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A computer network can be defined as a collection of computers linked together using transmission media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing. The term transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between two or more computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. Some of the shared resources include programs, printers,storage devices, communication links etc.

Data communication

Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through the network. If all aspects related to data communication are taken into consideration, computer networking is the most recent, efficient and reliable means of transmitting data.

Terms used in data communication

Some of the terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation and demodulation, multiplexing, bandwidth, base band, broadband transmission and attenuation.

Data signal: A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. In data communication, data signals can either be analog or digital in nature. Analog data is made up of continuous varying waveform while digital data is made up of a non-continuous discrete waveform.

Signal modulation and demodulation: This is the process of converting data signals to a form that is suitable or transmission over a transmission medium. For example, a modem converts a digital signal to analog by superimposing it on an analog carrier signal which can be transmitted over analog telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A modem at the receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form, a process known as demodulation.

Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium e.g. a wire conductor can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different times. Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end. Imagine a situation where one hundred computers in town A want to communicate with others of equal number in town B. If multiplexing is not used, each of the computers in town A will need a direct cable linking it to its partner in town B! However, with multiplexing, the computers can be made to share a single cable laid between the two towns hence save cost. The different frequencies create what is called different logical channels in the medium. .

Bandwidth: A bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at anyone time. For example, a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second).

Baseband signal: Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium directly without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages of different magnitudes applied to the medium. The baseband signal utilises the full capacity of the transmission medium, hence at anyone time; only one signal can be sent. However, multiple signals can be sent at different times if they are multiplexed.

Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, an analog signal is sent over the transmission medium using a particular frequency. This means that several data signals can simultaneously be sent through the same medium but at different frequencies. Frequency bands between these data signals prevent them from overlapping.

Attenuation: This is the decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively moves along a transmission medium. If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be .lost along the way and may never reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers also called repeater stations along the medium at appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it then retransmit it.

Modes of data communication

There are three modes of data communication namely: simplex, half

Duplex and full duplex.

Simplex transmission refers to communication in only one direction. An example of simplex communication is the normal radio or television broadcast. The listener or viewer cannot communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to the broadcaster.

Half duplex refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time. A sender must send the data before the recipient can reply. For example, if two police officers are communicating using a ‘walkie talkie’ radio, one has to say “over” to mark the end of every statement in order for the other to respond.

Full duplex communication occurs in both directions simultaneously. An example of full duplex communication can be found in computers that are sending and receiving data on a network.

Types of computer networks

Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common classification is according to size. Currently, there are several types of networks but the three most common are:

Local area network (LAN)
Metropolitan area network (MAN)
Wide area network (WAN)

Local area network (LAN)

Local area network is a computer network that spans a relatively small geographical area like in one building or a school. One local area network can be connected to other local area network over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.

Most local area networks connect personal computers and server computers on a small network. A server computer is a computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from other computers (workstations) on a network. Most local area networks are configured such that each workstation has its own central processing unit with which it executes programs, but it is also able to access data and devices anywhere on the local area network. Local area networks enable many users- to share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the local area network to communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat sessions.

Local area networks are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data transmitted over telephone lines. .

Metropolitan area networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town or city. The metropolitan area network size typically covers a radius of between 5 to 50 km. The metropolitan area network infrastructure may be owned by a single company that has offices across a metropolitan area or by a service provider who provides network services to subscribers in the area. In essence, a metropolitan area network is made up of many local area networks in a metropolitan area.

Wide area networks (WAN)

A wide area net work is larger than a metropolitan area network and covers a large geographical area such as a country, a continent or the whole world. It consists of many local area networks and metropolitan area networks connected together to form one large network such as the Internet.

Purpose and limitations of networking

Purpose of networking

Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include: resource sharing, remote communication, distributed processing facilities, cost effectiveness and reliability.

Resource sharing

A resource in the network environment means data/information, files, printers, modems, communication links, storage devices, fax machines, application programs and any other component that can’ be attached to the network for access by users.

Take for example an office setup where a number of users in a small business require access to. Common information. As long as all the computers are connected, they can share their files, exchange mail, send,

Faxes, schedule meetings and print documents from any point on the network. Users do not need to transfer files via removable storage but would send the work to a network printer. This centralised access to data and information leads to less waste of time and hence greater productivity.

Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax a document from the softcopy in his/her word processor, rather than having to print it out, and then feed it into the fax machine.

In most network arrangements, the shared resources may be attached to a network server. The other computers on the network that send requests to the server are referred to as clients or workstations. Network servers run a special program called the server software which controls computers on the network and listens to client requests to service them over the network. For example, a print server will give permission for a particular client to print documents on the network printer. Figure 1.2 shows a simple diagram representing a computer network that is controlled by a server.

Remote communications

In the present computing environment, computer engineers are faced with two basic problems.

Roaming of officers who by virtue of their work keep on covering long distances away from the workplace.
Access to the organization’s information resources so that they can have up-to-date data or at least update the information servers with the status quo in the field.

Initially, the problem of roaming was addressed by the development of portable computers like laptops. But problem of access to the network’s information server remained! However, both problems have been addressed by remote communication. Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication devices located at different geographical locations. A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client while the computer being accessed is called a remote host. Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwave and satellite as will be discussed in details later.

It is through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas and pass messages over the Internet.

Therefore, remote communications give a lot of freedom to the network users which translates to more productivity. Imagine continuing to work from home just as if you were in your office.

Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different computers which are on the same network. However, users will not know that the processing is distributed but will think that everything is taking place on computer. The output can then be transmitted to another computer or the central computer on an organisations network. Before the advent of distributed processing, many organisations had centralised systems of management. This meant that all the data and information were sent from the dumb terminal (workstation with no processing power) for processing and storage in a central computer. It therefore followed that processing of data, release of information and decision making was centralised too.

However, with distributed processing, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on a central computer. Branch offices in a large organization have their own servers that store data, information and other resources required for their daily operations. These servers would then periodically update the central computer.

This model of data processing has a number of advantages. These include:

The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage.

Cost effectiveness

Networks are cost effective in the organization. Although the initial purchase and lying down of network components may be expensive, the savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make them a ready choice for enterprising managers.

One good thing about a network is that it greatly increases the efficient use of scarce resources. Imagine a large organization that has stand alone computers only. In such a case, the management has to buy a printer for each computer. However, with a network, only one printer is sufficient. The same applies to other resources like fax machines, optical drives, files and applications.

It should also be noted that computer networks have enhanced daily communication by providing a paperless communication environment. Users can send electronic messages and mail to each other instead of having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges. On the same note, company executives may not need to travel across continents to hold meetings. They can hold electronic video conferences instead and save the fare.

Reliability

A computer network is reliable in two ways especially when communicating or accessing information:

Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination.
In case one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and information from the other computers using another computer on the network.

Limitations of networking

Although networking has many advantages it also offers many challenges that are associated with implementation and human factors. Some of the limitations and disadvantages of networking include security issues, high initial installation cost, moral and cultural effects, spread of terrorism and drug trafficking and over reliance on networks among others.

Security issues

Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access threats than if the computer was not on the network. For example, a stand alone computer may be accessed by only a few people at home or in the office environment. However, once the computer is connected to the network, especially the Internet, many people can access it not only physically but also virtually over the network. Apart from this, when information is sent over the network from source to destination, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties.

Organisations find it very challenging to guard information systems from constant threats of illegal access. One of the common methods of data protection in a networked environment is encryption. This is the scrambling of information into a complex unintelligible form. Encrypted data cannot be understood by people who illegally access it unless they have the decryption key.

High initial cost

The initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high. In fact, most institutions that have not set up their networks more often than not quote prohibitive cost as a limiting factor.

Moral and cultural effects

Large networks like the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services that may enable underage children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad intentions. Access to pornographic and other negative material has also made the fight against social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance abuse more complicated.

Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The Internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism and drug trafficking. The easy flow of information from one place to another keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the law communicating easily. Terrorists and drug traffickers use information networks for their business communications. However, many countries have come up with methods of policing the Internet to try and break such syndicates.

