Vaccinate healthy birds ( 2 x 1= 2mk)
(b) – Presence of broken/soft shelled eggs
– Bright lights in the nests
– Idleness
– Inadequate nest/birds lay on floor
– Incorrect feeding/lack of minerals/unbalanced feeding
– Overcrowding of birds
– presence of external parasites on combs wattles e.g. fleas
– Prolapse cloaca does not retract after the hen has laid
– Introduction of new birds in a flock causing fighting
– Keeping birds of different ages together/no age grouping
– Bright light in the brooder ( 10 x 1 = 10mks)
SECTION A :
quality (2mks)
plants (1mk)
SECTION B.
(2mks)
(3mks)
SECTION C.
24.a) Describe the management practices involved in rearing of a day-old chicks upto the age of 8
weeks (16mks)
– Milk sales – sh 8,000.00
– Purchase of farm tools – sh 1,000.00
– Sales of goats – sh 500.00
– Constraction of zero grazing unit- sh 10,000.00
– Closing valuation – sh 16,000.00
– Depreciation of machinery – sh 800.00
– Interest payable – sh 750.00
– Purchase of pesticides – sh 300.00
– Veterinary bills – sh 400.00
– Sales of cabbage – sh 750.00
– Wages – sh 4800.00
– Sales of one heifer – sh 9400.00
– Opening valuation – s h12,000.00
– Tea sales – sh 4,700.00
26 a) State the principles involved in planning a crop rotation programme. (6mks)
MARKING SCHEME
– Burning of land
– Monocropping / monoculture / failure to practice crop rotation
– Wriking soil when it is wet
– Repeating use of heavy machinery for cultivation
– Heat / warmth is provided to piglets to prevent chilling.
– Prevent mother pig from crashing the piglets.
– Ultraviolet rays from bulb assist in synthesis of vitamin D under the skin.
3.a)i) For applying mortar / concrete on walls / floors. ii) For cutting metals.
b)i) Pair of shears. ii) A scapel.
– Avoiding picking when it is wet.
– Picking is done manually.
– The type of herbicide.
– Time of application.
6.a)- Quick rate of work
– Better burial of weeds during ploughing
– Efficient work
– Less labour demanding
– Can be used to transport farm produce
– Operation done in line
– Does ploughing, planting and harvesting
– P.T.O shaft can be used for irrigation, sprinkling water etc.
– Needs frequent repair and maintenance
– Initial capital for purchase is high
– Requires technical know how to operate
– Only confined to large scale farms
– Touching kindles with strong / bad smelling substances.
– When the doe is frightened or disturbed after kindling.
9.a) – Weather changes.
– Out break of pests and diseases.
– Natural calamities e.g earth quakes.
– Obsolenscence (become out of date) i.e machinery.
– New production techniques.
– Changing prices of commodities.
– Low or high yields of production.
– Theft cases – sickness / injury.
– Fire out breaks death.
– Provision of extension service and advice to farmers.
– Adjusting future prices of commodities from the farm and giving farmers in advances.
– Stabilization of prices of certain farm produce so that they don’t flactuate.
– Provision of loans to farmers to improve production.
– Provision of research on animals and plants e.g hybrids diseases etc.
– Provision and subsidisation of agricultural inputs.
– Stunted growth.
– Premature drying of leaves.
– Defoliation / falling of leaves.
– Organic manure
– Nitrogen fixation
– Fresh organic matter
11.a) i) – Is any plant established naturally or artificially for feeding livestock.
(ii) – Site for beehive / bee keeping.
– Use of high yielding / performing animal.
– Conservation of forage.
– Solubility of mineral salts.
– Rate of soil structure / infiltration / texture drainage.
13.a) – Necessitates sperm production.
b)- Provide sufficient nourishment for the development of the foetus and the expectant mother.
– Helps to prevent pregnancy to xermical (twin lamb disease).
– Result in strong healthy lamb at birth.
– Promotes udder development and better milk following lambing.
– Enhances muscle reserve build up in ewes.
– Soil
– Direction of wind
– Relationship to other structures
– Accessibility
– Size of the farm
– Used when carrying out livestock treatment.
– Used to restrain animals during artificial insemination.
– Used to restrain animals during weighing.
16.a) – 3 cedar posts.
– Nitrogen = 62.50 Kg
17.a) – Stunted growth
– Low milk yields
– Presence of dehydrating tissues
– Resistance to drought
– Ability to drink large amounts of water
18.a) – Sound economic base / finance
– Loyalty of members
– Good leadership
– Effective control of funds
– Education of members on their rights and obligations
– Provide loans to farmers
– Keep prices stable
– Control quality and quantity of products
19.- Passive immunity is one passed from the mother to the child while active immunity is
acquired after a previous developing antibodies against the disease.
– Wilting.
21.a) – Select proper / more paying enterprises.
– Proper crop husbandry practices.
– Improve farm management.
– Mechanization of farm operation
– Adopt new technique of production
– Time line of farm operation
– Price of culled birds
– Replacement cost
– Casual labour
22.a) – Cross breading
– Up – grading.
– It is possible to use sire on smaller cows without any physical injury.
– Permits the use of proven sires beyond the economy lease of an average farmer.
– It makes it easy to control in breeding.
– To reduce / spread risks
– To maximise revenue / incure
– To obtain balance diet for the family
– Crop residues are feed to livestock
– Income is obtained through out the year
SECTION C.
24.a) – Litter should be provided for to provide warmth as well as absorbing moisture.
– Fresh air – Holes for ventilation should be made on the walls of the brooder to allow gaseous exchange.
– Heat source – A wire should be around heat source to prevent chicks from burning.
– The correct temperatures should be:
32 – 35oC 1st week
29.7 – 32.2oC 2nd week
26.6 – 29.7oC 3rd week
– Source of heat should be removed in the fourth week gradually to avoid stress.
– Light – provide light in the brooder for the chicks to see food (dim light).
– Feeders – provide clean feeders which should be cleaned every morning.
– Waterers – provide waters which should clean have pointed tips to avoid water being dirty.
– Avoid sharp corners as these encourages overcrowding causing suffocation.
– Feed chick and duck marsh at recommended ratio depending on the number of chicks.
– Vaccinate chicks with Newcastle vaccine.
– Ensure selective stock disposal when drought is approaching.
– Provide crop residues to livestock.
– Irrigation of pastures.
– Give supplementary feed to livestock.
– Plant drought tolerant fodder crops.
– Profit and Loss account.
– Profit and loss of Mrs Odhiambos farm for 1997
Sales and reciepts Purchases and expenses
Shs cts Shs
Closing valuation 16,000 00 Opening valuation 12,000
Milk Sales 8,000 00 Purchases of farm tools 1000
Sales of goats 500 00 Consts of zero unit 10,000
Sales of cabbages 750 00 Depr of machinery 800
Sales of heifer 9,400 00 Interest payable 750
Sales of tea 4,700 00 Purchase of pesticides 300
Veterinary bills 400
Wages 4,800
39,350 39,350
Mrs Odhiambo started her operations at a farm value Shs. 12,000 and therefore this is the base. The farm made a profit of Shs 9,300. The percentage profit is therefore
9,300 x 100 = 77.5%
12,000
26.a) – Shallow rooters should alternate with deep rooters.
– Crop attacked by the same pests and disease should not follow each other.
– Crops with high nutrient requirement should come first in a newly ploughed land.
– Legumes should be included in the programme to increase nitrogen content of soil.
– Fallow period / grass should be included in the rotation to build soil structure.
– Crops which are hard to weed should alternate with those that are easy to weed.
– To improve coffee yield and quality.
– Mulch should not be in contact with coffee stem
Reason:
Pest s and diseases
Coffee pests:
Coffee disease:
– Planting resistant cultivers
Coffee leaf rust:
– Plant resistant varieties
– Time by application of fungicide
Fertilizer and manure applications:
– Phosphate fertilizers – Applied at planting time to supply phosphorous for proper root growth and development
– Nitrogenous fertilizer – The crop should be top dressed when soil is moist.
Reason:- To supply nitrogen required for vegetation growth, flowering and fruiting.
– Manure(compost) application:- Apply in planting holes.
Reason: – To improve soil structure.
– To supply nutrients.
– To increase activity of micro-organism.
History and Government Free Notes, Exams For all Forms 1 to 4
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.3UNIT 2: NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
Unit checklist.
Introduction:
– About 78% of air is nitrogen, existing as N2 molecules.
– The two atoms in the molecules are firmly held together.
– Nitrogen does not take part in many chemical reactions due to its low reactivity.
– Its presence in air dilutes oxygen and slows down respiration, burning and rusting.
Preparation of nitrogen.
(a). Isolation from air.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure.
– Air is driven out of the aspirator by passing water into the aspirator from a tap.
– The air is the passed through a wash bottle containing concentrated potassium hydroxide solution.
Reason:
– To remove carbon (IV) oxide from air.
Equations:
2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Then
K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2KHCO3(aq)
Thus;
KOH(aq) + CO2(g) KHCO3(aq)
– The carbon (IV) oxide-free air is then passed into a combustion tube with heated copper metal.
Reason:
– To remove oxygen from the air.
Note:
In this reaction the brown copper metal is oxidized to black copper (II) oxide.
Equation:
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
Brown Black
Note:
– Alternatively oxygen can be removed by passing the carbon (IV) oxide-free air through pyrogallic acid.
– The remaining part of air is mainly nitrogen and is collected over water.
Note:
– Nitrogen obtained by this method contains noble gases like xenon, argon etc as impurities.
– Purer nitrogen may be obtained by heating ammonium nitrite.
Equation:
NH4NO3(s) Heat N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Summary.
(b). Removal from liquid air.
– Liquid air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen with small amounts of noble gases.
– This method involves manufacture of liquid air and consequent fractional distillation.
The chemical process.
Step 1: removal of dust particles.
– Dust particles are first removed by either of the two processes:
(i). Electrostatic precipitation:
– Air is passed through oppositely charged plates hence an electric field.
– Dust particles (charged) are consequently attracted to plates of opposite charges.
Diagram: electrostatic precipitation:
(ii). Filtration:
– The air is passed through a series of filters which traps dust particles as the air is forced through.
Step 2: removal of carbon (IV) oxide.
– The dust-free air is passed through a solution of potassium hydroxide; to remove carbon (IV) oxide.
Equations:
2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Then:
K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2KHCO3(aq)
(Excess)
– Alternatively, sodium hydroxide may be used in place of potassium hydroxide.
Step 3: Removal of water vapour.
– The dustless, carbon (IV) oxide-free air is next passed into a chamber with concentrated sulphuric acid or anhydrous calcium chloride in which water vapour is separated and removed.
Note:
To remove water vapour, air may be alternatively passed into a freezing chamber where it is condensed at -25oC.
– The water vapour solidifies and is then absorbed by silica gel and separated out.
– Air is freed from carbon (IV) oxide, water vapour and dust particles (before compression) so as to prevent blockage of the pipes caused by solid materials at liquefaction temperatures i.e. carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour form solids which may block the collection pipes.
Step 4: Liquification of air.
– The air free from dust, carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour is then compressed at about 200 atmospheres, cooled and allowed to expand through fine jet.
– This sudden expansion causes further cooling and the gases eventually liquefy.
– The liquid is tapped off through a valve while gas which has escaped liquefaction returns to the compressor.
– Liquid air is a transparent pale blue liquid.
– This liquid is then fractionally distilled.
Step 5: Fractional distillation of liquid air.
– The boiling point of nitrogen is -196oC (77K) and that of oxygen is -183oC (90K).
– Consequently when liquid air is allowed to warm up, the nitrogen boils off first and the remaining liquid becomes richer in oxygen.
– The top of the fractionating column is a few degrees cooler than the bottom.
– Oxygen, the liquid with the higher boiling point (-183oC) collects at the bottom as the liquid.
– The gas at the top of the column is nitrogen which ahs a lower boiling point.
– The more easily vapourised nitrogen is taken off.
– This way about 99.57% nitrogen is obtained.
Note:
– The separation of nitrogen and oxygen from air is a proof that air is a mixture and not a compound.
Summary: Fractional distillation of liquid air.
|
Step 1: Elimination of dust by Filtration
and electrostatic precipitation
Step 2: CO2 removal, pass dust free air
through KOH or NaOH
Step 3: Removal of water vapour; through
condensation -25oC) or conc. H2SO4
Recycling Step 4: Compression at approximately 200
atmospheres; cooling and expansion of air
Step 5: Fractional distillation
(c). Laboratory preparation method.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– Concentrated solutions of sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride are heated together in a round bottomed flask.
(iii). Observations.
– Colourless gas (nitrogen) is evolved rapidly and is collected over water.
(iv). Equation.
NaNO2(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) heat NaCl(aq) + N2(g) + 2H2O(l).
Note: the resultant gas is less dense than that isolated from air.
Reason:
– It does not contain impurities.
(d). Preparation from ammonia.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– Dry ammonia gas is passed over a heated metal oxide e.g. copper metal.
– The metal oxide is reduced to the metal while ammonia gas is itself oxidized to nitrogen and water.
– Water is condensed and collected in a u-tube immersed in ice cubes.
– Nitrogen produced is collected over water.
(iii). Observations and explanations.
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
(Black) (Brown) (Colourless)
3ZnO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Zn(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
(Yellow-hot) (Grey) (Colourless)
(White-cold)
3PbO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
(Red-hot) (Grey) (Colourless)
(Yellow-cold)
Properties of nitrogen.
(a). Physical properties.
(b). Chemical properties.
Reason:
– The inert nature of nitrogen is due to the strong covalent bonds between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule; N2.
Structurally;
– In air, it neither burns nor supports combustion and acts mainly as a diluent for the oxygen; slowing down the rate of burning.
Chemical test for nitrogen.
– A gas is proved to be nitrogen by elimination: –
– Under special conditions (i.e. high pressure, low temperatures and presence of iron catalyst), nitrogen combines with hydrogen to produce ammonia.
Equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
– This reaction forms the basis of Haber process used in the manufacture of ammonia.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– A piece of burning magnesium ribbon is introduced into a gas jar full of nitrogen.
(iii). Observations:
– The magnesium ribbon continues to burn and a white solid; magnesium nitride is formed.
Equation:
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Heat Mg3N2(s)
Note:
– When magnesium nitride is treated with water or a solution of sodium hydroxide; the characteristic pungent smell of ammonia can be detected.
Equations:
In water
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 2NH3(g) + 3Mg(OH)2(aq)
In sodium hydroxide:
Mg3N2(s) + NaOH(aq)
– When nitrogen and oxygen in air are passed through an electric arc small quantities of nitrogen (II) oxide are formed.
Equation:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
Note:
– Nitrogen reacts with oxygen under various conditions to give different types of nitrogen oxides.
Uses of nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen.
– The three main oxides of nitrogen are:
Preparation of nitrogen (I) oxide, N2O
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– Ammonium nitrate is gently heated in a boiling tube and gas produced collected over warm water.
– Heating is stopped while excess ammonium nitrate still remains.
Reason:
– To avoid chances of an explosion.
(iii). Observations:
– The solid (ammonium nitrate) melts and gives off nitrogen (I) oxide which is collected over warm water.
Reasons:
– Nitrogen (I) oxide is slightly soluble in cold water.
(iv). Equation:
NH4NO3(s) Heat NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Properties:
Equations:
N2O(g) + Mg(s) Heat MgO(s) + N2(g)
2N2O(g) + S(s) Heat SO2(g) + 2N2(g)
2N2O(g) + C(s) Heat CO2(g) + 2N2(g)
5N2O(g) + 2P(s) Heat P2O5(g) + 5N2(g)
Equation:
N2O(g) + Mg(s) Heat MgO(s) + N2(g)
Equation:
N2O(g) + Cu(s) Heat CuO(s) + N2(g)
Note:
Uses of nitrogen (I) oxide.
– It was formerly used in hospitals as an aesthetic for dental surgery but has since been discontinued due to availability of more efficient anaesthetics.
Note:
– Nitrogen (I) oxide is also called laughing gas; because patients regaining consciousness from its effects may laugh hysterically.
Preparation:
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– Action of heat on 50% concentrated nitric acid on copper turnings.
– Not any heat is required.
Equation:
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
(iii). Observations:
– An effervescence occurs in the flask; with brown fumes because the nitrogen (II) oxide produced reacts with oxygen of the air in the flask to form a brown gas, nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Equation:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Colourless Colourless Brown
– The brown fumes eventually disappear and the gas collected over water.
– The NO2 fumes dissolve in the water in the trough, resulting into an acidic solution of nitrous acid.
– The residue in the flask is a green solution of copper (II) nitrate.
– Industrially, the gas is obtained when ammonia reacts with oxygen in the presence of platinum catalyst.
– This is the first stage in the production of nitric acid.
(v). Properties.
Example:
2Mg(s) + 2NO(g) 2MgO(s) + N2(g)
4P(s) + 10NO(g) 2P2O5(s) + 5N2(g)
Equation:
2Cu(s) + 2NO(g) 2CuO(s) + N2(g)
– When iron (II) sulphate solution (freshly prepared) is poured into a gas jar of nitrogen (II) oxide, a dark brown colouration of Nitroso-iron (II) sulphate is obtained.
Equation:
FeSO4(aq) + NO(g) FeSO4.NO(aq)
Green solution Dark brown
(Nitroso-iron (II) sulphate/ nitrogen (II) oxide iron (II) sulphate complex)
Equation:
Cl2(g) + 2NO(g) 2ClNO(l)
Chloro nitrogen (II) oxide.
– When electrically sparked with hydrogen, NO is reduced to nitrogen.
Equation:
2H2(g) + 2NO(g) 2H2O(l) + N2(g)
Chemical test:
– When exposed to air, nitrogen (II) oxide forms brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Uses of Nitrogen (II) oxide.
Note: –It is not easy to handle owing to its ease of oxidation.
Preparation:
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– Action of conc. Nitric acid on copper metal.
Equation:
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Note:
– NO2 is also prepared by the action of heat on nitrates of heavy metals like lead nitrate.
– NO2 is given off together with oxygen when nitrates of heavy metals are heated.
– It is best prepared by heating lead (II) nitrate in a hard glass test tube.
– The gas evolved passes into a U-tube immersed in an ice-salt mixture.
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
– The heated white lead (II) nitrate crystals decompose and decrepitates (cracking sound) to yield red lead (II) oxide; which turns yellow on cooling.
– A colourless gas, oxygen is liberated, followed immediately by brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
– Nitrogen (IV) oxide is condensed as a yellow liquid; dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4); and is collected in the U-tube.
Note:
– At room temperature, nitrogen (IV) oxide consists of nitrogen (IV) oxide and dinitrogen tetroxide in equilibrium with each other.
Equation:
2NO2(g) N2O4(g)
(Nitrogen (IV) oxide) (Dinitrogen tetroxide)
– The oxygen being liberated does not condense because it ahs a low boiling point of -183oC.
Properties of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Equation:
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
(Nitric (V) acid) (Nitrous (III) acid)When liquid nitrogen
– Like carbonic (IV) acid, nitrous (III) acid could not be isolated. It is easily oxidized to nitric (V) acid.
Equation:
2NHO2(aq) + O2(g) 2NHO3(aq)
(Nitric (III) acid) (Nitrous (V) acid)
– Nitrogen (IV) oxide does not support combustion.
– However burning magnesium continues to burn in it.
Reason:
– The high heat of combustion of burning magnesium decomposes the nitrogen (IV) oxide to nitrogen and oxygen; the oxygen then supports the burning of the magnesium.