Over-reliance on networks

Modem organisations have phased out most manual operations this means that all business processes and the society depend on computer networks. The disadvantage of this over reliance is that if by any chance the network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society can be brought to a halt! For instance, imagine the chaos if mobile phone services were to be abruptly brought to a halt. However, proper systems and network planning should be made to avoid such occurrences.

Elements of networking

A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components) which can be classified into three major categories namely:

Data communication media.
Communication devices.
Networking software.

Data communication media

A data communication medium is a pathway used for carrying data and information from one point to another. The communication medium will more often than not dictate the type of signal that will be used to transmit a message. In essence, data communication media can be divided into two:

Communication using cable (bounded media)
Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Communication using cables (bounded media)

Data signals are transmitted from the source to the destination through a restricted pathway such as through a cable. For example, if the cable is a copper conductor, the data signal which may be in form of an electrical signal is propagated through the cable from the source to the destination. Any radiation from the guided medium is regarded as signal loss.

There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are:

Two wire open lines cables.
Twisted pair cables.
Coaxial cables.
Fiber optic cables.

1.Two wire open lines cables

They are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator

They are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal e.g. the line running from a subscriber’s house to the nearest telephone post.

Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce inter-line interference called crosstalk their linear nature allows an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data transmission which may cause interference to the signal. The wires also capture environmental frequencies e.g. radio waves hence causing noise in the transmission channel. In data communications, the word noise refers to random unwanted signals picked up by the channel.

2.Twisted pair cables

A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each other in a double helix manner the winding of the wires is meant to reduce the development of an electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit data. These cables are mostly used to transmit both voice and data signals. The two common types of twisted pair cables are the unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference (EMI) also called “electric noise” from the environment. The cable is therefore susceptible to noise and signal interference. Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal and even the radiations from spark plugs in motor vehicles. Unshielded twisted pair is therefore not suitable for environments that are electrically “noisy”.

Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to unshielded twisted pair except that a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to shield or protect them from noise.

Twisted pair cables are categorised into five groups according to the type of data transmitted and maximum rate of transmission, as shown below.

Table 1.1

	Suitable for	Speed (max. limit)
Category	Transmitting
1	Voice	Less than 1Mbps
2	Data	1 Mbps
3	Data	16 Mbps
4	Data	20 Mbps
5	Data	100 Mbps

Mbps means Megabits per second.
Today’s networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.

Most organisations today use category 5 twisted pair cables to set up their local area networks. Although twisted pair cables can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps, they suffer from attenuation. For every cable length of 90 m, a device for restoring the signal called a “repeater” is needed to amplify the signal.

The advantages of twisted pair cabling include:

Telephone systems use UTP which is present in most buildings. This means that it is easier to set up network media because connection is readily available.
Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.

The disadvantages of twisted pair cabling include:

It suffers high attenuation.
It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

Coaxial cables

A coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set. This cable has a central copper core which may be of solid or stranded wires surrounded by a dielectric material (insulator). The dielectric material is then surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor which is covered by a shield making the cable more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair cable.

The braid (or mesh conductor) is made of copper or aluminium and serves as the ground for the carrier wire. Together with the insulation and any foil shield, the braid shield protects the carrier wire from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). However, although the cable has better protection against electrical interference than the twisted pair cables, it has a moderate protection against magnetic interference. The diameter of the centre core or conductor determines the attenuation rate. The thinner the core, the higher the attenuation rate. Data is carried on the cable using direct current (dc).

Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they are installed in a network to form the network backbone (a link that connects two or more separate local area networks). A good example where this cables are used is connecting different networks between buildings and routing trunk calls in telecommunication companies. There are two types of coaxial cables:

Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet). It has one dielectric insulator
Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet). It has two dielectric insulators around the core and is thicker than the thinnet

The advantages of coaxial cables include:

They are very stable even under high loads.
They have a large bandwidth (up to I Gbps) compared to twisted pair.
They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.

The disadvantages of coaxial cables include:

Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.
Coaxial cables are relatively expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair.

Fiber optic cables

This is one of the latest types of bounded transmission media to be developed. Instead of carrying or transmitting data signals using electronic signals, the fiber optic cable utilises light to transmit data from one point to another on the network. The electrical signals from the source are converted to light signals, and then propagated along the fiber optic cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need a Light Emitting Diode (LED) at the transmitter. At the receiving end, a photosensitive device can be used to convert the light signals back to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.

The fiber optic cable is made up of the core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the jacket. .

The core: The core is the central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent plastic or glass.

Cladding: This is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has some light bending characteristics in that, when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is redirected back to the core. This is why even if a fiber optic cable is bent into coils and a light signal is inserted at one end it will still be seen coming out from the other end.

Buffer: The buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.

The jacket: It is the outer covering of the cable.

Fiber optic cables are of two types namely:

Single mode fiber.
Multimode fiber.

The single mode fiber cable has a very narrow centre core the light in the cable can therefore take only one path through it. Because of this, it has a very low attenuation rate and is preferred for long distance transmission. It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is higher than that of the twisted pair’s 100 Mbps. Single mode fiber is very expensive and requires very careful handling during installation.

A multimode fiber has a thicker core than the single mode it allows several light rays to be fed in the cable at an angle. Because of multiple light signals navigating the cable at the same time, distortion of the signal is possible. Multimode cables have a high attenuation rate and are usually used for shorter distances than single mode.

The light signal travels through the core, through a process referred to as total internal reflection. The process that causes total internal reflection is called refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses the boundary of two mediums that have different density. When light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from the core to the cladding. The light is bent back into the core hence propagates along the length of the cable

The advantages of fiber optic cabling include:

It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
Large distance can be covered because it has low attenuation.
Can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because they do not generate electrical signal.
It is smaller and lighter than copper cable hence ideal for space limited situations.

The disadvantages of fiber optic cabling include:

Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
It is relatively complex to configure.
A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.

Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Wireless or unbounded media, is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to another without using physical connections. In this case transmitting antenna and receiver aerial facilitate the communication. Examples of wireless transmission media include microwaves, radio waves, and infrared transmission all use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. All these waves travel at the speed of light.

Microwave transmission

Microwave frequencies range from about 3GHz to 40GHz on the electromagnetic spectrum. Due to their small wavelength, they easily release their energy in water as heat hence they are also used in making microwave ovens used as domestic kitchen appliances. However, in networking, microwaves are very suitable for point to point transmissions. This means that a signal is directed through a focused beam from transmitter to the receiver station.

Satellite communication

A satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic dishes with an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space. A satellite transmission system has three main components:

Transmitter earth station that would set up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data. The uplink will have a unique frequency.
A satellite that is somewhere in an orbit that receives, amplifies and retransmits the signal to a receiving earth station via a downlink frequency that is different from that of the uplink so as to avoid interference with the uplink signal.
Receiving earth station that would receive the sent signal on the other side of the globe.

A communication satellite is usually launched into space about 36 000 km above the earth in such a manner that its speed will be relatively equal to the rotation speed of the earth. An observer on earth will therefore, see as if the satellite is stationary in space. These types of satellites are called geostationary satellites. They are convenient because the need to keep on moving the parabolic dish in a bid to track the line of sight is eliminated. A geostationary satellite offers a large constant line of sight to earth stations. The area on earth where the line of sight can easily be located is called the satellites footprint. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations to form a point to multipoint transmission. In multipoint transmission the transmitted signal spreads out in all directions forming a cell of access radius.

The new trends in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small aperture terminal (VSAT) technology. This very small aperture terminal refers to a very small satellite dish used both in data, radio and TV communication. Many businesses are adopting this new technology because it enables direct access to satellite communication instead of having to go through the state owned or licensed satellite gateways.

The satellite produces strong signals that can be received by a satellite dish antenna of only about 2 metres in diameter. The signals are decoded using a decoder that is plugged directly to a television set or a computer.

Radio communication

Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e. they are omnidirectional. This means that they start from a central point and spread outwards in all directions. As they travel outwards, their energy spreads outwards over the covered area. The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at constant velocity. Radio waves are not visible to the human eye. Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts. Data can also be transmitted over radio waves communication channels. For example, instead of laying telephone cables between two towns that are geographically separated, radiowave transmission can be used to connect the two towns. Radio waves can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-high frequency.