Equation:
4MgO(s) + 2NO2(g) 4MgO(s) + 2N2(g)
Note:
– Generally nitrogen (IV) oxide oxidizes hot metals and non-metals to oxides and itself reduced to nitrogen gas.
Examples:
(i). Copper:
4Cu(s) + 2NO2(g) 4CuO(s) + N2(g)
(ii). Phosphorus:
8P(s) + 10NO2(g) 4P2O5(s) + 5N2(g)
(iii). Sulphur:
2S(s) + 2NO2(g) 2SO2(g) + N2(g)
Note:
– NO2 reacts with burning substances because the heat decomposes it to NO2 and O2.
Equation:
2NO2(g) Heat 2NO(g) + O2(g)
– This is the oxidizing property of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
– The resultant oxygen supports the burning.
– On heating, nitrogen (IV) oxide dissociates to nitrogen (II) oxide and oxygen and will support a burning splint.
Equation:
2NO2(g) Heat 2NO(g) + O2(g)
– This is due to the reversible set of reactions:
Heat Heat
N2O4(l) 2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g)
(Dinitrogen tetroxide) Cool (Nitrogen (IV) oxide) Cool (Nitrogen (II) oxide) (Oxygen)
Pale yellow Brown
Colourless
– Percentage of each in the equilibrium depends on temperature.
– At low temperatures, percentage of N2O4 is high and the mixture is pale yellow in colour.
– Percentage of nitrogen (IV) oxide increases with increase in temperature and the colour darkens till at 150oC when the gas is entirely NO2 and is almost black.
– Still at higher temperatures, nitrogen (IV) oxide dissociates into colourless gas (NO and O2).
– A solution of aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to a gas jar of nitrogen (IV) oxide and shaken.
Observation:
– The brown fumes disappear.
Explanation:
– Formation of sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite.
Equation:
2NaOH(aq) + 2NO2(g) 2NaNO3(g) + NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionically:
2OH–(aq) + 2NO2(g) NO3–(aq) + NO2–(aq) + H2O(l)
Conclusion:
Nitrogen (IV) oxide is an acidic gas because it can react with an alkali.
Uses of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Summary on comparison between oxides of nitrogen.
| Nitrogen (I) oxide | Nitrogen (II) oxide | Nitrogen (IV) oxide | |
| Colour | – Colourless gas
– Sweet sickly smell |
– Colourless; turns brown in air;
– Odourless |
– Red brown gas;
– Choking pungent smell; |
| 2. Solubility | – Fairly soluble in cold water; but less soluble in hot water; | – Almost insoluble in water | – Readily soluble in water to form nitric (V) acid and nitrous (III) acid; |
| 3. Action on litmus | – Neutral to litmus | – Neutral to litmus | – Turns moist blue litmus paper red; i.e. acidic. |
| 4. Combustion | – Supports combustion; relights a glowing splint; | – Does not support combustion; | – Does not support combustion. |
| 5. Density | – Denser than air | – Slightly denser than air | – Denser than air; |
| 6. Raw materials and conditions | – Ammonium nitrate and heat; | – Copper and 50% nitric acid; | – Copper metal and concentrated nitric acid; |
Action of heat on nitrates.
– All nitrates except ammonium nitrate decompose on heating tom produce oxygen gas as one of the products.
– Nitrates can be categorized into 4 categories based on the products formed when they are heated.
– The ease with which nitrates decompose increases down the electrochemical series of metals.
Examples:
2NaNO3(s) Heat 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
2KNO3(s) Heat 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
Example: action of heat on lead (II) nitrate.
(i). Apparatus:
(ii). Procedure:
– Solid white lead (II) nitrate crystals are strongly heated in a boiling (ignition) tube.
– Products are passed into a U- tube immerse in ice.
– Excess gases are channeled out to a fume chamber.
(iii). Observations:
– The white crystalline solid decrepitates.
– A colourless gas (oxygen) is liberated and immediately followed by a red brown fumes/ gas (nitrogen (IV) oxide).
– A pale yellow liquid (dinitrogen tetroxide) condenses in the U-tube in the ice cubes.
– This is due to condensation of nitrogen (IV) oxide.
– A residue which is red when hot and yellow on cooling remains in the boiling (ignition) tube
Equation:
2Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White crystalline solid) (Red-hot Brown Fumes Colourless gas
yellow-cold)
Further examples:
2Ca(NO3)2(s) Heat 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White solid) (White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas
2Mg(NO3)2(s) Heat 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White solid) (White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas
2Zn(NO3)2(s) Heat 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White solid) (Yellow-hot Brown Fumes Colourless gas
White-cold)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) Heat 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(Blue solid) (Black solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas
Note:
– Some nitrates are hydrated and when heated first give out their water of crystallization; and then proceed to as usual on further heating.
Examples:
Ca(NO3)2.4H2O(s) Heat Ca(NO3)2(s) + 4H2O(g)
(White solid) (White solid) Colourless gas
On further heating;
2Ca(NO3)2(s) Heat 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White solid) (White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas
Example:
Hg(NO3)2(s) Heat Hg(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas
2AgNO3(s) Heat 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
(White solid) Brown Fumes Colourless gas
Example:
NH4NO3(s) Heat N2O(g) + O2(g)
Colourless gas Colourless gas
Note:
This reaction is potentially dangerous as ammonium nitrate explodes on strong heating.
Ammonia.
– Is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen and is the most important hydride of nitrogen.
– It is formed when any ammonium salt is heated with an alkali whether in solid or solution form.
– It is a colourless gas with a pungent smell of urine.
– It is alkaline and turns moist red litmus paper to blue when introduced to it.
Laboratory preparation of ammonia.
(i). Reagents.
Base + ammonium salt NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(ii). Apparatus.
(iii). Procedure.
– Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)/ sal-ammoniac is mixed with a little dry slaked lime i.e. Ca(OH)2 and the mixture thoroughly ground in a mortar.
Reason:
– To increase surface area for the reactions.
– The mixture is then heated in a round-bottomed flask.
Note:
– A round-bottomed flask ensures uniform distribution of heat while heating the reagents.
– The flask should not be thin-walled.
Reason:
The pressure of ammonia gas liberated during heating may easily crack or break it.
– The flask is positioned slanting downwards.
Reason:
– So that as water condenses from the reaction, it does not run back to the hot parts of the flask and crack it.
– The mixture on heating produces ammonia, calcium chloride and water.
Equation:
Ca(OH)2(s) + NH4Cl(s) CaCl2(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(g)
(Slaked lime)
(iv). Drying:
– Ammonia is dried by passing it through a tower or U-tube filled with quicklime (calcium oxide) or pellets of caustic potash but not caustic soda which is deliquescent.
Note:
Ammonia cannot be dried with the usual drying agents; concentrated sulphuric acid and calcium chloride as it reacts with them.
2NH3(g) + H2SO4(l) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
CaCl2(aq) + 4NH3(g) CaCl2.4NH3(s)
– i.e. ammonia reacts forming complex ammonium salt.
(v). Collection:
– Dry ammonia gas is collected by upward delivery.
Reasons:
– It is lighter than air.
– It is soluble in water.
Other methods of preparing ammonia.
(b). Ammonia from caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or caustic potash (potassium hydroxide)
Note:
– The slaked lime is replaced by either of the above solutions.
– Thus the solid reactant is ammonium chloride and the liquid reactant is potassium hydroxide.
(i). Apparatus:
(ii). Procedure:
– The flask is not slanted. It is vertical and heated on a tripod stand and wire gauze.
Reason:
– No need of slanting since water produced is in liquid form and not gaseous. Thus there is no possibility of condensation of water on hotter parts.
Equations:
(i). With caustic soda:
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(s) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Ionically;
Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) + NH4Cl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Hence; NH4Cl(s) + OH–(aq) Cl–(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
(ii). With caustic potash:
KOH(aq) + NH4Cl(s) KCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Ionically;
K+(aq) + OH–(aq) + NH4Cl(s) K+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Hence; NH4Cl(s) + OH–(aq) Cl–(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Note:
Ammonium sulphate could be used in place of ammonium chloride in either case.
Equations:
(i). With caustic soda:
2NaOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(s) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Ionically;
2Na+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(s) 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Hence; (NH4)2SO4(s) + 2OH–(aq) SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
(ii). With caustic potash:
2KOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(s) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Ionically;
2K+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(s) 2K+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Hence; (NH4)2SO4(s) + 2OH–(aq) SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
(iii). With calcium hydroxide:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(s) CaSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Ionically;
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(s) Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
Hence; (NH4)2SO4(s) + 2OH–(aq) SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Note:
Reaction with calcium hydroxide however stops prematurely, almost as soon as the reaction starts.
Reason;
– Formation of insoluble calcium sulphate which coats the ammonium sulphate preventing further reaction.
Preparation of ammonium solution.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– The apparatus is altered as above.
– The drying tower is removed and the gas produced is directly passed into water by an inverted funnel.
Reasons for the inverted broad funnel.
– It increases the surface area for the dissolution of thereby preventing water from sucking back into the hot flask and hence prevents chances of an explosion.
(iii). Equation.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)
Note:
– The solution cannot be prepared by leading the gas directly to water by the delivery tube.
Reason:
– Ammonia gas is very soluble in water and so water would rush up the delivery tube and into the hot flask causing it to crack.
– The rim of the inverted funnel is just below the water surface.
Tests for ammonia.
Equation:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
Fountain experiment.
(i). Diagram:
(ii). Procedure:
– Dry ammonia is collected in a round-bottomed flask and set up as above.
– The clip is open and solution let to rise up the tube.
– The clip is closed when the solution reaches the top of the tube after which it is again opened fro a while.
(iii). Observations and explanations.
– When a drop of water gets to the jet, it dissolves so much of the ammonia gas that a partial vacuum is created inside the flask.
– As the ammonia in the flask dissolves, the pressure in the flask is greatly reduced.
– The atmospheric pressure on the water surface in the beaker forces water into the flask vigorously.
– The drawn-out jet of the tube causes a fountain to be produced.
– The fountain appears blue due to the alkaline nature of ammonia.
(iv). Caution:
– Ammonia is highly soluble in water forming an alkaline solution of ammonium hydroxide.
Note:
1 volume of water dissolves about 750 volumes of ammonia at room temperature.
Properties and reactions of ammonia.
Equation:
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
– Formation of hydroxyl ions means that the aqueous solution of ammonia is (weakly) alkaline and turns universal indicator purple.
– Sulphuric acid and concentrated ammonia solution are put in a dish and heated slowly.
– The mixture is evaporated to dryness.
Observations:
– A white solid is formed.
Equation:
2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionically:
2NH4+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) 2NH4+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + H2O(l).
Then;
2H+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) 2H2O(l)
– To some of the resultant white solid, a little NaOH(aq) was added and the mixture warmed.
– The gas evolved was tested fro ammonia.
Observation:
– The resultant gas tested positive for ammonia.
Equation:
(NH4)2SO4(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l).
Explanations:
– Evolution of ammonia shows that the white solid formed is an ammonium salt.
– The ammonia reacts with acids to from ammonium salt and water only.
Further examples:
HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
HNO3(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH4NO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation:
NH3(g) + H+(aq) NH4+(aq)
– Ammonia extinguishes a lighted taper because it dos not support burning.
– It is non-combustible.
– However it burns in air enriched with oxygen with a green-yellow flame.
Experiment: Burning ammonia in oxygen.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Procedure:
– Dry oxygen is passed in the U-tube for a while to drive out air.
– Dry ammonia gas is then passed into the tube.
– A lighted splint is then passed into the tube.
(iii). Observations:
– A colourless gas is liberated.
– Droplets of a colourless liquid collect on cooler parts of the tube.
(iv). Explanations:
– The conditions for the reactions are:
– Ammonia burns continuously in oxygen (air enriched with oxygen) forming nitrogen and water vapour i.e. ammonia is oxidized as hydrogen is removed from it leaving nitrogen.
Equation:
4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) 2N2(g) + 6H2O(g)
Sample question:
Suggest the role of glass wool in the tube.
Solution:
– To slow down the escape of oxygen in the combustion tube, thus providing more time for combustion of ammonia.
– It reduces oxides of metals below iron in the reactivity series.
Experiment: reaction between ammonia and copper (II) oxide.
(i). Apparatus.
|
(ii). Procedure:
– Copper (II) oxide is heated strongly and dry ammonia is passed over it.
– The products are then passed through a U-tube immersed in cold water (ice cubes).
(iii). Observations.
– The copper (II) oxide glows as the reaction is exothermic.
– A colourless liquid collects in the U-tube.
– A colourless gas is collected over water.
– The black copper (II) oxide changes to brown copper metal.
(iv). Explanations.
– Ammonia gas reduces copper (II) oxide to copper and is itself oxidized to nitrogen and water.
Equation:
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)
Black red-brown (colourless)
– The water produced condenses in the U-tube immersed in cold (ice) water.
– The resultant nitrogen is collected by downward displacement of water.
– The nitrogen gas collected is ascertained indirectly as follows:
Note:
– This experiment proves that ammonia contains nitrogen.
(i). Procedure:
– Ammonia gas is passed into a bell jar containing chlorine.
(ii). Apparatus:
(iii). Observations:
– The ammonia catches fire and burns for a while at the end of the tube.
– The flame then goes out and the jar then gets filled with dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.
Equations:
2NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) 6HCl(g) + N2(g)
Then;
6HCl(g) + 6NH3(g) 6NH4Cl(s)
Overall equation:
8NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) 6NH4Cl(s) + N2(g)
– Solution of ammonia in water contains hydroxyl ions.
Equation:
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
– Thus it has many properties of a typical alkali.
– Ammonia salts are similar to metallic salts.
– The group (NH4+) precipitates in the reaction as a whole without splitting in any way.
– It exhibits unit valency in its compounds and therefore called a basic radical.
Note:
– It cannot exist freely as ammonia gas (NH3) which is a compound.
– Like other alkalis, ammonia solution precipitates insoluble metallic hydroxides by double decomposition when mixed with solution of salts of the metals.
(i). Apparatus:
(ii). Procedure:
– Concentrated ammonia solution is put in a conical flask.
– The platinum (or even copper) wire is heated until white-hot.
– Oxygen gas or air is then passed through the ammonia solution.
– The red-hot platinum (copper) wire is then put into the flask containing the concentrated ammonia.
(iii). Observations:
– The hot platinum wire glows.
– Red-brown fumes are evolved.
(iv). Explanations:
– The hot platinum coil glows when it comes into contact with the ammonia fumes, which come from the concentrated ammonia solution.
– Reaction between ammonia and oxygen takes place on the surface of the platinum wire that acts a s a catalyst.
– A lot of heat is produced in the reaction that enables the platinum coil to continue glowing.
– Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Equation:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) Platinum catalyst 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
– Red-brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide are produced due to further oxidation of the nitrogen (II) oxide to from nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Equation:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
(i). Procedure:
– To about 2cm3 of solutions containing ions of calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper etc in separate test tubes; aqueous ammonia is added dropwise till in excess.
(ii). Observations:
The various metal ions reacted as summarized in the table below.
| Metal ions in solution | Observations on addition of ammonia | |
| Few drops of ammonia | Excess drops of ammonia | |
| Ca2+ | White precipitate | White precipitate persists; |
| Mg2+ | White precipitate | Precipitate persists; |
| Al3+ | White precipitate | Precipitate persists; |
| Zn2+ | White precipitate | Precipitate dissolves; |
| Fe2+ | Pale green precipitate | Precipitate persists; slowly turns red-brown on exposure to air; |
| Fe3+ | Red-brown precipitate | Precipitate persists; |
| Pb2+ | White precipitate | Precipitate persists; |
| Cu2+ | Pale blue precipitate | Precipitate dissolves forming a deep blue solution; |
(iii). Explanations:
– Most metal ions in solution react with ammonia solution to form insoluble metal hydroxides.
– In excess ammonia, some of the so formed hydroxides dissolve forming complex ions.
(iv). Equations:
MgCl2(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq)
Ionically:
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
(White ppt)
Fe(NO3)2(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) + 2NH4NO3(aq)
Ionically:
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
(Pale green ppt)
Ionically:
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
(Red brown ppt)
Note:
Zn2+(aq) and Cu2+(aq) dissolve in excess ammonia solution forming complex ions.
ZnCl2(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq)
Ionically:
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
(White ppt.)
– The white precipitate of Zn(OH)2(s) dissolves in excess ammonia to form a colourless solution; proof that solution has Zn2+ ions;
– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-amine zinc (II) ions.
Equation:
Zn(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Zn(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra amine zinc (II) ions)
– A pale blue precipitate is formed.
Ionically:
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
(Pale blue ppt.)
– The pale blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2(s) dissolves in excess ammonia to form a deep blue solution; proof that solution has Cu2+ ions;
– The deep blue solution is a complex salt of tetra-amine copper (II) ions.
Equation:
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
(Pale blue ppt.) (Deep blue solution-tetra amine copper (II) ions)
Uses of ammonia gas and its solution:
Qualitative analysis for cations using sodium hydroxide solution
(i). Procedure:
– To about 2cm3 of solutions containing ions of calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper etc in separate test tubes; aqueous sodium hydroxide is added dropwise till in excess.
(ii). Observations:
The various metal ions reacted as summarized in the table below.
| Metal ions in solution | Observations on addition of ammonia | |
| Few drops of ammonia | Excess drops of ammonia | |
| Ca2+ | White precipitate | White precipitate persists |
| Mg2+ | White precipitate | Precipitate persists; |
| Al3+ | White precipitate | Precipitate dissolves; |
| Zn2+ | White precipitate | Precipitate dissolves; |
| Fe2+ | Pale green precipitate | Precipitate persists; slowly turns red-brown on exposure to air; |
| Fe3+ | Red-brown precipitate | Precipitate persists; |
| Pb2+ | White precipitate | Precipitate dissolves; |
| Cu2+ | Pale blue precipitate | Precipitate dissolves forming a deep blue solution; |
(iii). Explanations:
– Most metal ions in solution react with sodium hydroxide solution to form insoluble metal hydroxides.
– In excess sodium hydroxide, some of the so formed hydroxides (hydroxides of Zn, Al, Pb and Cu) dissolve forming complex ions.
(iv). Equations:
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
(White ppt)
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
(White ppt)
Al3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
(White ppt)
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
(White ppt)
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
(White ppt)
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
(Pale blue ppt)
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
(Pale green ppt)
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
(Red brown ppt)
Note:
Hydroxides of Zn2+(aq) ; Pb2+(aq) ; and Al3+(aq) dissolve in excess ammonia solution forming complex ions.
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
(White ppt.)
– The white precipitate of Zn(OH)2(s) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solution;
– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-hydroxo zinc (II) ions (zincate ion).
Equation:
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH–(aq) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra hydroxo- zinc (II) ion/ zincate ion)
Al3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
(White ppt.)
– The white precipitate of Al(OH)3(s) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solution;
– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-hydroxo aluminium (III) ions (aluminate ion).
Equation:
Al(OH)3(s) + OH–(aq) [Al(OH)4]–(aq)
(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra hydroxo- aluminium (III) ion/aluminate ion
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
(White ppt.)
– The white precipitate of Pb(OH)2(s) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide to form a colourless solution;
– The colourless solution is a complex salt of tetra-hydroxo lead (II) ions (plumbate ions).