The high frequency (HF) radio waves signal is propagated by directing it to the ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere will reflect it back to the earth’s surface and the receiver will pick the signal. Before the advent of satellite communication, high frequency radio was the only way of communication beyond the horizon such as communicating to a ship that is on the high seas or communication between continents. The biggest challenge of high frequency communication is the danger of signal interception by unauthorised parties.

Very high frequency (VHF) radio waves are transmitted along the earth’s surface. Due to the curvature of the earth, the signal will most likely attenuate at the horizon. This means that repeater stations have to be placed strategically to maintain a line of sight in order to receive, amplify and propagate the signal from one area to another. This technology is popular for the hand held radio devices like “walkie-talkie” radios. The range of very high frequency is limited but it is preferred to high frequency where no major obstructions are encountered on the landscape. This is because with very high frequency, it is possible to make the wave to follow a narrower and more direct path to the receiver. To overcome the obstructions on the earth surface like mountains and buildings, repeater stations are built on raised areas.

Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio waves are like very high frequency when it comes to the line of sight principle. This means that there should be no barrier between the sending and the receiving aerial. However, they require smaller aerials. Notice that the television aerial for very high frequency is bigger than the one for ultra high frequency radio waves. This is because; ultra high frequency radio waves can be made to follow an even narrower and direct path to the receiver than very high frequency radio waves. Therefore ultra high frequency is popular for horizon limited broadcasts.

One of the latest radio transmission technologies is called Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth is a worldwide and short-range radio technology that enables people to use hand held communication devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants to access the Internet. The main idea behind Bluetooth communication is to try and define one standard that will allow all personal communication devices regardless of their differences or size to be able to communicate with each other and through wireless technology. The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver, small enough to be inserted in small devices. A network of bluetooth-enabled devices is called a wireless personal area network (WPAN) or piconet. This is because bluetooth networks are best suited for personal or hand held devices. This has made radio transmission to become very popular in mobile communication and Internet connectivity.

Infrared transmission

Infrared waves fall just below the visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum. Just like the radio waves, infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. Communication through this medium is achieved by having infrared transmitters and receivers (transceivers). Transceivers of infrared signals must be within a line of sight in the same room. This is because unlike radio signals, infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like walls. However, the signal can be reflected off surfaces like walls and ceiling until they reach their destination.

An example of an infrared device is the infrared transceiver on most mobile phones. Once activated, two people in the same room can send messages to each other using infrared technology on their mobiles without going through the mobile service provider hence avoid being charged.

In computer networking environment, the technology can be used to connect devices in the same room to each other without need for cables e.g. a computer to a printer. The computers infrared transceiver must maintain a line of sight with the one for the printer.

Advantages and disadvantages of wireless communications

Wireless communication offers numerous advantages that justify the cost of laying down the network. Some of the advantages are:

Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices can be moved around without losing access to the network.
Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.

Some of the disadvantages of wireless communications include:

It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
The initial cost is very high.

Communication devices

Computers and transmission media require communication devices for the network to be fully operational. These devices are more or less used as interfaces or junctions between the terminal devices. Terminal equipments are devices at both ends of the communication link such as a computer. Some examples of data communication devices include network interface cards (NIC), modems and codec’s, hubs, bridges, repeaters, routers, gateways, switches and access points.

Network interface cards (NIC)

Network interface cards (NIC) create a physical link between the computer and the transmission media. A network interface card is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard. However, most computer motherboards today come ready with an onboard network interface controller. The network interface cards have ports at the back in which the terminated end of a network cable can be plugged.

Modems and codecs

A modem is an important device in the world of communication. It converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of transmission over the analog media, while a codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a digital medium. A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.

Hubs

A hub also called a concentrator is a component that connects computers on a network and is able to relay signals from one computer to another on the same network. A hub will usually connect networks that have a common architecture i.e. one that has the same set of communication software usually called protocols. Protocols are a set of rules that govern the communication between devices on a network. A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the network. After the signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message picks the message from the network that is part of the broadcast domain. Some hubs called intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way computers are communicating on the network and keep the information in a small database of their own called a management information base (MIB). The network server can then use this information to fine-tune the network. Intelligent hubs can be able to manage a network by isolating computers that are not functioning properly. Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand a network. However, this increases the broadcast range which may lead to broadcast storms on the network. The term broadcast storm refers to a condition where a network is overwhelmed with message broadcasts due to malfunctioning of network interface cards or hub related problems.