Equation:
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH–(aq) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
(White ppt.) (Colourless solution-tetra hydroxo- lead (II) ion/ plumbate ion)
Summary and useful information on qualitative analysis:
Colours of substances in solids and solutions in water.
| COLOUR | IDENTITY | |
| SOLID | AQUESOUS SOLUTION
(IF SOLUBLE) |
|
| 1. White | Colourless | Compound of K+; Na+, Ca2+; Mg2+; Al3+; Zn2+; Pb2+; NH4+ |
| 2. Yellow | Insoluble | Zinc oxide, ZnO (turns white on cooling); Lead oxide, PbO (remains yellow on cooling, red when hot) |
| Yellow | Potassium or sodium chromate; | |
| 3. Blue | Blue | Copper (II) compound, Cu2+ |
| 4. Pale green
Green |
Pale green (almost colourless)
Green |
Iron (II) compounds,Fe2+
Nickel (II) compound, Ni2+; Chromium (II) compounds, Cr3+; (Sometimes copper (II) compound, Cu2+) |
| 5. Brown | Brown (sometimes yellow)
Insoluble |
Iron (III) compounds, Fe3+;
Lead (IV) oxide, PbO2 |
| 6. Pink | Pink (almost colourless)
Insoluble |
Manganese (II) compounds, Mn2+;
Copper metal as element (sometimes brown but will turn black on heating in air) |
| 7. Orange | Insoluble | Red lead, Pb3O4 (could also be mercury (II) oxide, HgO) |
| 8. Black | Purple
Brown Insoluble |
Manganate (VII) ions (MnO–) as in KMnO4;
Iodine (element)-purple vapour Manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2 Copper (II) oxide, CuO Carbon powder (element) Various metal powders (elements) |
Reactions of cations with common laboratory reagents and solubilities of some salts in water
| CATION | SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS (IN WATER) | INSUOLUBLE COMPOUNDS (IN WATER) | REACTION WITH AQUEOUS SODIUM HYDROXIDE | REACTION WITH AQUEOUS AMMONIA SOLUTION |
| Na+ | All | None | No reaction | No reaction |
| K+ | All | None | No reaction | No reaction |
| Ca2+ | Cl–; NO3–; | CO32-; O2-; SO42-; OH–; | White precipitate insoluble in excess | White precipitate insoluble in excess, on standing; |
| Al3+ | Cl–; NO3–; SO42- | O2-; OH–; | White precipitate soluble in excess | White precipitate insoluble in excess |
| Pb2+ | NO3–; ethanoate; | All others; | White precipitate soluble in excess | White precipitate insoluble in excess |
| Zn2+ | Cl–; NO3–; SO42- | CO32-; O2-; SO42-; OH–; | White precipitate soluble in excess | White precipitate soluble in excess |
| Fe2+ | Cl–; NO3–; SO42- | CO32-; O2-; OH–; | (Dark) pale green precipitate insoluble in excess | (Dark) pale green precipitate insoluble in excess |
| Fe3+ | Cl–; NO3–; SO42- | CO32-; O2-; OH–; | (Red) brown precipitate insoluble in excess | (Red) brown precipitate insoluble in excess |
| Cu2+ | Cl–; NO3–; SO42- | CO32-; O2-; OH–; | Pale blue precipitate insoluble in excess | Pale blue precipitate soluble in excess forming a deep blue solution |
| NH4+ | All | None; | Ammonias gas on warming | Not applicable. |
Qualitative analysis for common anions.
| SO42-(aq) | Cl–(aq) | NO3–(aq) | CO32-(aq) | |
| TEST | Add Ba2+(aq) ions from Ba(NO3)2(aq); acidify with dilute HNO3(aq) | Add Ag+(aq) from AgNO3(aq).
Acidify with dilute HNO3 Alternatively; Add Pb2+ from Pb(NO3)2 and warm |
Add FeSO4(aq);
Tilt the tube and carefully add 1-2 cm3 of concentrated H2SO4(aq) |
Add dilute HNO3(aq); bubble gas through lime water; |
| OBSERVATION | The formation of a white precipitate shows presence of SO42- ion; | The formation of a white precipitate shows presence of Cl– ion;
Formation of a white precipitate that dissolves on warming shown presence of Cl–(aq) ions |
The formation of a brown ring shows the presence of NO3– ions | Evolution of a colourless gas that forma a white precipitate with lime water, turns moist blue litmus paper red; and extinguishes a glowing splint shows presence of CO32- ions |
| EXPLANATION | Only BaSO4 and BaCO3 can be formed as white precipitates.
BaCO3 is soluble in dilute acids and so BaSO4 will remain on adding dilute nitric acid |
Only AgCl and AgCO3 can be formed as white precipitates.
AgCO3 is soluble in dilute acids but AgCl is not; – PbCl2 is the only white precipitate that dissolves on warming |
Concentrated H2SO4 forms nitrogen (II) oxide with NO3–(aq) and this forms brown ring complex (FeSO4.NO) with FeSO4; | All CO32- or HCO3– will liberate carbon (IV) oxide with dilute acids |
Checklist:
What to look for when a substance is heated.
| 1. Sublimation | White solids on cool, parts of a test tube indicates NH4+ compounds;
Purple vapour condensing to black solid indicates iodine crystals; |
| 2. Water vapour (condensed) | Colourless droplets on cool parts of the test tube indicate water of crystallization or HCO3– (see below) |
| 3. Carbon (IV) oxide | CO32- of Zn2+; Pb2+; Fe2+; Fe3+; Cu2+; |
| 4. Carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour (condensed) | HCO3– |
| 5. Nitrogen (IV) oxide | NO3– of Cu2+; Al3+; Zn2+; Pb2+; Fe2+; Fe3+ |
| 6. Oxygen | NO3– or BaO2; MnO2; PbO2; |
Industrial manufacture of ammonia-The Haber process.
– Most of the worlds supply of ammonia is from the synthesis of Nitrogen and hydrogen in the Haber process.
(i). Raw materials
– Usually obtained from liquid air by fractional distillation
– Obtained from water gas in the Bosch process.
– Also from crude oil (cracking)
(ii). General equation
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2NH3(g) + heat;
Note:
– Nitrogen and hydrogen combine in the ratio 1:3 respectively to form two volumes of ammonia gas plus heat.
-The reaction is exothermic releasing heat to the surrounding.
(iii). Conditions
– The process is favoured by high pressures and thus a pressure of approximately 200 to 300 atmospheres is used.
Reason:
– The volume of gaseous reactants from equation is higher than volume of gaseous products. Thus increased pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right; favoring the production of more ammonia.
Note:
Such high pressures are however uneconomical.
– Low temperatures favour production of ammonia;
Reason:
– The reaction is exothermic (releases heat to the surrounding) hence lower temperature will favour the forward reaction (shift the equilibrium to the right), producing more ammonia.
– The low temperatures make the reaction slow and therefore a catalyst is used to increase the rate of reaction
– The catalyst used is finely divided iron; impregnated with Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
(iv). The chemical processes
Step 1: Purification
-The raw materials, nitrogen and hydrogen are passed through a purification chamber in which impurities are removed.
-The main impurities are CO2, water vapour, dust particles, SO2, CO2 and O2;
Reason:
The impurities would poison the catalyst
Step 2: Compression
– The purified Nitrogen and Hydrogen gases are compressed in a compressor at 500 atmospheres.
Reasons:
Step 3: Heat exchanger reactions
– Upon compression the gaseous mixture, nitrogen and hydrogen are channeled into a heat exchanger; which heats them increasing their temperature.
– This enables the reactants (hydrogen and nitrogen) to attain the optimum temperatures for the succeeding reactions (in the catalytic chamber)
– From the heat exchanger the gases go to the catalyst chamber.
Step 4: Catalytic chamber.
– The gases then combine in the ratio of 1:3 (N2:H2 respectively), to form ammonia.
– This reaction occurs in presence of a catalyst; which speeds up the rate of ammonia formation;
– The catalyst is finely divided iron impregnated with aluminium oxide (Al2O3 increases the catalytic activity of iron).
Equation in catalytic chamber
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + Heat (-92kjmol–)
– Only about 6-10% of the gases combine.
– Due to the high heat evolution involved, the products are again taken back to the heat exchanger; to cool the gases coming from the catalytic chamber.
Step 5: Heat exchanger
– The gases from the catalytic chamber enter the heat exchanger a second time.
Reason:
– To cool the gases coming from the catalytic chamber, thus reduce cost of condensation.
-The gaseous mixture; ammonia and uncombined nitrogen and hydrogen are the passed through a condenser.
Step 6: The condenser reactions (cooling chamber)
– The pressure and the low temperatures in this chamber liquefy ammonia, which is then drawn off.
– The uncombined (unreacted) gases are recirculated back to the compressor, from where they repeat the entire process.
Summary: flow chart of Haber process.
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Purifier: removal of duct particles; CO2; H2O vapour etc
Unreacted gases
(recycling)
6-10% ammonia + air;
LIQUID AMMONIA
Citing a Haber process plant
– When choosing a site for this industrial plant, the following factors are considered:
Ammonium salts as fertilizers
– Ammonium salts are prepared by the reaction between ammonia and the appropriate acid in dilute solution followed by evaporation and crystallization
(a). Ammonium sulphate
– Is prepared by absorbing ammonia in sulphuric acid.
Equation:
2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
Note: It is a cheap fertilizer.
(b). Ammonium nitrate
– Is prepared by neutralization nitric acid by ammonia.
Equation:
NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
– As there is some danger of exploding during storage, ammonium nitrate is mixed with finely powdered limestone (CaCO3).
-The mixture, sold as nitro-chalk is much safer.
(c). Ammonium phosphate
– It is particularly useful as it supplies both nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil.
– It is prepared by neutralizing othophosphoric acid by ammonia
Equation:
3NH3(g) + H3PO4(aq) (NH4)3 PO4(aq)
(d) Urea CO (NH2)2
– Is made from ammonia and carbon (IV) oxide
– Its nitrogen content by mass is very high; nearly 47%
Equation:
NH3(g) +CO2(g) CO (NH2)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Nitric (V) acid
– Is a monobasic acid (has only one replaceable Hydrogen atom); and has been known as strong water (aqua forty).
– It is a compound of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Laboratory preparation of nitric (V) acid
(i). Apparatus
(ii). Reagents
– Nitric acid is prepared in the laboratory by action of concentrated sulphuric acid on solid nitrates e.g. potassium nitrate (KNO3) and sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
(iii). Procedure
– 30-40 grams of small crystal of KNO3 are put in a retort flask.
– Concentrated sulphuric acid is added just enough to cover the nitrate; and then heated (warmed) gently.
– The apparatus is all glass.
Reason:
– Nitric (V) acid would attack rubber connections.
– The neck of the retort flask is inserted into a flask that is kept cool continually under running water; this is where nitric acid is collected.
Note:
The cold water running over the collection flask is meant to cool (condense) the hot fumes of nitric (V) acid.
(iv). Observations and explanations
– Fumes of nitric are observed in the retort;
Equation
KNO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) KHSO4(aq) +HNO3(g)
– If Lead (II) nitrate was used;
Pb(NO3)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(g)
Note: with lead (II) nitrate the reaction soon stops because the insoluble lead (II) sulphate coats the surface of the nitrate preventing further reaction; yield of nitric (V) acid is thus lower;
-These fumes of nitric acid appear brown.
Reason:
– Due to the presence of nitrogen (iv) oxide gas formed by thermal decomposition of nitric acid.
Equation:
4HNO3(aq) 4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(g)
– Pure nitric (V) acid is colourless but may appear yellow (brown) due to the presence of Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
– The brown colour can be removed by blowing air through the acid.
– Fuming nitric acid boils at 83oC and is 99% pure; while concentrated nitric acid is only 70% acid and 30% water.
Note: Nitric acid is usually stored in dark bottles.
Reason:
– To avoid its decomposition by light to nitrogen (IV) oxide, oxygen and water.
– The reaction in the retort flask is a typical displacement reaction; in which the more volatile nitric (V) acid is displaced from nitrates by the less volatile sulphuric acid.
– The nitric acid distills over because it is more volatile than sulphuric acid.
Properties of concentrated nitric acid
– Nitric (V) acid readily gives oxygen and therefore is called an oxidizer.
– The acid is usually reduced to nitrogen (IV) oxide and water.
(i) Apparatus
(ii) Observations
– Brown fumes are seen in the hard glass tube.
– Colourless gas is collected over water.
(ii). Explanations
– Sand soaked in concentrated nitric acid produces nitric solid vapour on heating.
– The hot glass wool catalyzes the decomposition of nitric acid to nitrogen (IV) oxide (brown fumes), water vapour and oxygen.
Equation
4HNO3(l) 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
(Brown fumes)
– The so formed nitrogen (IV) oxide dissolves in water forming both nitric and nitrous acids.
Equation:
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
– The oxygen gas is collected over water; and with the solution becoming acidic.
– Saw dust contains compounds of carbon Hydrogen and oxygen.
Procedure:
– Some saw dust is heated in an evaporating dish and some few drops of concentrated nitric (V) acid on it (this is done in a fume cupboard)
Observation:
– A violent reaction occurs, the saw dust catches fire easily and a lot of brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide given off.
– Nitric (V) acid oxidizes the compounds in saw dust to CO2 and water; and itself it is reduced to nitrogen (IV) oxide and water.
Equation:
(C, H, O) n(s) + HNO3(l) NO2(g) + CO2(g) +H2O(g)
Saw dust
– Warm concentrated nitric (V) acid oxidizes pure carbon and many other compounds containing carbon.
Equation:
C(s) + 4HNO3(l) 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + CO2(g)
Procedure:
– 2 cm3 of concentrated nitric (V) acid is added to a little sulphur in a test tube and warmed.
– The mixture is filtered to remove excess sulphur and the filtrate diluted with distilled water.
– Drops of barium chloride are then added to the resultant solution.
Observations:
– Red brown gas, nitrogen (IV) oxide (NO2) is evolved and the sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric acid.
Equation
S(s) + 6HNO3(l) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) +2H2O(l)
– On addition of barium chloride to the solution, a white precipitate is formed.
– This is due to formation of barium sulphate and is a confirmation for the presence of SO42– ions.
Equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
(White precipitate)
– Concentrated nitric (V) acid reacts with metals except gold and platinum.
– Actual reaction depends on the concentration of the acid and the position of the metal in the reactivity series.
– The reaction results in a metal nitrate, NO2 and water.
– Copper, which is low in the reactivity series, reduces conc. HNO3 to NO2.
Equation:
Cu(s) + HNO3(l) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
– Metals more reactive than copper e.g. Magnesium may reduce nitric acid to dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) or Nitrogen (N2).
– Some metals like iron and aluminium form insoluble layers when reacted with nitric acid thus stopping any further reaction.
Procedure:
– Few crystals of iron (II) sulphate are dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid.
– A little concentrated nitric (V) acid is added to the solution and mixture warmed.
Observation:
– Green solution turns brown.
Equation:
6FeSO4(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) +3HNO3(l) 4H2O(l) +2NO(g) + 3Fe2 (SO4)3(aq)
Explanation:
– Nitric acid oxidizes green iron (II) salts (Fe2+) to brown iron (III) salts (Fe3+) and itself is reduced to Nitrogen (II) Oxide.
Note:
– In air, nitrogen (II) oxide is readily oxidized to nitrogen (IV) oxide; resulting to brown fumes.
Equation:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Procedure
– A few drops of conc. nitric (V) acid are added to a gas jar full of hydrogen sulphide and the jar then covered.
Observations
– Fumes (brown) of Nitrogen (IV) oxide and yellow deposits of sulphur;
Equation
– It is a REDOX reaction.
Oxidation
H2S(g) + 2HNO3(l) 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g) +S(s)
Reduction
Properties of dilute nitric (V) acid
– Dilute nitric (V) acid reacts with most metals to form nitrogen (II) oxide instead of hydrogen.
Example:
3Mg(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Mg(NO3)2(aq) +2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
– In fact HNO3 is reduced to NO and water but NO soon gets oxidized in air to form brown fumes of NO2.
– However very dilute HNO3 (cold) reacts with more active metals such as Magnesium to produce Hydrogen.
(a). It turns blue litmus paper red.
(b). It reacts with metal oxides and metal hydroxides to form a metal nitrate and water (Neutralization)
Examples
(Black) (Blue)
(White ppt) (Colourless)
(Alkali) (Acid) (Salt) (Water)
– Dilute HNO3 reacts with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form a nitrate, CO2 and water.
Examples.
CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(Green) (Blue solution)
NaHCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Test for nitrates/nitric acid
– Concentrated HNO3 oxidizes green Iron (II) sulphate in presence of sulphuric acid into Iron (III) sulphate (yellow/brown)
– However the solution turns dark brown due to formation of a compound, FeSO4.NO
– NO is produced by reduction of nitrate to nitrogen monoxide by Fe2+
Ionically;
Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e– (oxidized)
NO3–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e– NO2(g) + H2O(l) (reduced)
Procedure.
– An unknown solid is dissolved then acidified using dilute H2SO4.
– Some FeSO4 solution is then added.
– The test tube is then held at an angle and concentrated sulphuric (V) acid is added slowly (dropwise) to the mixture.
Observations
– The oily liquid (conc. H2SO4) is denser than water hence sinks to the bottom.
– A brown ring forms between the two liquid layers if the solid is a nitrate.
Diagrams:
Explanations:
– Suppose the solution tested isKNO3, the conc. H2SO4 and the KNO3 reacted to produce HNO3.
Equation:
KNO3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) KHSO4(aq) + HNO3(aq)
– The NO3– from nitric acid oxidizes some of the FeSO4 to Fe2 (SO4)3 (Fe2+ toFe3+) and itself reduced to NO by the Fe2+
-The NO so formed reacts with more FeSO4 to give a brown compound (FeSO4 NO) which appears as a brown ring.
Equation:
FeSO4(aq) + NO(g) FeSO4. NO(aq)
(Green) (Brown)
Ionically:
Fe2+(aq) + 5H2O(l) + NO(g) [Fe(H2O)5NO]2+(aq)
(Green) (Brown)
– Nitrates of less reactive metals decompose easily with gentle heating; clouds of brown NO2 can be seen.
Equation:
2Cu(NO3)2 heat 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(Brown, acidic)
– The nitrates of more reactive metals need much stronger heating and decompose in a different way.
Equation:
2Na NO3(s) heat 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
Uses of nitric acid
– Large quantities are used in fertilizer manufacture.
– Manufacture of explosives (TNT)
– Manufacture of dyes
– Making nitrate salts
– Etching of metals.
– Manufacture of nylon and terylene
– Refining precious metals
– An oxidizing agent.
Industrial manufacture of nitric acid
The Otswalds process
(a). Introduction
– Nitric acid is manufactured by the catalyst oxidation of ammonia and dissolving the products in water.
(b). Raw materials
– Atmosphere air
– Ammonia from Haber process.
(c). Conditions
– Platinum-rhodium catalyst or platinum gauze.
– The ammonia-air mixture must be cleaned (purified) to remove dust particles which could otherwise poison the catalyst.
(d). Chemical reactions.
Step 1: Compressor reactions.
– Ammonia and excess air (oxygen) (1:10 by volume) is slightly compressed.
– The mixture is then cleaned to remove particles which would otherwise poison the catalyst.
– They are then passed to the heat exchanger.
Step 2: Heat exchanger and catalytic chamber.
– In the heat exchanger, the gaseous mixture is heated to about 900oC and then passed over a platinum-rhodium catalytic chamber.
– An exothermic reaction occurs and ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen (II) oxide and steam.
Equation:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) + Heat.
– The exothermic reaction once started, provides the heat necessary to maintain the required catalytic temperature.
-This is of economical advantage i.e. electrical heating of catalyst is not continued hence lowering production costs.
Step 3: Heat exchanger.
– The hot products from catalytic chamber are again passed back through the heat exchanger.
– The hot gases are cooled and then passed into the cooling chamber.
Step 4: Cooling chamber
– Once cooled, the NO is oxidized to NO2 by reacting it with excess oxygen.
Equation:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Step 5: Absorption towers:
– The NO2 in excess air is then passed through a series of absorption towers where they meet a stream of hot water and form nitric (V) acid and nitrous (III) acid.
Equations:
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq) (blue solution)
Nitric Nitrous
– The so produced nitrous (III) acid is oxidized by oxygen in excess air to nitric (V) acid so that the concentration of nitric acid in the solution (liquid) gradually increases.
Equation:
2 HNO2(aq) + O2(g) 2HNO3(aq)
– The resultant HNO3 is only 55%-65% concentrated.
– It is made more concentrated by careful distillation of the solution.
The process of distillation (increasing the concentration).
– Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is added to the dilute nitric (V) acid.
– The heat produced (when dilute sulphuric acid reacts with water) vapourises the nitric (V) acid.
– The resultant nitric (V) acid vapour is condensed.
Note:
Reason:
– To prevent its decomposition since it undergoes slow decomposition when exposed to light.
Reason.
– Dilute nitric (V) acid is a stronger acid hence ionizes fully to yield more hydrogen ions than concentrated nitric (V) acid.
– Dilute nitric (V) acid is ionic whereas concentrated nitric (V) acid is molecular;
– Dilute nitric (V) acid is more (highly) ionized than concentrated nitric (V) acid.
Flow diagram for the otswalds process.
Ammonia
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Air
Water Unreacted NO(g)
NO + air;
Nitric (V) acid
Pollution effects of nitrogen compounds.
– Nitrogen (II) oxide is produced in internal combustion engines on combination of nitrogen and oxygen.
– Nitrogen (II) oxide oxidized to nitrogen (IV) oxide which dissolves in water to form nitric (III) and nitric (V) acids.
– Nitric (v) acid eventually reaches ground as acid rain and causes:
– Nitrogen (IV) oxide also undergoes series of chemical reactions in air to produce one of the major components of smog.
– Smog reduces visibility for motorists, irritates eyes and causes breathing problems.
– Refers to enrichment of water with excess nutrients for algal growth.
– Presence of nitrate ions from nitrogen fertilizers in a water mass encourages rapid growth of algae.
– This eventually leads to reduction of dissolved oxygen in water, killing aquatic animals like fish.
– Presence of nitrate ions in drinking water may also cause ill health to humans. This is because they are converted into carcinogenic compounds.
Prevention.
UNIT 3: SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Checklist:
Occurrence
– Occurs naturally as s free element in the underground deposits in Texas and Louisiana (USA) and Sicily (ITALY).
– It also occurs as a sulphate and sulphide ores.
Examples;
Metallic sulphides: iron pyrites (FeS2); Zinc blende (ZnS) Copper pyrites (CuFeS2)
Metallic sulphates e.g. Gypsum, CaSO4
Hydrogen sulphide e.g. H2S present in natural gas.
Extraction of sulphur: The Frasch process
– Is done using a set of 3 concentric pipes called Frasch pump; hence the name Frasch process.
(i). Apparatus: Frasch pump
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Cross section of the Frasch pump
Outermost pipe: brings superheated water at 170oC
Innermost pipe: brings in hot compressed air;
Middle pipe: brings out a froth of molten sulphur
(ii). Chemical process
Note: Sulphur cannot be mined by conventional mining methods such as open cast, alluvial mining etc
Reasons:
– Sulphur deposits lie very deep under several layers of quicksand hence cannot be accessed easily.
– Sulphur deposits are associated with poisonous gases such as sulphur (IV) oxide gas which can cause massive pollution if exposed to open environment.
– Three concentric pipes, constituting the Frasch pump are drilled through the rock and soil down to the sulphur deposits.
(a). The outer tube (pipe)
– Is used to pump superheated water at 170o c and 10 atmospheres down the deposits.
– The heat of the water melts the sulphur.
– By the time the water reaches the sulphur, its temperature drops to 120oC, but this is enough to melt sulphur whose M.P is 114oC.
(b). The innermost tube
– Is the smallest pipe and is used to blow or force a jet of hot compressed air down the sulphur deposits.
– This produces a light froth of molten sulphur (mixture of air, water and sulphur) which is forced up the middle pipe.
(c). The middle pipe.
– Allows the sulphur froth (mixture of molten sulphur, water and air) into the surface; where mixture is run into large tanks.
– The forth usually settles in two layers, the bottom layer is mainly water while the upper layer is mainly molten sulphur; due to differences in density.
– Once in the settling tanks, sulphur solidifies and separates out; giving 99% pure sulphur.
– The sulphur is removed, melted again and poured into moulds, to form roll sulphur in which form it is sold.
Properties of sulphur
Physical properties
– A molecule of sulphur consists of a pluckered ring of 8 sulphur atoms covalently bonded.
Diagram: structure of a sulphur molecule.
– It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like carbon disulphide, xylene and toluene.
– When sulphur is heated out of contact with air, it melts at low temperatures of about 113oC to form an amber (orange) coloured mobile liquid.
Reason:
– The S8 rings open up to form chains of S8.
Diagrams:
The pluckered S8 ring of sulphur molecule Chains of S8 molecule
– On further heating, the liquid darkens in colour.
– At 160oC, the liquid becomes much darker and very viscous (such that the test tube can be inverted without the sulphur pouring out.)
– The viscosity continues to increase until a temperature of about 1950C
Reason:
– The S8 rings of sulphur are broken and they then join to form very long chains of sulphur atoms, with over 100,000 atoms (S100 000).
Note: As the chains entangle with one another the viscosity increases and colour darkens.
– Near the boiling point, the liquid becomes less dark i.e. red-brown and more mobile (runny).
Reason
– The long chains are broken to shorter chains.
– At 444oC (boiling point), sulphur vapourises to form a red-brown vapour consisting of S8, S6, S4 and S2 molecules.
Reason
– The sulphur liquid changes state to form sulphur vapour.
– The vapour is light brown in colour, and consists of a mixture of molecules of formula S2-S10
Note
– If heated further the larger sulphur vapour molecules (S8, S6 etc) dissociate and at 750oC the vapour is mostly constituted of diatomic molecules (S2)
– On exposure to cold surfaces the light brown vapour condenses to a yellow sublimate. The yellow sublimate is called flowers of sulphur.
Chemical properties
– It burns in air with a bright blue flame forming a misty gas with a choking smell.
– The gas is sulphur (IV) oxide, with traces of sulphur (VI) oxide, both of which are acidic.
Equation:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Note:
The SO3 is formed due to further oxidation of some of the SO2 gas
Equation:
2SO2(s) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
– Dilute acids have no effect on sulphur.
– It is however easily oxidized by concentrated (VI) sulphuric acid and Nitric (VI) acid.
– When warmed with conc. H2SO4, sulphur is oxidized to sulphur (IV) oxide while the acid is reduced to the same gas.
Equation:
S(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
– Sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric (VI) acid while acid itself is reduced to red-brown Nitrogen (IV) oxide.
Equation:
S(s) + 6HNO3(l) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Note:
– The resultant solution gives a white precipitate with a solution of Barium chloride.
Reason
– Due to presence of sulphate ions which combine with Ba2+ to form insoluble BaSO4(s)
Ionically;
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
– It combines directly with many other elements to form sulphides.
– With metals, sulphur forms metal sulphides, most of which are black.
Examples.
(a). With metals
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s) + Heat
(Grey) (Yellow) (Black)
Note:
– During the reaction, the mixture glows spontaneously; immediately the reaction has started.
2Cu(s) + S(s) Cu2S
(Red-brown) (Yellow) (Black copper (I) sulphide))
(b). Non-metals
C(s) + 2S(s) CS2(s)
(Black) (Yellow) (Black Carbon disulphide)
Note.
– Carbon (IV) sulphide has a distinct smell.
– It is an excellent solvent and is used as a pesticide due to its poisonous nature.
H2(g) + S(s) H2S(g)
S(s) + F2(g) SF2(g)
S(s) + Cl2(g) SCl2(g)
2S(s) +Br2(g) S2Br2(g)
10S(s) + 4P(s) P4S10(s)
Note:
– Sulphur does not react with inert gases, nitrogen and iodine.
Uses of sulphur
Allotropes of sulphur
– Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form without change of state.
– Sulphur has 2 allotropes
-Unlike carbon only the rhombic sulphur occurs naturally.
Comparison of rhombic and monoclinic sulphur.
| Allotrope
Characteristic |
Rhombic sulphur | Monoclinic sulphur |
| Stability | – Stable below transitional temp. of 96oC | – Stable above 96oC |
| Colour | – Bright yellow crystalline solid | – Pale yellow crystalline solid |
| Melting point | – Melts at 113oC; | – Melts at 119oC; |
| Density | – About 2.06gcm-3(heavier than monoclinic Sulphur) | – Lighter than 1.98gcm-3 (lighter than rhombic sulphur) |
| Shape | – Octahedral shape
Diagram:
|
– Needle-like/ prismatic
Diagram: |
Note.
96oC is called transitional temperature; because both allotropes are stable.
Compounds of sulphur
Oxides of sulphur.
Sulphur (IV) oxide
Laboratory preparation of sulphur (IV) oxide
(i). Apparatus:
|
|
|
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(ii). Procedure
– Dilute HCl or H2SO4 is poured into sodium sulphite crystals in the flask.
– The gas produced is passed through conc. Sulphuric acid to dry it.
– If the reaction is slow, the round-bottomed flask is heated (warmed) gently.
– Dry gas is collected by downward delivery as it is denser than air.
(ii). Equation.
Na2SO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g) + 2NaCl(aq)
Ionically;
2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Note:
– Nitric (V) acid should not be used.
Reason:
– It is a strong oxidizing agent and cannot therefore reduce the metal sulphites.
– Instead it will oxidize the SO2 produced to sulphuric (VI) acid
Equation:
2HNO3(aq) + SO2(g) 2NO2(g) + H2SO4(l)
Other methods of preparing sulphur (IV) oxide.
(b). Preparation from concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
(i). Apparatus
– As in (a) above
(ii). Procedure
– Copper turnings are covered with concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid and the mixture heated (a must in this case).
Note:
– Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid does not react with copper hence the need for concentrated acid.
– Cold concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid does not also react with copper hence warming.
(iii). Observation.
– When the solution becomes hot, there is evolution of sulphur (IV) oxide gas.
Equation.
Cu(s) +2H2SO4(l) CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Note:
– This reaction is in two stages.
– Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid oxidizes copper to Copper (II) oxide
Equation:
Cu(s) + H2SO4(l) CuO(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Equation:
CuO(s) + H2SO4(l) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Overall equation:
Cu(s) + H2SO4(l) CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
(c). Roasting sulphur in air
– When sulphur is burnt in air, SO2 is produced.
Equation:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Note:
This reaction is not suitable for preparing a pure sample of the gas in the lab.
Reason
– The gas is contaminated with traces of O2; N2; CO2 and inert gases.
– There are higher chances of environmental pollution, due to escape of some of the gas into the atmosphere.
(d). Roasting metal sulphides in air
Examples:
2FeS(g) + 3O2(g) 2FeO(s) + 2SO2(g)
2ZnS(g) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Preparation of sulphur (IV) oxide solution.
(i). Apparatus
(ii). Procedure
– Gas is directly passed into water using an inverted funnel; to prevent “sucking back” by increasing surface area for dissolution.
Properties of sulphur (IV) oxide gas
Physical properties
Chemical properties.
– It is a strong reducing agent.
– An aqueous solution of sulphur (IV) oxide, sulphurous acid is strong reducing agent.
– The sulphite radical, SO32-, acts as a supplier of electrons; the overall reaction results into formation of sulphate ions.
Equations:
H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq) then;
SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e-
– The resultant electrons supplied are accepted by an oxidizing agent, which consequently gets reduced.
Examples:
(i). Reduction of acidified potassium manganate (VII).
Procedure.
-To about 2 cm3 of sulphur (IV) oxide solution, 2 cm3 of dilute H2SO4 was added followed by an equal volume of potassium manganate (VII) solution.
Observations
– Purple solution changes to colourless.
Explanation
– Purple manganate (VII) ions are reduced to colourless manganate (II) ions, while H2SO3 (sulphurous (IV) acid) is reduced to sulphate ions and water.
Equation:
5SO2(g) + 2KMnO4(aq) + 2H2O K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq)+ H2SO4(aq)
Ionically;
2MnO–4(aq) + 5SO32-(aq) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5SO42-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(ii). Reduction of potassium chromate (IV) solution
– To 2 cm3 of Sulphur (IV) oxide solution, 2 cm3 of dilute H2SO4 was added followed by an equivalent volume of potassium chromate (VI) solution.
– Acidified potassium chromate (VI) solution change from orange to green.
Equation
K2Cr2O7(aq) + 3SO2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + Cr2(SO4)3(aq)
(Orange) (Green)
Ionically: Oxidation
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3SO32-(aq) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42-(aq)
Reduction
Note: this is the usual chemical test for sulphur (IV) oxide.
(iii). Reduction of Iron (III) ions to Iron (II) ions (Fe3+ to Fe2+)
– About 3 cm3 of Iron (III) chloride solution are heated in a test tube and sulphur (IV) oxide gas bubbled into it.
– The brown solution turns green.
– Aqueous sulphur (IV) oxide reduces to Fe3+ in FeCl3 which are brown to green Fe2+ in FeCl2(aq).
2Fe3+(aq) + SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) Fe2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H+(aq)
(iv). Reduction of bromine water
– Bromine water (red brown) is added to a solution of sulphur (IV) oxide followed by HCl and BaCl2 solution.
Equation
Br2(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2HBr(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
Ionically: Oxidation
Br2(aq) + H2O(l) + SO32-(aq) 2HBr(aq) + SO42-(aq)
(Red-brown) (Colourless)
– A white precipitate is formed, due to the formation of insoluble barium sulphate.
Equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
– This test confirms presence of SO42- since a white precipitate insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid is formed.
– CO32-(aq) and SO32- also forms a white precipitate with BaCl2(aq) but the white precipitates dissolve in dilute HCl(aq)
(v). Reduction of hydrogen peroxide
Procedure
– To 2 cm3 of aqueous sulphur (IV) oxide, an equal volume of hydrogen peroxide is added followed by 1 cm3 of HCl, then a few drops BaCl2 solution.
– Bubbles of a colourless gas; that relights a glowing splint.
– Hydrogen peroxide is reduced to water; while the sulphite ion in aqueous sulphur (IV) oxide (H2SO3(aq)) is oxidized to SO42-(aq)
H2O2(l) +SO32-(aq) H2O(l) + SO42-(aq)
– On addition of BaCl2, a white precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl.
– This confirms presence of sulphate ions.
Equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
(vi). Reduction of concentrated nitric (V) acid
– Sulphur (IV) oxide is bubbled through (into) a solution of concentrated nitric (v) acid.
Observation
– Brown fumes (of NO2) are liberated.
Explanation
– Sulphur (IV) oxide reduces nitric (V) acid to nitrogen (IV) oxide (brown) while it is itself oxidized by HNO3 to form H2SO4.
– Thus while SO2 is the reducing agent; HNO3 is the oxidizing agent.
Equation:
2HNO3(l) + SO2(g) 2NO2(g) + H2SO4(aq)
(Brown fumes)
(vii). Reaction with atmospheric oxygen in light.
– About 2 cm3 of Sulphur (IV) oxide solution is left in a test tube in light for 24 hours, dilute HCl is then added, followed by barium chloride.
– Atmospheric oxygen in light oxidizes sulphite ion (SO32-) into sulphate (SO42-)
2SO32-(aq) + O2(g) 2SO42-(aq)
– On adding barium chloride, a white precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl results; confirming presence of sulphate ion.
Equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
(White ppt)
– It reacts as an oxidizing agent with reducing agents more powerful than itself.
(a). Reaction with hydrogen sulphide
– A test tube of dry hydrogen sulphide gas is inverted into a gas jar full of moist sulphur (IV) oxide, and the gases allowed to mix.
– Yellow deposits of sulphur is produced.
Examples:
Oxidation
2H2S(g) + SO2(g) 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
Reduction
Explanations:
– H2S is a stronger reducing agent than sulphur (IV) oxide.
– Thus sulphur (IV) oxide acts as an oxidizing agent supplying oxygen to the hydrogen sulphide.
– Dry gases do not react and for this reaction to occur, the gases must be moist or at least one of them.
(b). Reaction with burning magnesium
Procedure
– Burning magnesium is lowered into a gas jar full of sulphur (IV) oxide.
Observation
– White fumes of magnesium oxide and yellow specks of sulphur.
Equation
2Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + S(s)
– Coloured flower petals are placed in a test-tube full of sulphur (IV) oxide.
– The coloured (blue or red) petals are bleached (turned colorless);
– In presence of water, sulphur (IV) oxide acts as a bleaching agent. It bleaches by reduction (removal of oxygen form the dye)
– It first combines with water forming the sulphurous acid; which then reduces the dye to form a colourless product.
Equations:
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
Then;
SO32-(aq) + [O] SO42-(aq)
From dye
General equation
SO2(g) + H2O(l) + [Dye + (O)] Dye + H2SO4(aq)
Coloured Colourless
– The original colour may be restored by oxidation or prolonged exposure to air. This explains why old newspapers which were originally bleached white by sulphur (IV) oxide turn brown with time.
– Chlorine bleaches by oxidation hence its oxidation is permanent; SO2 is however preferred because it is milder in action.
Procedure
– A gas jar full of sulphur (IV) oxide is inverted over sodium hydroxide solution in a trough and shaken.
– Solution seen rises up in the jar.
– Sulphur (IV) oxide is acidic, hence easily absorbed by alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxide solution.
– Sodium sulphite and sodium hydrogen sulphites are formed depending on amount of sulphur oxide.
2NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) NaHSO3(aq)
Equation:
SO2(g) + SO2(g) H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
– Sulphur (IV) oxide serves as the reducing agent reducing chlorine into hydrochloric acid;
– Chlorine acts as the oxidizing agent; oxidizing the sulphur (IV) oxide into sulphuric (VI) acid
– It is industrial waste in some chemical processes.
– The emission to the air it dissolves forming sulphurous acid.
Equation:
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
– Sulphurous acid is readily oxidized to sulphuric (VI) acid; which attacks stonework and metal structures causing them to corrode.
– If breathed in, SO2 causes lung damage.
– Industrial manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid.
– Fumigation in green houses for purposes of pest and disease control.
– Preservative in jam and fruit juices.
– Bleaching agent for wool, straw, paper pulp etc.
Sulphuric (VI) acid
Industrial manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid: The contact process
– Sulphide ores or sulphur.
– Water
– Oxygen (air)
– Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
– Sulphur (IV) oxide is obtained b burning the metal ores of sulphides or elemental sulphur in air.
Equation:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
– Obtaining sulphur (IV) oxide form pyrites is cheaper than form sulphur.
– Flowers of sulphur form pyrites is impure and contains dust; which involves extra expenses and time in purification.