Bridges

This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for which a message is meant for delivery through address filtering. Hence a bridge can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic. The purpose of using a bridge therefore is to:

Extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.
Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of the network.

A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not broadcast in that segment.

Repeaters

A repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it and then sends it to another segment. Repeaters are the simplest way to expand a network because they broadcast the same message to other network segments. However, this is advisable due to broadcast storms that can develop. The repeater enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.

Routers

The router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from source to destination. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a unique identifier or address called the network address. Network addressing is enabled because of the use of a special internetworking protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP). Hence, the network address is usually called the IP address. All the computers on the same network have the same network address but different host numbers. The router receives a packet from another router on the internet work and checks the destinations network address. If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, it passes the data packet to the destination host by reading the host address otherwise the packet will be routed to the next network address. Some modem routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge and router. Such a device is called a brouter.

Gateways

A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks or Internet. One such device is the router. Because of this reason most people confuse a gateway and a router. However a gateway may not be necessarily a router, it may be a computer configured to provide access the Internet. Figure 1.21 shows a logical diagram of a local area network connected to a wide area network via gateways.

Switches

A switch, unlike a hub forwards a packet directly to the address node without broadcasting. A node refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or computer on the network. The switch does this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they were linked by a direct cable between them. This reduces the broadcast problems on the networks. It is important to note that some hubs also incorporate the switching mechanisms. Such a hub is referred to as a switching hub.

Typically, switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that one switch may be used as a bridge to connect several hubs in order to reduce collision problems caused by broadcasts.

Wireless communication devices

For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible transmission media like cables. However, as the cost of wireless technology goes down and the quality of service increases, it is becoming cost effective for companies and individuals to extend the capability of wired networks by integrating wireless segments into their communications. Some of the most common devices used in wireless communication include access points and the antenna.

Access points (AP)

The access point is one of the most common wireless network components As its name suggests, it is an entry point into a bounded network for people who have wireless devices such as personal digital assistants (PDA’s), laptops and computers with wireless links.

Wireless antennae

The access point needs to have antennas in order to detect signals in the surrounding. The waves may be radio waves, microwave or infrared waves in nature. In most cases, access points will have two antennas so that the one that receives the best signal at any particular time can be used.

Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA) cards

A personal computer memory card international association is an add-on card inserted into a device such as personal digital assistants or a laptop in order to enable wireless communication between the devices and a wired network server.

Network software

Computer networks have evolved from the simple linking of computers on a common transmission media to highly managed and optimised data and information transfer systems. This means that apart from data communications, the focus is now squarely on how best to utilise network resources. The issues of network security inter operatability and reliability have taken centre stage. Any network manager will be faced with the question of network load balancing and adopting best routing procedures.

All these tasks would be impossible if network software was not available. These software can be classified into two main groups namely:

Network operating systems.
Network protocols.

Network operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to optimise the networked computers ability to respond to service requests. Servers run on a network operating system. In addition to the functions of a normal operating system, this software performs the following network related functions:

Provides access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently.
Supports interprocess communication i.e. enables the various processes on the network to communicate with one another.
Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.
Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols.
Implementing network security features.

In most cases, network operating systems are designed as multi-user operating systems that run the network server program. Once installed on the right hardware platform and configured as a server, the operating system will provide network management tools to network administrators. The administrator can use the tools to do the following:

Secure the network against unauthorised access.
Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network.
Ensure inter-operatability between various systems on the network.
Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network.

Examples of network operating systems are Windows NT/2000/2003, UNIX, Linux and Novell Netware.

NB: Internetworking devices like routers also have operating systems of their own and hence they can be managed and configured for optimum performance. Note that routers are special purpose computers.

Protocols

Protocols are set rules and procedures that govern communication between two different devices or people. For example, a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set of rules and procedures of communication when representing his country in the host country.

In computer networking, protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern communication between different computers.