– The Sulphur (IV) oxide and excess air are passed through a series of driers and purifiers.
– Purifiers remove dust particles, which would otherwise poison the catalyst used in this process by taking up the catalytic surface thus impairing the catalytic efficiency.
– Purification (removal of dust) is by electrostatic precipitation.
– Are dried through concentrated sulphuric acid then passed through heat exchanger.
– The pure dry SO2 and excess air mixture are passed into heat exchanger reactions.
Reason:
– To lower their temperatures since reaction in the proceeding chamber (catalytic chamber) are exothermic hence requiring lower temperatures.
– Dry dust-free SO2 is mixed with clean excess air, heated and passed into a catalytic chamber containing vanadium (V) oxide catalyst.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + Heat
450oC
– The product is sulphur (VI) oxide, SO3.
– Formation of sulphur (VI) oxide is accompanied by evolution of heat (exothermic reaction) and a reduction in volume.
Note:
– A good yield of SO3 is favoured by the following conditions.
– The forward reaction is exothermic hence the yield can be favourable in low temperatures.
– However, at such low temperatures the equilibrium is attained very slowly.
– At high temperatures, equilibrium is achieved very quickly but sulphur (VI) oxide decomposes considerably.
– Thus a compromise optimum temperature of about 450oC is used in order to enable as much sulphur (VI) oxide as possible to be made in a reasonable time.
– From the graph, high SO3 yield is favoured by relatively low temperatures.
Graph: %age yield of sulphur (VI) oxide against temperature.
– High pressures favour production of more sulphur (VI) oxide.
– The volume of gaseous reactants is higher than volume of gaseous products.
– Since reaction involves reduction in volume, theoretically pressure used should be as high as is economically convenient.
Note:
– High pressures are however disadvantageous.
– The equipment required to generate high pressure would be expensive to maintain.
– The high pressure could also liquefy sulphur (VI) oxide.
– A pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure is used providing 98% conversion at low maintenance costs.
– A catalyst neither takes part in a reaction nor increases the yield.
– It merely speeds up the reaction i.e. reduces the time taken to react at equilibrium of 450oC.
– Main catalyst is vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5).
– It is spread out (in trays) on silica gel to increase the surface area for combination of reactants.
– Dust settled in the catalyst may reduce its effective area.
– Dust may also react with the catalyst, poison it and further reduce its efficiency.
– This explains need to purify gases thoroughly.
– An effective catalyst is platinised asbestos.
– However, vanadium (V) oxide is preferred.
– It is not easily poisoned by dust particles.
– It is cheaper and readily available.
Note:
– The highest yield of sulphur (VI) oxide is obtained at optimum conditions of 4500C and pressure 2-3 atmospheres in presence of vanadium (V) oxide or platinised asbestos.
– Hot SO3 gas from catalytic chamber is again passed through heat exchanger for cooling after which the cooled gas is taken into an absorption chamber.
– The SO3 is not dissolved (passed) into water directly.
– It dissolves in water exothermically with a loud, hissing sound giving off corrosive vapour resulting into harmful sulphuric acid sprays or mist all around.
– The SO3 is dissolved in conc. H2SO4 forming oleum (pyrosulphuric acid/ fuming sulphuric acid).
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
– Resultant Oleum is then channeled into a dilution chamber.
Step 7: Dilution chamber.
– Oleum is diluted with correct amounts of water to form concentrated sulphuric acid.
Equation:
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
Summary: flow diagram for the contact process:
Pollution control in contact process.
– Main source of pollution is sulphur (IV) oxide.
– In catalyst chamber, SO2 reacts with oxygen forming SO3.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + Heat
450oC
– This is a reversible reaction and upto 98% conversion is possible and excess (unreacted) SO2 warmed and released into atmosphere via long chimneys.
– However, SO2 being a pollutant, little or none should be released into atmosphere.
– This is done by scrubbing the gas.
– This involves neutralizing the chimney gas by a solution of Calcium hydroxide forming a salt (calcium sulphite) and water.
Equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO2(g) CaSO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Note:
– In certain cases, filters are also installed to remove any traces of acid spray or mist form the exhaust gases.
– The unreacted gases (SO2 and SO3) may also be recycled within the process.
Experiment: To show hygroscopic nature of conc. H2SO4.
(i). Procedure
– A small beaker half full of conc. H2SO4 is weighed.
– Level of acid in beaker is marked to the outside using gummed paper.
– Acid is left exposed to air for a week or so then weighed again and level also noted.
(ii). Observations
– There is an increase in weight of acid.
– Level of acid in beaker is now above the paper mark.
(iii). Explanations
– The increase in weight and size is due to water absorbed form the air by the conc. sulphuric (VI) acid.
Note:
– This explains why sulphuric (VI) acid is used as a drying agent.
Examples:
(a). Action on blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O) crystals.
(i). Procedure
– A few crystals of hydrated CuSO4.5H2O were put in a test tube and enough concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid added, to cover them completely.
(ii). Observation:
– Blue copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate crystals turn to white powder of anhydrous CuSO4.
Equation
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CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
(Blue crystals) (White crystals)
Explanations:
– Conc.H2SO4 has a very strong affinity for water and hence removes water of crystallization from crystals hence dehydrating them.
(b). Action on white sugar (C12H22O11)
(i). Procedure:
– A tablespoonful of sugar is put in an evaporating dish form a beaker and adequate volume of conc. H2SO4 is added.
(ii). Observations:
– Sugar turns form brown then yellow and finally to a charred black mass of carbon.
– A spongy black mass of charcoal (carbon) rises almost filling the dish.
– Steam is also give off and dish becomes very hot since reaction is exothermic.
Equation
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C12H22O11(s) 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
(White crystals) (Black solid)
Explanation
– The acid removed from the sugar elements of water (hydrogen and oxygen, ratio 2:1) to form water, leaving behind a black charred mass of carbon.
(c). Action on oxalic acid (ethanedioic acid (H2C2O4)
– Conc. H2SO dehydrates oxalic acid on heating to a mixture of carbon (II) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide.
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H2C2O4(s) CO(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Note:
– Conc. H2SO4 acid gives severe skin burns because it removes water and elements of water from skin tissue.
– Should the acid spill on skin, it is washed immediately with plenty of water followed with a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate.
– Holes appear where the acid spills on clothes for same reason.
(d). Action on alcohols (alkanols)
– Conc. sulphuric (VI) acid dehydrates alcohols to corresponding alkenes.
Example: dehydration of ethanol to ethene
Equation:
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CH3CH2OH(s) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)
(Ethanol) (Ethene)
(e). Action on methanoic acid.
– Conc. sulphuric (VI) acid dehydrates methanoic acid to form CO.
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Equation:
HCOOH(s) CO(g) + H2O(l)
– Hot concentrated Sulphuric acts as an oxidizing agent in which cases it is reduced to sulphur (IV) oxide and water.
(a). Reaction with metals.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Note: the copper (II) sulphate formed is white since the conc. H2SO4 further dehydrates the hydrated CuSO4.
Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(l) ZnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(Hot acid)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(l) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(Cold acid)
Pb(s) + 2H2SO4(l) PbSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(Hot; conc.) (Insoluble)
Note:
– Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid doesnt have any action on copper.
Reason:
– Copper is below hydrogen in reactivity series hence cannot displace it from the acid.
– This acid (H2SO4) has very little effects on lead, and usually the amount of SO2 liberated is very little.
Reason:
– Formation of an insoluble lead sulphate layer that forms a protective coating on the metal stopping further reaction.
(b). Reaction with non-metals.
– Concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes non-metals such as sulphur and carbon to their respective oxides.
C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
S(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 3SO2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Reactions of dilute sulphuric acid
– It reacts with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to produce a salt and hydrogen.
– With potassium and sodium, reaction is violent.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Note:
– Copper is below hydrogen in reactivity series hence cant displace hydrogen form dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
– Dilute H2SO4(aq) reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce a salt, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Note:
– Reaction with lead carbonate however stops soon after the reaction.
– Formation of an insoluble coating of the lead (II) sulphate on the lead (II) carbonate which prevents further contact between acid and carbonate.
– The same logic applies for calcium carbonate.
– Reacts to form salt and water.
– However, those metal oxides whose sulphates are insoluble react only for a while.
– Thus reaction between dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and lead (II) oxide stops almost immediately.
– This is due to formation of an insoluble layer of lead (II) sulphate which effectively prevents further contact between acid and oxide.
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(g)
(White) (Colourless solution)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(g)
(Black) (Blue solution)
NaOH(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(g)
(White) (Colourless solution)
PbO(s) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(aq) + H2O(g)
(Red) (White ppt; reaction stops immediately)
Hydrogen sulphide gas
– It is a colourless gas with a characteristic rotten egg smell; and is usually given out by rotting cabbage and eggs.
(i). Apparatus:
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(ii). Procedure:
– Dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into Iron (II) sulphide in a round-bottomed flask.
– Resultant gas is passed through U-tube with anhydrous calcium chloride to dry the gas.
– This can also be done with phosphorous (V) oxide.
FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2S(g) + FeCl2(aq)
Ionically:
S2-(aq) + H+(aq) H2S(g)
(iii). Collection of gas
– When dry, the gas is collected by downward delivery because it is denser than air.
– When wet is collected over warm water because it is more soluble in cold water.
– When a strip of filter paper soaked in aqueous lead (II) ethanoate is put in hydrogen sulphide, the paper turns black or dark brown.
– Due to the formation of lead (II) sulphide which is black.
H2S(g) + (CH2COOH)2Pb(aq) PbS(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)
Properties of hydrogen sulphide gas
Physical properties
Equation:
H2S(g) + H2O(l) H2S(aq)
H2S(aq) H+(aq) + HS–(aq) 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
– The acid is dibasic hence forms hydrogen sulphides.
Equation:
2NaOH(aq) + H2S(g) NaHS(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Note:
– Potassium hydroxide reacts similarly like sodium hydroxide.
Chemical properties
– Burns in a blue flame in a limited supply of oxygen (air) forming a yellow deposit of sulphur and steam.
Equation:
2H2S(g) + O2(g) 2SO2(s) + 2H2O(g)
– In plentiful supply (excess) of Oxygen (air) it burns with a blue flame forming SO2 and steam.
Equation:
2H2S(g) +3O2(g) 2S(s) + 2H2O(g)
– It supplies electrons which are accepted by the oxidizing agent and forms sulphur.
Ionically:
H2S(aq) + 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
S2-(aq) S(s) + 2e–(aq)
H2S(aq) + [O] S(s) + H2O(l); in terms of addition of oxygen.
(i). With acidified K2Cr2O7 solution (potassium dichromate VI)
Equation:
Reduction:
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3H2S(g) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3S(s)
(Orange) (Green)
Oxidation
Observation: The orange solution turns green and H2S oxidized to yellow sulphur.
(ii). Potassium manganate (VII) (KMnO4)
Equation:
Reduction:
2MnO4–(aq) + 5H2S(g) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5S(s)
(Purple) (Colourless)
Oxidation
Observation:
– The Purple solution turns colourless
– Manganate (VII) ions are reduced to manganate (II) ions; H2S oxidized to yellow sulphur.
(iii). Action on Iron (III) chloride ions
Equation:
FeCl3(aq) + H2S(g) 2FeCl2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) + S(s)
Ionically:
Reduction:
Fe3+(aq) + S2-(g) Fe2+(aq) + 3S(s)
(Brown) (Pale green)
Oxidation
Observation:
– The brown solution turns pale green;
– The Fe3+(aq) are reduced to Fe2+(aq); while the S2-(aq) are oxidized to yellow sulphur.
(iv). Action with Conc. HNO3
Equation:
2HNO3(aq) + H2S(g) 2H2O(aq) + 2NO2(aq) + S(s) + Heat
Ionically:
Reduction:
2H+(aq) + 2NO3–(aq) + H+(aq) + S2-(aq) 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g) + S(s) + Heat
(Colourless solution) (Brown) (Yellow)
Oxidation
Observation:
– Evolution of brown fumes; and deposits of a yellow solid;
– HNO3(aq) is reduced to brown NO2(g); while S2-(aq) are oxidized to yellow sulphur;
Note: The solution also contains H2SO4 produced by the reaction:
Reduction
2HNO3(aq) + H2S(g) H2SO4(aq) + 8NO2(aq) + 4H2O(l) ;
Oxidation
(v). Action of air on H2S
– The gas is dissolved in distilled water in a beaker and exposed to air; after a few days, a white disposal is formed.
Equation:
H2S(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + 2S(s)
(vi). Action with concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
Equation
Reduction
H2SO4(aq) + 3H2S(g) 4S(s) + 4H2O(l)
Oxidation
(vii). Action with halogen elements
– Red-brown bromine water is reduced forming colourless hydrogen bromide (Hydrobromic acid) and yellow deposits (suspension) of sulphur.
Equation:
Reduction
Br2(aq) + H2S(g) 2HBr(aq) + S(s)
(Red-brown) (Colourless) (Yellow suspension)
Oxidation
(viii). Action with hydrogen peroxide.
Equation:
Reduction
H2O2(aq) + H2S(g) 2H2O(l) + S(s)
(Red-brown) (Colourless) (Yellow suspension)
Oxidation
– Hydrogen sulphide reacts with metal ions in solution to form precipitates of metal sulphides; majority of which are black in colour.
(i). Procedure
– The gas is bubbled through solutions of the following salts: Pb (NO3)2, CuSO4, FeSO4 etc.
(ii). Observations and equations
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(aq) PbS(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
(Colourless) (Black)
Ionically:
Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) PbS(s)
CuSO4(aq) + H2S(aq) CuS(s) + H2SO4(aq)
(Blue) (Black)
Ionically:
Cu2+(aq) + S2-(aq) CuS(s)
FeSO4(aq) + H2S(aq) FeS(s) + H2SO4(aq)
(Pal green) (Black)
Ionically:
Fe2+(aq) + S2-(aq) FeS(s)
Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(aq) ZnS(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
(Colourless) (Black)
Ionically:
Zn2+(aq) + S2-(aq) ZnS(s)
Note:
– Most metal sulphides are insoluble in water except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
Sulphites
– Are compounds of the sulphite radical (SO32-) and a metallic or ammonium cation
Effects of heat
– They decompose on heating, forming SO2;
Example:
CuSO3(s) Heat CuO(s) + SO2(g)
Test for sulphites
– To 2cm3 of the test solution, ad 2 cm3 of BaCl2 or Ba (NO3)2; i.e. addition of barium ions.
– To the mixture add 2 cm3 of dilute HCl or HNO3.
– A white precipitate (BaSO3) is formed which dissolves on addition of acid.
– Production of a colourless gas that turns filter paper soaked in acidified orange potassium dichromate (VI) to green.
– Only BaSO3; BaCO3 and BaSO4 form white precipitates;
– The precipitates of BaSO3 and BaCO3 dissolve on addition of dilute acids; unlike BaSO4;
– BaSO3 produces SO2(g) as it dissolves on addition of a dilute acid; SO2 turns orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) to green;
– BaCO3 of the other hand dissolves in dilute acids producing CO2; which has no effect on K2Cr2O7; but forms a white precipitate in lime water;
Ba2+(aq) + SO32-(aq) BaSO3(s)
(White precipitate)
BaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) BaCl2(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
(White precipitate) (Colourless)
Ionically:
BaSO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ba2+(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
– Are compounds of the sulphate radical (SO42-) and a metallic or ammonium cation.
Effects of heat.
– Decompose on heating and liberate SO2 and SO3 or SO3 alone;
– However quite a number of sulphates do not decompose on heating; and thus require very strong heating in order to decompose.
Examples:
2FeSO4(s) Heat Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
(Pale green) (Brown) (Colourless gases)
CuSO4(s) Heat CuO(s) + SO3(g)
(Blue) (Black) (Colourless)
– To about 2 cm3 of the test solution, 2 cm3 of BaCl2 or Ba (NO3)2 solution is added.
– To the mixture, 2 cm3 of dilute HCl or HNO3 is added.
– A white precipitate is formed when Ba (NO3)2 is added; which is insoluble in excess acid.
Explanations.
– Only BaSO3; BaCO3 and BaSO4 form white precipitates;
– The precipitates of BaSO3 and BaCO3 dissolve on addition of dilute acids; unlike BaSO4;
– Thus the white precipitate insoluble in dilute HCl or HNO3 could only be a sulphate; in this case barium sulphate.
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
(white precipitate)
BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq); i.e. no effect;
(White precipitate) (White precipitate)
Pollution by sulphur compounds.
– Main pollutants are sulphur (IV) Oxide and hydrogen sulphide.
(a). Sulphur (IV) oxide.
– SO2 is emitted when sulphur-containing fuels are burnt; during extraction of metals like copper and in manufacture of sulphuric (VI) acid.
– SO2 is oxidized to SO3;
– SO3 reacts with water in atmosphere to form sulphuric (VI) acid which comes down as acid rain or acid fog.
Acid rain (fog) has environmental effects:
(b). H2S is very poisonous.
UNIT 5: CHLORINE AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
Unit Checklist:
Introduction:
– Chlorine is a molecular non-metallic element made up of diatomic molecules.
– Its electron arrangement is 2.8.7 and it belongs to the halogen family.
Preparation of chlorine.
Note: It is usually prepared by oxidation of concentrated hydrochloric acid by removal of hydrogen.
Equation:
2HCl(aq) + [O] Cl2(g) + H2O(l)
– The [O] is from a substance containing oxygen.
(a). Preparation of chlorine from MnO2 and HCl.
(i). Apparatus:
(ii). Conditions:
– Heating;
– Presence of an oxidizing agent; in this case it is manganese (IV) oxide.
(iii). Procedure:
– Hydrochloric acid is reacted with manganese (IV) oxide (dropwise);
Equation:
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) Heat MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
(iv). Explanation:
– Manganese (IV) oxide oxidizes hydrochloric acid by removing hydrogen resulting into chlorine.
– The manganese (IV) oxide is reduced to water and manganese chloride.
– The resultant chlorine gas is passed through a bottle containing water.
Reason:
– To remove hydrogen chloride fumes (gas) which is very soluble in water.
– Next it is passed through concentrated sulphuric acid or anhydrous calcium chloride; to dry the gas.
(v). Collection:
(a). Wet chlorine is collected over brine (saturated sodium chloride solution) or hot water.
Reason:
– It does not dissolve in brine and is less soluble in water
(b). Dry chlorine is collected by downward delivery (upward displacement of air)
Reason:
– It is denser than air (2.5 times).
Note:
– Chlorine may also be dried by adding calcium chloride to the jar of chlorine.
(c). The first bottle must contain water and the second concentrated sulphuric acid.
Reason:
– If the gas is first passed through concentrated sulphuric acid in the first bottle then to the water; it will be made wet again.
Properties of chlorine gas.
Caution: Chlorine is very poisonous.
– It is a green-yellow gas with an irritating pungent smell that attacks the nose and the lungs.
– It is 2.5 times denser than air, hence can be collected by downward delivery.
– It is fairly soluble in water forming green-yellow chlorine water.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
– Chlorine water is composed of two acids; chloric (I) acid (hypochlorous acid) and hydrochloric acid.
– Moist chlorine turns litmus paper red then bleaches it.
– Dry chlorine turns damp blue litmus paper red then bleaches it.
– Moist chlorine bleaches red litmus paper; dry chlorine bleaches damp red litmus paper.
– Dry chlorine has no effect on dry litmus paper.
Reasons:
(i). In presence of moisture chlorine forms chlorine water which is acidic and hence turns blue litmus paper red.
(ii). Hypochlorous acid in the chlorine water is an oxidizing agent; thus adds oxygen (oxidizes) to the colour of most dyes; hence bleaching it.
Equations:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
Acidic solution
Then:
Dye + HOCl(aq) HCl(aq) + {Dye + [O]}
Coloured Colourless
– Moist chlorine bleaches dyes but not printers ink which is made of carbon.
– The colour change is due to oxidation by hypochlorous acid.
Equations:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
Acidic solution
Then:
Dye + HOCl(aq) HCl(aq) + {Dye + [O]}
Coloured Colourless
– The gas put out a glowing splint. It does not burn.
(a). Preparation of iron (III) chloride.
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Precaution.
– Experiment should be done in a fume cupboard or in the open.
Reason:
– Chlorine gas is poisonous and will thus be harmful to the human body.
(iii). Procedure:
– Dry chlorine gas is passed over iron wool as per the diagram.
(iv). Conditions.
Reason:
To prevent hydration hence oxidation of iron (which will then form Fe2O3.5H2O) hence preventing reaction between iron and chlorine.
Reason:
To provide activation energy i.e. the minimum kinetic energy which the reactants must have to form products.
– In the U-tube; to dry the chlorine gas.
– In the thistle funnel; to prevent atmospheric water vapour (moisture) from getting into the apparatus and hence reacting with iron (III) chloride.
(v). Observations:
– Iron metal glows red-hot.
– Red brown fumes (FeCl3(g)) are formed in the combustion tube.
– A black solid (FeCl3(s)) is collected in the flask.
Note:
– Iron (III) chloride cannot be easily collected in the combustion tube.
Reason:
– It sublimes when heated and hence the hotter combustion tube causes it to sublime and its vapour is collected on the cooler parts of the flask.
(vi). Reaction equation.
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(g)
(vii). Conclusion.
– Iron (III) chloride sublimes on heating; the black solid changes to red-brown fumes on heating.
Equation:
FeCl3(s) FeCl3(g)
(black) (Red-brown)
(b). Aluminium chloride.
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl2(s)
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) Al2Cl6(s)
Note:
– Aluminium chloride also sublimes on heating.
Equation:
AlCl3(s) AlCl3(g)
(White) (White)
(c). Reaction with burning magnesium.
(i). Procedure:
– Burning magnesium is lowered into a gar jar of chlorine gas.
(ii). Observations:
– The magnesium continues to burn with a bright blinding flame;
– Formation of white fumes (MgCl2); which cools into a white powder.
(iii). Equation:
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
– Generally chlorine reacts with most metals when hot top form corresponding chlorides.
Note:
Where a metal forms two chlorides when it reacts with chlorine, the higher chloride is usually formed.
Reason:
The higher chloride is stable. This explains why reactions of chlorine with iron results into iron (III) chloride and not iron (II) chloride.
– It reacts with hot metals; forming covalent molecular compounds.
(a). Reaction with phosphorus.
(i). Procedure:
– A piece of warm phosphorus is lowered into a gas jar of chlorine.
(ii). Observations:
– Phosphorus begins to smoulder and then ignites spontaneously.
– Evolution of white fumes (PbCl3 and PCl5)
(iv). Explanation.
– Chlorine reacts with warm dry phosphorus to form white fumes of phosphorus (III) and (V) chlorides.
Equations:
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(s)
(With limited chlorine)
P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) 4PCl5(s)
(With excess chlorine)
(b). Reaction with hydrogen.
(i). Conditions:
– Heating or presence of light; since chlorine and hydrogen do not react with each other at room temperature.
(ii). Precaution:
– The experiment is performed in a fume chamber (cupboard); since the reaction is explosive;
(iii). Procedure:
– Chlorine gas is mixed with hydrogen gas and the mixture heated or exposed to direct light; then aqueous ammonia brought near the mouth of the jar.
(iv). Observations:
– White fumes at the mouth of the jar.
(v). Explanations:
– Chlorine reacts explosively with hydrogen to form hydrogen chloride gas.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2(g) Heat/ Light 2HCl(g).
– The hydrogen chloride gas diffuses upwards and reacts with ammonia at the mouth of the test tube to form white fumes of ammonium chloride; NH4Cl.
Equation:
HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(g)
White fumes.
– Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent and oxidizes many ions, by readily accepting electrons.
– During the process, chlorine itself undergoes reduction.
(a). Reaction with hydrogen sulphide gas.
(i). Procedure:
– A gas jar full of chlorine gas is inverted into another containing hydrogen sulphide gas.
(ii). Apparatus:
(iii). Observations:
– Yellow deposits (of sulphur)
– Misty fumes (hydrogen chloride gas)
(iv). Explanations:
– Chlorine oxidizes hydrogen sulphide gas to sulphur solid, while itself is reduced to hydrogen chloride gas.
Equation: Oxidation
Cl2(g) + H2S(g) 2HCl(g) + S(s)
Reduction
(v). Conditions:
– At least one of the gases must be moist; they do not react with each other in absence of moisture.
Note:
– In absence of moisture both gases are still in molecular form and hence cannot react; water facilitates their ionization hence ability to react.
– If aqueous hydrogen sulphide is used, then sulphur forms as a yellow suspension on the acidic solution.
Equations:
Stoichiometric:
Cl2(g) + H2S(aq) 2HCl(aq) + S(s)
Ionic:
Cl2(g) + S2-(g) 2Cl–(g) + S(s)
(b). Reaction with sodium sulphite.
Procedure:
– Chlorine gas is bubbled through sodium sulphate in a beaker.
– Resulting solution is then divided into two portions.
– To the first portion, drops of dilute nitric acid are added followed by few drops of barium nitrate solution.
– To the second portion, few drops of lead (II) nitrate are added and the mixture warmed then cooled.
(ii). Observations:
1st portion: White precipitate formed indicating presence of SO42-;
Explanations:
– The white precipitate indicate presence of SO42-; the precipitate is barium sulphate Ba(SO4)2;
– Chlorine oxidizes SO32- in Na2SO3 to SO42- while itself is reduced to chloride ions;
Equations:
H2O(l) + Cl2(g) + Na2SO3(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
Ionically:
Cl2(g) + SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
– On adding barium nitrate (Ba(NO3)2); the Ba2+ ions react with the SO42- to form insoluble BaSO4; the white precipitate.
Ionically;
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
(White precipitate)
Note:
– The solution is first acidified (with HNO3) before addition of Ba(NO3)2 to prevent precipitation of BaSO3(s) and BaCO3(s).
2nd portion:
Observation:
– Formation of a white precipitate on addition of Pb(NO3)2 solution.
– On warming the white precipitate dissolves then recrystalizes back on cooling.
Explanations:
– The white precipitate shows presence of either Cl–; SO32- or SO42-
– However the fact that it dissolves on warming confirms the presence of Cl–(aq) and not SO32-(aq) and SO32-(aq)
Equation:
Pb2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) PbCl2(s)
(White precipitate soluble on warming)
(c). Reaction with ammonia.
(i). Procedure:
Chlorine gas is bubbled through aqueous ammonia.
(ii). Observations:
– Evolution of white fumes.
(iii). Explanation.
– Chlorine gas oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen, while is itself reduced to white fumes of ammonium chloride.
Equation: Reduction
8NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) 6NH4Cl(g) + N2(s)
Oxidation
(d). Displacement reactions with other halogens.
(i). Procedure:
– Chlorine is bubbled through aqueous solutions of fluoride, bromide and iodide ions contained in separate test tubes.
(ii). Observations and explanations:
– No observable change or no reaction; because chlorine is a weaker oxidizing agent than fluorine.
– If potassium bromide was used, the colourless solution turns red-brown.
Reason:
– Chlorine has a higher tendency to gain electrons than bromine.
– It readily oxidizes bromide ions (in KBr) to form potassium chloride and bromine which immediately dissolves to make the solution red-brown.
Equation: Reduction
2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(l)
Oxidation Red brown
Ionically;
2Br–(aq) + Cl2(g) 2Cl–(aq) + Br2(l)
With iodide ions.
– Using potassium iodide the colourless solution would turn black.
Reason:
– Chlorine has a higher tendency to gain electrons that iodine.
– It readily oxidizes the I– (in KI) to form iodine and potassium chloride.
– Iodine solid in the resulting solution makes it black.
Equation: Reduction
2KI(aq) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(aq) + I2(l) (black)
Oxidation
Ionically;
2I–(aq) + Cl2(g) 2l–(aq) + Br2(l)
(a). Reaction with sodium hydroxide solution.
(i). Procedure:
– Bubble chlorine slowly through cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
– Dip litmus paper.
(ii). Observation:
– Litmus paper is bleached; the product has the colour and smell of chlorine.
(iii). Explanation:
– Chlorine dissolves in sodium hydroxide to form a pale yellow solution of sodium chlorate (I) or sodium hypochlorite (NaClO);
– The sodium chlorate (I) bleaches dyes by oxidation.
Equation:
Cl2(g)+ 2NaOH(l) NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O(l)
Pale yellow solution
Bleaching action of NaClO:
– The NaClO donates oxygen to the dye making it colourless; and thus it bleaches by oxidation.
Equation:
Dye + NaClO(aq) NaCl(aq) + {Dye + [O]}
Coloured Colourless
Note:
With hot concentrated sodium hydroxide, the chlorine forms sodium chlorate (III); NaClO3.
Equation:
3Cl2(g)+ 6NaOH(l) 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(b). Reaction with potassium hydroxide
– Follows the trend of sodium.
(c). Reaction with slaked lime {Ca(OH)2(s)}
Equation:
Cl2(g)+ Ca(OH)2(l) CaOCl2(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Calcium chlorate I
Note:
Bleaching powder, CaOCl2 always smells of strongly of chlorine because it reacts with carbon (IV) oxide present in the atmosphere to form chlorine.
Equation:
CaOCl2(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + Cl2(g)
(a). A burning candle.
(i). Procedure:
– A burning candle is lowered into a gas jar of chlorine.
(ii). Observations:
– It burns with a small, red and sooty flame.
(iii). Explanations:
– Wax (in candles) consists of mainly hydrocarbons.
– The hydrogen of the hydrocarbon reacts with chlorine forming hydrogen chloride while leaving behind carbon.
(b). warm turpentine.
(i). Procedure:
– A little turpentine is warmed in a dish and a filter paper soaked (dipped) in it.
– The filter paper is then dropped into a gas jar of chlorine.
(ii). Observation:
– There is a red flash accompanied by a violent action whilst a black cloud of solid particles form.
(iii). Conclusion:
– Black cloud of slid is carbon.
– Turpentine (a hydrocarbon) consists of hydrogen and carbon combined together.
– The chlorine combines with hydrogen and leaves the black carbon behind.
Equation:
C10H16(l) + 8Cl2(g) 16HCl(g) + 10C(s)
(i). Procedure:
– Chlorine water is made by dissolving the gas in water.
– A long tube filled with chlorine water is inverted over a beaker containing water.
– It is then exposed to sunlight (bright light) as shown below.
(ii). Apparatus:
(iii). Observations:
– After sometime a gas collects in the tube and on applying a glowing splint, the splint is rekindles showing that the gas collected is oxygen.
(iv). Explanation:
– Chlorine water has two components.
Equation:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
– The HOCl being unstable will dissolve on exposure to sunlight, giving out oxygen.
Equation:
2HOCl(aq) 2HCl(aq) + O2(g) (slow reaction)
Overall reaction:
2H2O(l) + 2Cl2(g) 4HCl(aq) + O2(g)
Industrial manufacture of chlorine (the mercury cathode cell)
The electrolysis of brine
(i). Apparatus.
(ii). Electrolyte.
– Brine, concentrated sodium chloride solution, NaCl
(iii). Electrodes.
Anode: carbon (graphite)
Cathode: Flowing mercury;
(iv). Ions present:
NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
(v). Reactions:
Anode:
– Cl– and OH– migrate to the anode.
– Because of high concentration of Cl–(aq), they are discharged in preference to OH– ions.
Equation:
2Cl–(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e–
(Green-yellow)
Cathode:
– H+(aq) and Na+(aq) migrate to the cathode.
– Because the cathode is made of mercury, Na+(aq) is discharged in preference to H+(aq) ions;
Equation:
2Na+(aq) + 2e– 2Na(s)
Note:
– Sodium formed at the cathode dissolves in the flowing mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam (Na/Hg).
– Sodium amalgam is reacted with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.
– Mercury (in the sodium amalgam) remains unreacted.
Equation:
2Na/Hg(l) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + 2Hg(l)
– The unreacted mercury is recycled.
(vi). Products:
– Chlorine gas at the anode.
– Hydrogen and sodium hydroxide at the cathode.
Uses of chlorine gas and its compounds.
Hydrogen chloride gas.
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen chloride gas.
(i). Apparatus:
(ii). Procedure:
– Concentrated sulphuric acid is reacted with sodium chloride, and the mixture heated gently.
– Resultant gas is passed through conc. Sulphuric (VI) acid; to dry the gas.
(iii). Equation:
H2SO4(l) + NaCl(aq) NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
Ionically;
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) HCl(g)
Note:
– The reaction can proceed in the cold, but on large scale HCl(g) is produced by the same reaction but the heating is continued to re hot.
Properties of hydrogen chloride gas.
Diagram:
– The aqueous solution is known as hydrochloric acid.
– It is almost completely ionized (a strong acid) in aqueous solution.
Equation:
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
– This solution has the usual acidic properties:
Examples:
(i). turns blue litmus red.
(ii). Liberates hydrogen gas with certain metals e.g. zinc, Magnesium, iron etc.
Note:
Hydrochloric acid does not react with metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series.
Equations:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(iii). Neutralizes bases to form salt and water.
Examples:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +H2O(l)
2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
(iv). Liberates carbon (IV) oxide from carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
Examples:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Note:
As the hydrogen chloride gas very soluble in water, the solution must be prepared using a funnel arrangement; to prevent sucking back and increase the surface area for the dissolution of the gas;
Diagram: dissolution of hydrogen chloride gas
Equation:
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(s) + H2(g)
Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with hydrogen chloride gas when heated.
Note:
If reacted with some metals it forms 2 chlorides e.g. iron where iron (II) and iron (III) chlorides exist.
Equation:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
Note: This is the chemical test for hydrogen chloride gas.
Examples:
PbO2(s) + 4HCl(g) PbCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(g) MnCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
Diagram: reacting hydrogen chloride with an oxidizing agent.
Test for chlorides.
Test 1: Using silver ions:
Procedure:
– To the test solution, add silver ions from silver nitrate.
– Acidify with dilute nitric acid.
(ii). Observations and inference:
– Formation of a white precipitate shows presence of Cl–(aq)
(iii). Explanations:
– Only silver carbonate and silver chloride can be formed as white precipitates.
– Silver carbonate is soluble in dilute nitric acid but silver chloride is not.
Equations:
– Using Cl– from NaCl as the test solution;
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
White ppt.
Ionically;
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) Ag(s)
White ppt.
Note:
– This precipitate dissolves in excess ammonia.
– The white precipitate of silver chloride turns violet when exposed to light.
Test 2: Using lead ions
(i) Procedure:
– To the test solution, add lead ions from lead (II) nitrate, then warm
(ii). Observations and inference:
– Formation of a white precipitate that dissolves on warming shows presence of Cl–(aq)
(iii). Explanations:
– Only lead carbonate, lead sulphate, lead sulphite and lead chloride can be formed as white precipitates.
– Only lead chloride dissolves on warming; unlike the rest which are insoluble even on warming.
Equations:
Using Cl– from NaCl as the test solution;
2NaCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + PbCl2(s)
White ppt.
Ionically;
Pb2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) PbCl2(s)
White ppt.
Hydrochloric acid.
Large scale manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
(i). Diagram:
(ii). Raw materials:
– Hydrogen obtained as a byproduct of petroleum industry; electrolysis of brine or from water by Bosch process;
– Chlorine obtained from the electrolysis of brine or as fused calcium chloride.
(iii). Procedure:
– A small sample of hydrogen gas is allowed through a jet and burnt in excess chlorine gas.
Equation:
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
Precaution: A mixture of equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine explodes when put in sunlight.
– The hydrogen chloride gas formed is dissolved in water over glass beads.
– The glass beads increase the surface area over which absorption takes place.
– Commercial hydrochloric acid is about 35% pure.
– Hydrochloric acid is transported in steel tanks lined inside with rubber.
– If the acid comes into contact with exposed parts of metal or with rust, it forms iron (III) chloride that makes the acid appear yellow.
Pollution in an industry manufacturing hydrochloric acid.
(i). Chlorine is poisonous.
(ii). Mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in air is explosive when ignited.
Uses of hydrochloric acid.
Environmental pollution by chlorine and its compounds.
Note: DDT is banned in Kenya; NEMA advises increased use of pyrethroids in mosquito control.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I
Contents checklist.
– The chemistry of hydrogen carbon chain compounds.
– It the study of carbon compounds except the oxides of carbon i.e. CO, CO2 and Carbons.
Hydrocarbons
Are compounds of hydrogen and carbon only; and are the simplest organic compounds.
Are classified on the basis of the type of bonds found within the carbon atoms.
Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
(a). Saturated hydrocarbons
– Are hydrocarbons which the carbon atoms are bonded to the maximum number of other atoms possible.
– hydrocarbons which don react and hence cannot decolourise both Bromine water and acidified potassium manganate (VII).
– They are compounds in which each carbon atom has only single covalent bonds, throughout the structure.
(b). Unsaturated hydrocarbons
– Are hydrocarbons which contain at least one double or bond, between any two adjacent carbon atoms.
– The carbon atoms do not have maximum covalency.
– They can decolourise both bromine water and acidified potassium manganate (VII).
Examples: All alkenes and Alkynes.
Experiment: To verify saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Procedure:
– 3 to 4 drops of bromine wate are added to about 1 cm3 of the liquid under investigation.
– The mixture is then shaken thoroughly and the observations recorded;
– For gases the gas under investigation is bubbled ito 1 cm3 of bromine water;
– The procedures are then repeated with acidified potassium manganate (VII);
Observations:
COMPOUND |
OBSERVATIONS |
|
| With potassium permanganate | With Bromine water | |
| Kerosene | No observable colour change | No colour change |
| Laboratory gas | No observable colour change | No observable colour change |
| Turpentine | Purple colour turns colourless | Solution is decolourised |
| Hexane | No observable colour change | No observable colour change |
| Pentene | Potassium permanganate is decolourised | Solution is decolourised |
Conclusion
– Kerosene, laboratory gas and hexane are saturate hydrocarbons
– Turpentine and pentane are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Homologous series
– Refers to a group of organic compounds that have the same general formula, whose consecutive members differ by a similar unit, and usually have similar chemical properties.
Characteristics of a Homologous series.
(i). Can be represented by a general formula;
(ii). Have similar chemical properties
(iii). Have similar structures and names
(iv). They show a steady gradation of physical properties
(v). Can usually be prepared by similar methods.
Structural and molecular formula
– Simply shows the number and type of elements (atoms) in the compound.
Shows how the different atoms in the molecules (of a compound) are bonded or joined together.
Example:
Methane
Molecular formula CH4;
Structural formula
H
│
H – C – H
│
H
Are the simplest hydrocarbons with the general formula; CnH2n + 2 where n = number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
Examples:
– For compound with only 1 carbon atom, formula = CH4
– 2 carbon atoms; the formula = C2H6
Names and formulas of the first 10 Alkanes
Note:
Consecutive members of the alkane series differ by a CH2-unit, hence a homologous series.