How protocols work

The data transmission process over the network has to be broken down into discrete systematic steps. At each step, a certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the network protocols. The work of these protocols must be co-ordinated so that there are no conflicts or incomplete operations. This co-ordination is achieved through protocol layering. Network protocols are designed after the open systems interconnection (OSI) model. The open systems interconnection model is not a protocol as such but is meant to help designers to come up with high quality layered protocols. It has seven layers, each performing distinct functions as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

	Layer	Function
7.	Application layer	User applications run here and generate requests for data transmission or open received Information.
6.	Presentation layer	Adds formatting, display and encryption Information to the data being sent.
5.	Session layer	Sets up data transmission sessions between two Communicating devices.
4.	Transport layer	Manages data transfer over the network to ensure Reliability.
3.	Network layer	Address information is added to the data packet And routed to destination.
2.	Data link layer	Adds error checking information and prepares Data for going onto the physical connection.
1.	Physical layer	The data packets are finally transmitted via the network card through the transmission media in form of bits

Application protocols work at the highest layer of the OSI model. They provide services to application programs. An example of an application program is an e-mail editor program that enables composing or reading of e-mail messages. Examples of protocols at the application layer include:

Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) – An Internet protocol for transferring e-mails.
File transfer protocol (FTP) – An Internet protocol for file transfer.
Apple talk and apple share – Apple computers networking protocol suit.

Transport protocols ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably. Some examples include:

Transmission control protocol (TCP): This is responsible for delivery of sequenced data over the network.
Sequential packet exchange (SPX): This part of the Novell’s internet work packet exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.
NetBEUI: A local area network protocol for Microsoft and 1MB networks that establishes communication sessions between computers.
Apple transaction protocol (ATP): Apple computer’s communication session and data transport protocol.

Network protocols provide link services. They handle addressing and routing information, error checking and retransmission of requests. Some examples of network layer protocols include:

Internet protocol (IP): It does packet forwarding and routing.
Internetwork packets exchange: Netware’s protocol for packet forwarding and routing.

Network topologies

The term network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or how data is passed from one computer to another in the network. Therefore network topology can be viewed in two ways namely logical and physical topology.

Logical topology

Logical topology also called signal topology deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the network. Examples of logical topologies are Ethernet and token ring. This means that two networks with different physical layout may have the same logical topology.

Ethernet topology

In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media and can only send data when none of the others is sending.

Token ring topology

In token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network and only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the token to read the data then release the token. The token can then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit data.

Physical topology

Physical topology refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the network. Examples of physical topologies include star, bus, ring, mesh and tree/hierarchical topology.

Star topology

In star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub. Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the hub. When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the other nodes on the network. Until recently, the star topology was found mostly in minicomputer and mainframe environments. The topology consists typically of a system of terminals or personal computers, each connected to a central server.

The advantages of star topology include:

It allows centralisation of key networking resources like concentrators and servers.
It gives the network administrator a focal point for network management. When something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from one place, usually a wiring closet, but possibly from a remote management terminal.
Star networks are easy to configure.

The disadvantages of star topology include:

The star-based network is costly because it requires one complete cable per computer. Each workstation is connected to the central concentrator by its own dedicated line. In some star-based network technologies this line is coaxial cable that runs from an active hub to a workstation.
If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down.
Installing is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own.

Bus topology

All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or backbone as shown in Figure 1.26. The sharing of the transmission media (or bus) has several problems. Most importantly, it means that the cable can carry only one message at a time and each workstation on the network must be capable of knowing when it can and cannot transmit using this shared medium.

A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth on the cable causing signal distortion. As the data passes along the cable, each station checks whether the data is addressed to it. If the address matches the machines address, it receives the data otherwise it rejects it. The network addresses of computers on a network are called the medium access control (MAC) address.

The advantages of the bus topology are:

It is easy to install.
It is less costly. Does not require a complete cable length per computer.

The disadvantages of bus topology are:

A cable break in any section brings down the whole networks.
Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult because the fault could be anywhere on the cable.
The bus topology limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable because each computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that an increase in the number of computers results in an increased collision as machines compete for transmission.