(a). General formula
– The Alkanes have a general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
Example:
When n = 3, (2n + 2) = 8, and the alkane has the formula C3H8 (Propane)
(b). Structure
– In all Alkanes the distribution of bonds around each carbon atom is tetrahedral.
Example: Methane
(c). Homologous series
– The Alkanes differ from each other by a CH2-.
– Thus methane, CH4 differs from ethane, C2H6 by CH2-, and ethane in turn differs from propane C3H8 by C 2 -.
– They therefore form a homologous series.
(d). Functional groups
– A functional group is a part of a compound which has a characteristic set of properties.
– Thus when a bromine atom replaces a hydrogen atom in an alkane, it imparts to the compound new chemical and physical properties.
Examples: six important functional groups.
(e). Isomerism
– Is a situation whereby two or more compounds have similar molecular formulae but different structural formula.
– Such compounds are called isomers, i.e compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula.
Examples: For Butane, (C4H10) there are two possible structures.
Isomers have different physical and chemical properties.
Example: Ethanol and dimethyl ether.
– Molecular formula: both have C2H6O
(i). Ethanol (ii). Dimethyl ether
Differences
| Ethanol | Dimethyl ether |
| – A liquid of boiling point 78.4oC
– Completely soluble in water – Reacts with sodium ethoxide and liberates hydrogen gas |
– A gas at room temperature (B.P 240C).
– Slightly soluble in water. – Does not react with sodium metal. |
(f). Alkyl groups
– Is a group formed by the removal of a hydrogen atom form a hydrocarbon.
– Alkyl groups dont exist on their own but are always attached to another atom or group.
Naming of alkyl groups
– Is done by removing the ending -ane from the parent alkane and replacing it with yl.
Examples
Methane (CH4) gives rise to Methyl -CH3
Ethane (C2H6) gives rise to ethyl, – C2H5 i.e. -CH2CH3
Propane (C3H8) gives rise to Propyl, – C3H7 // -CH2CH2CH3;
(g). Nomenclature of Alkanes
– Generally all Alkanes end with the suffix -ane;
– Alkanes can either be straight chain or branched.
(i). Straight chain Alkanes
– The names of all Alkanes end with the suffix -ane;
Examples:
Methane, ethane, propane, butane.
– With the exception of the first 4 members of the series (i.e. the 4 listed above) the names of Alkanes begin with a Greek prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms in the main chain.
Examples: – Pentane 5 carbon atoms
Hexane 6 carbon atoms.
(ii). Branched Alkanes
The naming of branched chain Alkanes is based on the following rules:-
Examples
Further examples
H H H CH2CH2CHCH2CH3
│ │ │ │ │
H – C – C – C – H CH3 CH2
│ │
H – C – H CH3
│ 3-ethylhexane;
H
2-methylpropane;
Further examples.
│
CH3
3-methylpentane;
│
H3C – C – CH3
│
CH3
2, 2-dimethylpropane;
Note: refer to course books and draw as many examples as possible.
Draw the structural isomers of:
(f). Occurrence of Alkanes
– There are 3 known natural sources:
(i). Natural gas: this consists of mainly of methane;
(ii). Crude oil:
– Consists of a mixture of many Alkanes
– It can be separated into its components by fractional distillation.
Reason:
– The different components have different boiling points.
(iii). Biogas: This contains about 60-75% of methane gas/marshy gas.
Separation of the components of crude oil.
(i). Apparatus
(ii). Procedure
– The apparatus is arranged as shown above.
– The first distillate appears at about 120oC and is collected, the of 40oC intervals thereafter until the temperatures reach 350oC.
(iii). Observations and explanations
– This method of separation is called fractional distillation, and depends on the fact that the various components of the mixture have different boiling points.
– The various fractions vary in properties as explained below.
(a). Appearance
– Intensity of the colour increases with increase in boiling point.
– Boiling point increases with increasing number of carbon atoms.
Reason:
– The higher the number of carbon atoms, the higher the number of covalent bonds.
– Thus the first fraction to be distilled (lab gas) is colourless while the last distillates (between) is dark black in colour.
(b). Viscosity
– Increases with increasing boiling point;
– The fractions with low boiling points are less viscous while the fraction with the highest boiling point is semi-solid;
(c). Inflammability:
– Decreases with increasing boiling points.
– The gaseous fractions, with least boiling points readily catches fire // burn, while the semi-solid fractions with very high boiling points are almost non-combustible.
Note: Some Hydrocarbons are found in more than one fraction of crude oil and more advanced chemical methods are necessary for complete separation.
Uses of the various fractions of crude oil.
| No. f carbon atom per molecule | Fractions | Uses |
| 1-4 | Gases | Laboratory gases and gas cookers |
| 5-12 | Petrol | Fuel in petrol engines |
| 9-16 | Kerosene (paraffin) | Fuel for jet engines (aeroplanes) and domestic uses |
| 15-18 | Light diesel oils | Fuel for heavy diesel engines e.g. for ships |
| 18-25 | Diesel oils | Fuel for diesel engines |
| 20-70 | Lubricating oils | Used for smooth running of engine parts |
| >70 | Bitumen | Road tarmacking |
Changes // gradation of physical properties across the alkane homologous series
| Name of alkane | Formula | State of room temperature (208K) | M.P (K) | B.P (K) | Density
(g cm-3) |
Solubility | Solubility |
| Methane
Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Octane; Nonane Decane |
CH4
C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12 C6H14 C7H16 C8H10 C9H20 C10H22 |
↑
Gaseous ↓ ↑
Liquid
↓ |
90
91 85 138 143 178
243 |
112
184 231 273 309 342 447 |
0.424
0.546 0.582 0.579 0.626 0.659 0.730 |
|
Preparation and chemical properties of Alkanes
Note:
– Alkanes, like any other Homologous series have similar chemical properties.
– Generally any alkane can be represented form the reaction represented by the following equation:
CnH2n + 1COONa + NaOH(aq) → CnH2n +2 + Na2CO3(aq);
Thus;
– Methane can be prepared form sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa)
– Ethane can be prepared form sodium propanoate (CH3CH2COONa)
– Propane can be prepared form sodium Butanoate (CH3CH2CH2COONa)
Laboratory Preparation of methane
(i). Apparatus
(ii). Procedure
– About 5g of odium ethanoate and an equal mass of soda lime is put in a hard glass test tube, upon mixing them thoroughly in a mortar.
– The mixture is heated thoroughly in the test-tube.
(iii). Observation
– A colourless gas collects over water
Reasons:
– Methane does not react with and is insoluble in water.
Equation
CH3COONa + NaOH(s) → CH4(g) + Na2CO3(aq)
Sodium ethanoate sodalime Methane Sodium carbonate
Physical properties of methane
Chemical properties
– It is flammable and burns in excess air // oxygen with a pale blue non-luminous flame to give carbon (IV) oxide ad water vapour.
Equation:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Note: In a limited supply of air, the flame is luminous.
Reason:
– This is due to incomplete combustion of the methane.
– A mixture of methane and air explodes violently when ignited if the volume ratio is approximately 1:10 and this is often the cause of fatal explosions in coal mines.
– When methane is bubbled through bromine water the red brown colour of bromine persists; and when bubbled through acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution; the purple colour of the solution remains;
– Thus it has no effect on either bromine water or acidified potassium permanganate.
Reason: It is a saturated hydrocarbon.
– A substitution reaction is one in which one atom replaces another atom in a molecule.
Example: The substitution of Bromine in methane.
Procedure:
– A sample of Methane (CH4) is placed in a boiling tube and to it is added some bromine gas.
– The tube is stoppered, and the mixture shaken, then allowed to stand and exposed to ultra-violet lamp.
Observations
– The red colour of Bromine begins to fade, and the pungent smell of hydrogen bromide (HBr) gas is detectable when the stopper is removed.
– A moist blue litmus paper also turns red on dipping into the resultant mixture.
Equation CH4(g) + Br2(g) → CH3Br(g) + HBr(g)
Explanation – For a chemical reaction to occur, bonds must be broken. – The light energy (V.V. light) splits the Bromine molecule into free atoms, which are very reactive species. – Similarly the energy breaks the weaker carbon hydrogen bonds, and not the stronger carbon carbon bonds. – The free bromine atoms can then substitute (replace one of the hydrogen atoms of methane, resulting unto bromomethane and hydrogen bromide gas.
Note: This process can be repeated until all hydrogen atoms in CH4 are replaced.
Write all the equations to show the stepwise substitution of all hydrogen atoms in methane.
– The substitution reactions can also occur with chlorine, forming chloremethane dichloromethane, trichloromethane (chloroform) and tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride) respectively.
Equations:
Uses of methane – It is used as a fuel – Used in the manufacture of carbon black which is used in printers ink and paints. – Used in the manufacture of methanol, methanal, chloromethane and ammonia.
Cracking of Alkanes – Is the breaking of large alkane molecules into smaller Alkanes, alkenes and often hydrogen. It occurs under elevated temperatures of about 400-700oC
Equation
Example: Cracking of propane
– Are hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and have the general formula CnH2n.
– They thus form a homologous series with the simplest member behind ethane.
Names and formulae of the first six alkenes.
| Name of alkene | Formula |
| Ethene
Propane Pbut-l-ene Pent-lene Hex-tene |
NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
Rules
Examples
Questions: For each of the following alkenes, draw the structural formula
Note: Branched alkenes:
Event for branched alkenes, the numbering of the longest carbon chain is done such that the carbon atoms joined by the double bonds gets the smallest numbers possible.
Isomerism in alkenes
Occurs when a substitutent groups is attached to one of the carbon atoms in the largest chain containing the double bond.
Positional isomerism; in alkenes
Is a situation whereby two or more unsaturated alkenes have same molecular formular but different structural formula; due to alteration of the position of the double bond.
Question: Draw all the possible isomers of Hexene , resulting from positional and branching isomerism.
Gradation of physical properties of Alkenes
| Name of alkene | Formula | (MP0C) | B.P (0) | Density g/cm3 | solubility |
| Ethene
Propene But-l-ene Pent-l-ene Hex-l-ene |
-169
-189 -185 -138 -98 |
-104
–47.7 -6.2 -3.0 -98 |
–
– – 0.640 0.674 |
Note: the double bond is the reactive site in alkenes
Preparation and chemical properties of Ethene
A mixture of ethanol and concentrated sulfuric acid in the ratio 1:2 respectively are heated in a flask to a temp. of 1600C 1800C.
A colourless gas results; and is collected over water.
Reasons: Its insoluble, unreactive and lighter than water.
At 1600C 1800C the conc. H2SO4 dehydrates the ethanol, removing a water molecule form it and the remaining C and H atoms rearrange and combine to form Ethene which is collected as colourless gas.
Note: At temperature below 1400C, a different compound called ether is predominantly formed.
Ethene can also be prepared by passing hot aluminum oxide over ethanol. The later of which acts as a catalyst i.e.
Reactions of ethene/chemical properties
Just like an alkenes and alkanes, ethene burn in air, producing carbon dioxide and large quantities of heat.
Equation:
Caution: Mixtures of air and ethene can be explosive and must be handled very carefully.
Is a reaction in which are molecule adds to another to form a single product occur in alkenes due to presence of a double bond.
Procedure: Ethene is bubbled into a test tube containing acidified potassium permanganate.
Observation: The purple colour of the solution disappears.
Explanation: Ethene reduces the potassium permanganate.
The permanganate ion is reduced to Manganese (II) ion and water.
Equation
Note: The net effect of the above reaction is the addition of two OH groups to the double bond forming ethan-1, 2-dio(ethylene glycol).
In cold countries ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze in car radiators.
Procedure: Ethene is mixed with Bromine liquid/gas
Observation: The reddish brown bromine gas is decoloursed/becomes colourless.
Explanation: Bromine is decoloursed due to the addition of Bromine atoms to the twocarbon atoms f the double bond forming 1.2 dibromethane.
The Chlorine (greenish yellow) also gets decoloursied due the addition of its atoms on the double bond.
Note: Alkenes react with and decolourise halogens and potassium permanganate by additional reaction at room temperature and pressure.
The reaction site is the double bond and hence/all alkenes will react in a similar manner.
Example; Butene and Bromine
iii) Reaction with Bromine water
Bromine is dissolved in water and reacted with ethene.
Equation:
Further examples of additional reactions
With sulphuric acid
Note: When ethylhydrogen sulphate is hydrolysed, ethanol is formed.
In this reaction, water is added to ehylhydrogen sulphate and the mixture warmed.
Is commonly termed hydrogenation though just a typical addition reaction.
Ethene is reacted with hydrogen, under special conditions.
Conditions; moderate temperature and pressure.
Nickel catalyst/palladure catalyst.
Equation:
Application: it is used industrially in the conversion f various oils into fats e.g. in the preparation of Margarine.
Also called self-addition reactions
Alkanes have the ability to link together (polymerise) to though the double bond to give a molecule of larger molecular mass (polymers)
Polymers: Are very large molecules formed when 2 or more (smaller) molecules link together to form a larger unit.
Polymers have properties different form those of the original constituent manners.
Examples: Polymerisation of ethene
iii) Observation: Sticky white substance which hardens on cooling is formed. This solid is called polythene, commonly reffered to as polythene.
Generally
Uses of polythene
Note: Polythene pipes have a great advantage over metal pipes as they can be welded quickly and do not burst in frosty weather.
Test for Alkenes
– They decolourise bromine water, acidified potassium manganate VII.
i.e. These addition reactions show the presence of a double bond.
Uses of Alkenes
Are unsaturated hydrocarbons which form a homologous series of a general formula CnH2n-2, where n = 2 or more.
The functional groups of the alkyne series is the carbon carbon tripple bond.
They also undergo addition reactions because of High unsaturation and may be polymerised like the alkenes.
Examples
| Name | Molecular formula | Structural formular |
| Ethyne
Propyne But-l-yne Pent-l-yne |
C2H2
C3H4 C4H6 C5H8 |
CH CH
CH3C CH CH3CH2C CH CH3(CH2)2C CH |
Nomenclature of alkynes
Examples
Isomerism in alkynes
Isomerism commonly occurs in alkynes due to the fact that the position of the tripple bond can be altered.
Such isomers, as usual have same molecular but different structural formulas.
Examples
Gradation in physical properties of Alkynes
| Name of Alkyne | Formula | M.P/0C | B.P/0C | Density/gcm-3 |
| Ethyne
Propyne Butyne Pent-l-yne Hex-l-yne |
HC CH
CH3 CH CH3CH2CC CH CH3CH2CH2C CH CH3(CH2)3C CH |
-8108
-103 -122 -90 -132 |
-83.6
-23.2 8.1 39.3 71 |
–
– – 0.695 0.716 |
Preparation and chemical properties of Ethyne.
Water is dripped over calcium carbide and is collected over water.
Reasons for over-water collection:-
Ethyne burns with a luminous and very sooty flame; due to the high percentage of carbon content, some of which remains unburnt.
Equation
In limited air, they undergoes incomplete combustion, forming a mixture of carbon and carbon dioxide.
Note: A sooty flame observed when a hydrocarbon burns in air is an indication of unsaturation in the hydrocarbon.
Addition reactions
During addition reactions of alkynes (Ethyne) the tripple bond breaks in stages;
Note: This reaction occurs under special conditions i.e. – Presence of a Nickel catalyst
Temperatures about 2000C
Equations
Note: In this reaction Cl2 should be diluted with an inert.
Reason: Pure Cl2 reacts explosively with Ethyne, forming carbon and HCl.
When Ethyne reacts with Bromine water, the reddish brown colour of bromine water disappears.
Reason: The Bromine adds to the carbon tripple bond leading to the of 1;1,2,2 tetrabromoethane.
Equation
E; Ethyne also decolorizes acidified potassium permanganate.
Note: Decolourization of acidified potassium permanganate and bromine water are tests for unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkanes and alkynes)
Uses of Ethyne
A.WATER
Pure water is a colourless, odourless, tasteless,neutralliquid. Pure water does not exist in nature but naturally in varying degree of purity.The main sources of water include rain, springs,borehole, lakes,seas and oceans:
Water is generally used for the following purposes:
(i)drinking by animals and plants.
(ii)washing clothes.
(iii)bleaching and dyeing.
(iv)generating hydroelectric power.
(v)cooling industrial processes.
Water dissolves many substances/solutes.
It is therefore called universal solvent.
It contains about 35% dissolved Oxygen which support aquatic fauna and flora.
Water naturally exist in three phases/states solid ice,liquid water and gaseous water vapour.
The three states of water are naturally interconvertible.
The natural interconvertion of the three phases/states of water forms the water cycle.
| condensation CLOUDS (Water in solid state) |
Precipitation
| RAIN
|
| Evaporation(Water in gaseous state) |
| SPRING, RIVERS,WELLS. |
| OCEAN,LAKES,SEAS(water as liquid)
|
Liquid water in land, lakes , seas and oceans use the solar/sun energy to evaporate/vapourize to form water vapour/gas. Solar/sun energy is also used during transpiration by plants and respiration by animals.
During evaporation, the water vapour rises up the earths surface. Temperatures decrease with height above the earth surface increase. Water vapour therefore cools as it rises up. At a height where it is cold enough to below 373Kelvin/100oC Water vapour looses enough energy to form tiny droplets of liquid.
The process by which a gas/water vapour changes to a liquid is called condensation/liquidification.
On further cooling, the liquid looses more energy to form ice/solid.The process by which a liquid/water changes to a ice/solid is called freezing/solidification. Minute/tiny ice/solid particles float in the atmosphere and coalesce/join together to form clouds. When the clouds become too heavy they fall to the earths surface as rain/snow as the temperature increase with the fall.
Interconversion of the three phases/stateswater
| Solid/Ice |
| Liquid/Water |
| Gas/water vapour |
Evaporation Liquidification/
/boiling/vapourization condensation
Melting Freezing liquidification Solidification
Pure water has :
(i) fixed/constant/sharp freezing point/melting point of 273K/0oC
(ii) fixed/constant/sharp boiling point of 373K/100oC at sea level/1 atmosphere pressure
(iii) fixed density of 1gcm-3
This is the criteria of identifying pure/purity of water.
Whether a substance is water can be determined by using the following methods:
a)To test for presence of water using anhydrous copper(II)suphate(VI)
Procedure. Put about 2g of anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI)crystals into a clean test tube.Add three drops of tap water. Repeat the procedure using distilled water.
Observation.
Colour changes from white to blue
Explanation.
Anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI)is white. On adding water ,anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI) gains/reacts with water to form hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI).
Hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI) is blue.Hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI) contain water of crystallization.
The change of white anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI) to bluehydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI) is a confirmatory test for the presence of water Chemical equation.
Anhydrous Hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI) + Water -> copper (II)sulphate(VI)
(white) (blue)
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) ->CuSO4.5H2O(s)
b)To test for presence of water using anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride
Procedure. Put about 5cm3 of water into a clean test tube.
Dip a dry anhydrouscobalt(II)chloride paper into the test tube.
Repeat the procedure using distilled water.
Observation.
Colour changes from blueto pink
Explanation.
Anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride is blue. On adding water,anhydrouscobalt(II)chloride gains/reacts with water to form hydratedcobalt(II)chloride.
Hydratedcobalt(II)chloride is pink.
Hydratedcobalt(II)chloridecontain water of crystallization.
The change of blue anhydrouscobalt(II)chlorideto pinkhydratedcobalt(II)chloride is a confirmatory test for the presence of water Chemical equation.
Anhydrous Hydrated cobalt(II)chloride + Water ->cobalt (II)chloride
(Blue) (pink)
CoCl2(s) + 5H2O(l) ->CoCl2.5H2O(s)
Burning a candle in air
Most organic substances/fuels burn in air to produce water.Carbon(IV)oxide gas is also produced if the air is sufficient/excess.
Procedure
Put about 2g of anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI)crystals in a boiling tube.
Put about 5cm3 of lime water in a boiling tube.
Light a small candle stick.Place it below an inverted thistle/filter funnel
Collect the products of the burning candle by setting the apparatus as below
Set up of apparatus
Observation
The sunction pump pulls the products of burning into the inverted funnel. Colour of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate(VI)changes from white to blue. A white precipitate is formed in the lime water/calcium hydroxide.
Explanation
When a candle burn it forms a water and carbon(IV)oxide.
Water turns anhydrous copper(II) sulphate(VI)changes from white to blue.
Carbon(IV)oxide gasforms white precipitatewhen bubbled in lime water/calcium hydroxide.
Since:
(i)hydrogen in the wax burn to form water
Hydrogen + Oxygen -> Water
(from candle) (from the air)
2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O (g/l)
(ii)carbon in the wax burn to form carbon(IV)oxide
Hydrogen + Oxygen -> Water
(from candle) (from the air)
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)
The candle before burning therefore contained only Carbon and Hydrogenonly.A compound made up of hydrogenand carbon is called Hydrocarbon.
A candle is a hydrocarbon.
Other hydrocarbons include: Petrol, diesel, Kerosene, and Laboratory gas.Hydrocarbons burn in air to form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Hydrocarbons + Oxygen ->Water + Oxygen
Water pollution
Water pollution take place when undesirable substances are added into the water.Sources of water pollution include:
(i)Industrial chemicals being disposed into water bodies like rivers, lakes and oceans.
(ii)Dicharging untreated /raw sewage into water bodies.
(iii)Leaching of insecticides/herbicides form agricultural activities into water bodies.
(iv)Discharging non-biodegradable detergents after domestic and industrial use into water bodies.
(v)Petroleum oil spilling by ships and oil refineries
(vi)Toxic/poisonous gases from industries dissolving in rain .
(vii) Acidic gases from industries dissolving in rain to form “acid rain”
(viii)Discharging hot water into water bodies.This reduces the quantity of dissolved Oxygen in the water killing the aquatic fauna and flora.
Water pollution can be reduced by:
(i)reducing the use of agricultural fertilizers and chemicals in agricultural activities.
(ii)use of biological control method instead of insecticides and herbicides
(iii)using biodegradable detergents
Reaction of metals with water
Some metals react with water while others do not.The reaction of metals with water depend on the reativity series.The higher the metal in the reactivity series the more reactive the metal with water.The following experiments shows the reaction of metals with cold water and water vapour/steam.
(a)Reaction of sodium/ potassium with cold water:
Procedure
Put about 500cm3 of water in a beaker.Add three drops of phenolphthalein indicator/litmus solution/universal indicator solution/methyl orange indicator into the water.
Cut a very small piece of sodium .Using a pair of forceps, put the metal into the water.
Observation
Sodium melts to a silvery ball that floats and darts on the surface decreasing in size.Effervescence/fizzing/ bubbles of colourless gas produced.
Colour of phenolphthalein turns pink
Colour of litmus solution turns blue
Colour of methy orange solution turns Orange
Colour of universal indicator solution turns blue
Explanation
Sodium is less dense than water.Sodium floats on water and vigorously react to form an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide and producing hydrogen gas. Sodium is thus stored in paraffin to prevent contact with water.
Chemical equation
Sodium + Water -> Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
To collect hydrogen gas , Sodium metal is forced to sink to the bottom of the trough/beaker by wrapping it in wire gauze/mesh.
Potassium is more reactive than Sodium. On contact with water it explodes/burst into flames. An alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide is formed and hydrogen gas
Chemical equation
Potassium + Water -> Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Caution: Reaction of Potassium with water is very risky to try in a school laboratory.
(b)Reaction of Lithium/ Calcium with cold water:
Procedure
Put about 200cm3 of water in a beaker.Add three drops of phenolphthalein indicator/litmus solution/universal indicator solution/methyl orange indicator into the water.
Cut a small piece of Lithium .Using a pair of forceps, put the metal into the water.
Repeat with a piece Calcium metal
Observation
Lithium sinksto the bottom of the water.Rapid effervescence/fizzing/ bubbles of colourless gas produced.
Colour of phenolphthalein turns pink
Colour of litmus solution turns blue
Colour of methy orange solution turns Orange
Colour of universal indicator solution turns blue
Explanation
Lithium and calcium aredenser than water. Both sink in water and vigorously react to form an alkaline solution of Lithium hydroxide / calcium hydroxide and producing hydrogen gas.Lithium is more reactive than calcium. It is also stored in paraffin like Sodium to prevent contact with water.
Chemical equation
Lithium + Water -> Lithium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium + Water -> Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
(c)Reaction of Magnesium/Zinc/ Iron with Steam/water vapour:
Procedure method1
Place some wet sand or cotton/glass wool soaked in water at the bottom of an ignition/hard glass boiling tube.
Polish magnesium ribbon using sand paper.
Coil it at the centre of the ignition/hard glass boiling tube.
Set up the apparatus as below.
Heat the wet sand or cotton/glass wool soaked in water gently to:
(i)drive away air in the ignition/hard glass boiling tube.
(ii)generate steam
Heat the coiled ribbon strongly using another burner.Repeat the experiment using Zinc powder and fresh Iron filings.
Set up of apparatus
Observations
(i)With Magnesium ribbon:
The Magnesium glow with a bright flame (and continues to burn even if heating is stopped)
White solid /ash formed
White solid /ash formed dissolve in water to form a colourless solution
Colourless gas produced/collected that extinguish burning splint with “pop sound”(ii)With Zinc powder:
The Zinc powder turns red hot on strong heating
Yellow solid formed that turn white on cooling
White solid formed on cooling does not dissolve in water.
(iii)With Iron fillings:
The Iron fillings turns red hot on strong heating
Dark blue solid formed
Dark blue solid formed does not dissolve in water.
Procedure method2
Put some water in a round bottomed flask
Polish magnesium ribbon using sand paper.
Coil it at the centre of a hard glass tube
Set up the apparatus as below.
Heat water strongly to boil so as to:
(i)drive away air in the glass tube.
(ii)generate steam
Heat the coiled ribbon strongly using another burner. Repeat the experiment using Zinc powder and fresh Iron filings.
Observations
(i)With Magnesium ribbon:
The Magnesium glow with a bright flame (and continues to burn even if heating is stopped)
White solid /ash formed
White solid /ash formed dissolve in water to form a colourless solution
Colourless gas produced/collected that extinguish burning splint with “pop sound”(ii)With Zinc powder:
The Zinc powder turns red hot on strong heating
Yellow solid formed that turn white on cooling
White solid formed on cooling does not dissolve in water.
(iii)With Iron fillings:
The Iron fillings turns red hot on strong heating
Dark blue solid formed
Dark blue solid formed does not dissolve in water.
Explanations
(a)Hot magnesium burn vigorously in steam. The reaction is highly exothermic generating enough heat/energy to proceed without further heating.
White Magnesium oxide solid/ash is left as residue.
Hydrogen gas is produced .It extinguishes a burning splint with a “pop sound”.
Chemical Equation
Magnesium + Steam ->Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)
Magnesium oxide reacts /dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution of Magnesium oxide
Chemical Equation
Magnesium oxide + Water ->Magnesium hydroxide
MgO(s) + H2O(l) -> Mg(OH) 2 (aq)
(b)HotZinc react vigorously in steam forming yellowZinc oxide solid/ash as residue which cools to white.
Hydrogen gas is produced .It extinguishes a burning splint with a “pop sound”.
Chemical Equation
Zinc + Steam -> Zinc oxide + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ->ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Zinc oxide does not dissolve in water.
(c)Hot Iron react with steam forming dark blue tri iron tetra oxide solid/ash as residue.
Hydrogen gas is produced .It extinguishes a burning splint with a “pop sound”.
Chemical Equation
Iron + Steam -> Tri iron tetra oxide + Hydrogen
2Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) -> Fe2O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Tri iron tetra oxide does not dissolve in water.
(d)Aluminium reacts with steam forming an insoluble coat/cover of imperviouslayer of aluminium oxide on the surface preventing further reaction.
(e) Lead, Copper, Mercury, Silver, Gold and Platinumdo not react with either water or steam.
HYDROGEN
Occurrence
Hydrogen does not occur free in nature. It occurs as Water and in Petroleum.
School laboratory Preparation
Procedure
Put Zinc granules in a round/flat/conical flask. Add dilute sulphuric(VI) /Hydrochloric acid.
Add about 3cm3 of copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution.
Collect the gas produced over water as in the set up below.
Discard the first gas jar. Collect several gas jar.
Observation/Explanation
Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric(VI)/hydrochloric acid to form a salt and produce hydrogen gas.
When the acid comes into contact with the metal,there is rapid effervescence/ bubbles /fizzing are produced and a colourless gas is produced that is collected:
(i) over water because it is insoluble in water
(ii)through downward displacement of air/upward delivery because it is less dense than air.
The first gas jar is impure. It contains air that was present in the apparatus.
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)solution act as catalyst.
Chemical equation
(a) Zinc + Hydrochloric acid ->Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ->ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc + Sulphuric(VI)acid ->Zinc Sulphate(VI)+ Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Zn (s) + 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
(b)Chemical equation
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid -> Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Mg (s) + 2H+(aq) -> Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium+ Sulphuric(VI)acid ->Magnesium Sulphate(VI)+ Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Mg (s) + 2H+(aq) -> Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
(c)Chemical equation
Iron + Hydrochloric acid -> Iron(II)chloride + Hydrogen
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Fe (s) + 2H+(aq) ->Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
Iron+ Sulphuric(VI)acid ->Iron(II) Sulphate(VI)+ Hydrogen
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq)->FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation
Fe (s) + 2H+(aq) ->Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
Note
1.Hydrogen cannot be prepared from reaction of:
(i)Nitric(V)acid and a metal. Nitric(V)acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes hydrogen gas to water.
(ii)dilute sulphuric(VI)acid with calcium/Barium/Lead because Calcium sulphate(VI),Barium sulphate(VI) and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) salts formed are insoluble. Once formed, they cover/coat the unreacted calcium/Barium/Lead stopping further reaction and producing very small amount/volume of hydrogen gas.
(iii)dilute acid with sodium/potassium. The reaction is explosive.
Properties of Hydrogen gas
(a)Physical properties
(b)Chemical properties.
(i)Burning
II.Pure dry hydrogen burn with a blue quiet flame to form water. When a stream of pure dry hydrogen is ignited, it catches fire and continues to burn with a blue flame.
III.Impure(air mixed with) hydrogen burns with an explosion.Small amount/volume of air mixed with hydrogen in a test tube produce a smallexplosion as a “pop” sound. This is the confirmatory test for the presence of Hydrogen gas. A gas that burns with a “pop” sound is confirmed to be Hydrogen.
(ii)Redox in terms of Hydrogen transfer
Redox can also be defined in terms of Hydrogen transfer.
(i)Oxidation is removal of Hydrogen
(ii)Reduction is addition of Hydrogen
(iii)Redox is simultaneous addition and removal of Hydrogen
Example
When a stream of dry hydrogen gas is passed through black copper (II) oxide, hydrogen gas gains the oxygen from copper(II)oxide.
Black copper (II) oxide is reduced to brown copper metal.
Black copper(II)oxide os thus the Oxidizing agent.
Hydrogen gas is oxidized to Water. Hydrogen is the Reducing agent.
Set up of apparatus
(a)Chemical equation
(i)In glass tube
Copper(II)Oxide + Hydrogen ->Copper + Hydrogen gas
(oxidizing agent) (reducing agent)
(black) (brown)
CuO (s) + H2(g) -> Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(ii)when excess Hydrogen is burning.
Oxygen + Hydrogen -> Water
O2(g) + 2H2(g) ->2H2O(l)
(b)Chemical equation
(i)In glass tube
Lead(II)Oxide + Hydrogen ->Lead + Hydrogen gas
(oxidizing agent) (reducing agent)
(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)
PbO (s) + H2(g) ->Pb(s) + H2O(l)
(ii)when excess Hydrogen is burning.
Oxygen + Hydrogen -> Water
O2(g) + 2H2(g) -> 2H2O(l)
(c)Chemical equation
(i)In glass tube
Iron(III)Oxide + Hydrogen ->Iron + Hydrogen gas
(oxidizing agent) (reducing agent)
(Dark grey) (grey)
Fe2O3 (s) + 3H2(g) ->Fe(s) + 3H2O(l)
(ii)when excess Hydrogen is burning.
Oxygen + Hydrogen -> Water
O2(g) + 2H2(g) -> 2H2O(l)
(iii)Water as an Oxide as Hydrogen
Burning is a reaction of an element with Oxygen. The substance formed when an element burn in air is the oxide of the element. When hydrogen burns, it reacts/combines with Oxygen to form the oxide of Hydrogen.Theoxide of Hydrogen is called water. Hydrogen is first dried because a mixture of Hydrogen and air explode. The gas is then ignited .The products condense on a cold surface/flask containing a freezing mixture.A freezing mixture is a mixture of water and ice.
The condensed products are collected in a receiver as a colourless liquid.
Tests
(a) When about 1g of white anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI)is added to a sample of the liquid ,it turns to blue. This confirms the liquid formed is water.
(b) When blue anhydrous cobalt (II)chloride paper is dipped in a sample of the liquid ,it turns to pink. This confirms the liquid formed is water.
(c)When the liquid is heated to boil, its boiling point is 100oC at sea level/one atmosphere pressure.This confirms the liquid is pure water.
Uses of Hydrogen gas
When Hydrogen is passed through unsaturated compounds in presence of Nickel catalyst and about 150oC, they become saturated. Most vegetable oil are unsaturated liquids at room temperature. They become saturated and hard through hydrogenation.
Hydrogen is the lightest known gas. Meteorological data is collected for analysis by sending hydrogen filled weather balloons to the atmosphere. The data collected is then used to forecast weather conditions.
3.In the Haber process for the manufacture of Ammonia
Hydrogen is mixed with Nitrogen in presence of Iron catalyst to form Ammonia gas. Ammonia gas is a very important raw material for manufacture of agricultural fertilizers.
4.In the manufacture of Hydrochloric acid.
Limited volume/amount of Hydrogen is burnt in excess chlorine gas to form Hydrogen chloride gas. Hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water to form Hydrochloric acid.Hydrochloric acid is used in pickling/washing metal surfaces.
5.As rocket fuel.
Fixed proportions of Hydrogen and Oxygen when ignited explode violently producing a lot of energy/heat.This energy is used to power/propel a rocket to space.
6.In oxy-hydrogen flame for welding.
A cylinder containing Hydrogen when ignited in pure Oxygen from a second cylinder produces a flame that is very hot. It is used to cut metals and welding.
Sample revision questions
1.A colourless liquid was added anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI) which turned blue.
(a)Why is it wrong to conclude the liquid was pure water?
Anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI) test for presence of water.Purity of water is determined from freezing/melting/boiling point.
(b)Write an equation for the reaction that take place with anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI)
Anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI) + Water ->hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI)
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) ->CuSO4.5H2O(s)
(c)(i)Which other compound would achieve the same results asanhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI)
Anhydrous cobalt (II)chloride/CoCl2.6H2O
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction
Anhydrous cobalt (II)chloride + Water ->hydratedcobalt (II)chloride
CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O(l) -> CoCl2.6H2O (s)
(d)Complete the equation
(i) Sulphur(VI)oxide + Water ->Sulphuric(VI)acid
(ii) Sulphur(IV)oxide + Water ->Sulphuric(IV)acid
(iii) Carbon(IV)oxide + Water ->Carbonic(IV)acid
(iv) Nitrogen(IV)oxide + Water ->Nitric(V)acid
(v) Phosphorus(V)oxide + Water ->Phosphoric(V)acid
(vi) Sodium oxide + Water ->Sodium hydroxide
(vi) Sodium peroxide + Water ->Sodium hydroxide
(a)Arrange the metals as they should appear in the reactivity series.
B
C
A
(b)Aproduct residue in Dwhich was brown when hot but turned yellow on cooling during the reaction of metal B was formed. Gas E was also evolved.Identify
(i)Metal B Lead/Pb
(ii)Residue D Lead(II)oxide/PbO
(iii)GasE Hydrogen/H2
(c)A portion of product residue in D was added dilute nitric(V)acid.Another portion of product residue in D was added dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.State and explain the observations made.
When added dilute nitric(V)acid, D dissolves to form a colourless solution.
Lead(II)Oxide +dilute nitric(V)acid -> Lead(II) nitrate(V)+ Water
PbO (s) + 2HNO3(aq)-> Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
When added dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, D does not dissolve. A white suspension/precipitate was formed.Lead(II)Oxide reacts withsulphuric(VI)acid to form insolubleLead(II)sulphate(VI) that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II)Oxide, stopping further reaction.
Lead(II)Oxide +dilute sulphuric(VI)acid -> Lead(II) sulphate(VI) + Water
PbO (s) + H2SO4(aq) ->PbSO4 (s) + H2O(l)
(b) When water reacts with potassium metal the hydrogen produced ignites explosively on the surface of water.
(i) What causes this ignition?
(ii) Write an equation to show how this ignition occurs
(a) Complete the diagram to show how the other product, substance R could be collectedin the laboratory.
(b) Describe how copper could be obtained from the mixture containing copper (II) oxide
(a) Identify solid X and state its purpose
Solid X .…………………………………………………………………..
Purpose …………………………………………………………………..
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction that produces the flame.
(i) Name gas P …………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Write an equation of the reaction that takes place in the combustion tube
(iii) State one precaution necessary at the end of this experiment
| Dry hydrogen |
| Liquid Y |
| Burning hydrogen |
| Ice cold water |
| Clamp |
| Clamp |
(a) Write the equation for the formation of liquid Y
(b) Give a chemical test for liquid Y
6. Jane set-up the experiment as shown below to collect a gas. The wet sand was heated before
heating Zinc granules
| Wet sand |
(a) Complete the diagram for the laboratory preparation of the gas
(b) Why was it necessary to heat wet sand before heating Zinc granules?
| N |
(a) Between N and M which part should be heated first? Explain
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction occurring in the combustion tube.
(a) Complete the circuit by drawing the cell in the gap left in the diagram
(b) Write half-cell equation to show what happens at the cathode
(c) Using an arrow show the direction of electron flow in the diagram above
(i) Write an equation for the reaction.
(ii) State two precautions that must be taken before the combustion begins and at the end of
the combustion.
equation for the reaction.
dilute acids. Elements S displaces element P from its oxide. P reacts with cold water. Arrange
the four elements in order of their reactivity, starting with the most reactive.
iii) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs in the combustion tube
cool down . Explain
vii) Why is zinc oxide not used to investigate this property of hydrogen gas?
| o
o o o o o o
|
| Water |
| Calcium metal |
| Gas K |
calcium metal.
(a) Name gas K ……………………………………………………………..
(b) At the end of the experiment, the solution in the beaker was found to be a weak base. Explain
why the solution is a weak base