Ring topology

In a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop each station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the network to its neighbour. A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A token can be viewed as an envelop or a bag where data is placed for transmission and carried around the network.

The advantages of ring topology are:

They use a short length cable.
Ring topology is simple to install.

The disadvantages of ring topology are:

Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
Troubleshooting can be difficult.
One device or media breakdown may affect the entire network.

However, this is not the case with IBM token ring where a device called Multi Station Access Unit (MSA U) is used for station bypass in the event a station fails.

Mesh topology

This is the most common type of topology used in wide area network where there are many paths between different locations. Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between the nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network. This is a hybrid topology. Groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone

Practical exercise

Setting up a peer-to-peer local area network

This practical activity is a step by step guide on how to set up a simple local area network. The following are some of the requirements you need.

Hardware requirements

A computer running on any version of Microsoft Windows especially Windows 9x / 2000 / ME / Windows XP.
Network Interface card. Some computers may have it already installed onboard so that you do not have to purchase one.
A hub or a switch.
Transmission media preferably unshielded twisted pair category 5. 5. RJ45 connectors.

Tools

Crimping tool
Cable tester
Screw drivers.

Installing a network card

The network interface card acts as the physical interface or connection between the computer and a properly terminated transmission cable. As mentioned earlier, some motherboards come with on-board network interface cards hence you may not need to plug in a separate add-on card.

To physically install an add-on card:

Disconnect the computer from the power source.
Open the system unit and identify an empty expansion slot on the motherboard.
Insert the card and screw it into place. Some little force may be needed to push the card into place squarely. Make sure that all the conductor points of the card sink into the expansion slot. Avoid touching the golden conductor points and chips on the card with your bare hands.

NB: Some cards are slotted into Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots while others are designed for Peripheral Components Interconnect (PCI) slots. Make sure you install in the right slot and then screw into place.

Replace the casing then connect the computer to the power supply and boot it up. If you are using Microsoft Windows 9x and above, the computer will detect the new hardware because of the plug and play feature found in the operating system. It may install the protocols and device software needed for the proper operation of the network interface card automatically! If there is a problem of the card being detected, you may have to configure the card manually using software on a disk that comes with the card.

Installing the drivers manually

Click tart, Settings then, ControlPane1. In the Control Panel window double click the Network /Network Connections icon. A dialog box will be displayed. (In some Windows versions you may have to double click the Network and Dial-up Connections icon found in the control panel then double-click the local area connection icon.)
Click the configure button.
Click adapter/drivers and then click ADD. Follow the on screen instructions.

Adding protocols

Make sure the Network dialog box is open.
Click ADD then protocol
Click Microsoft, select TCP/IP and NetBEUI from the protocol list then ok
Click Apply

Identifying your computer in a workgroup

A workgroup is a collection of computers that are on the same network. To specify your computer and the name of the workgroup:

If you are using Windows 9x, click the identification tab from the Network dialog box. If you are using Windows Me, 2000 or XP. Identification (Computer Name) tab is located in system properties dialog box. Right click My computer, click Properties then click the computer name tab.
Type your computer name and the workgroup name. The computer name you give must be unique.

Configuring transport control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)

In order to communicate with other computers, you need to install and configure a protocol. In our case let us use TCP/IP. To configure TCP/IP,

Select the TCP/IP Ethernet adapter from the list titled The following network components are installed/ This connection uses the following items.
Click the properties button then the Specify the IP address option,
Type in the IP address box an address such as 192.168.00.001. Each computer should have a unique IP address. Figure 1.32 shows a TCPI IP properties dialog box in Microsoft Windows XP.
Specify the subnet mask. Subnet masks are values that allow the router to distinguish the network ID from host ID portions of the IP address. If the IP address is examined by the subnet mask and found to be identical, the message is destined to a host on the same network otherwise it is routed to another network. Typically, subnet masks use the format 255 .x.x.x. In our case let us use a subnet mask such as 255.255.255.0.
Click APPLY then Ok The computer will prompt you to restart in order for the changes to be effected.
Restart the computer

Media preparation and connection

In this practical, we are going to use twisted pair cabling technique because it has become almost the default method. This type of media uses a connector known as RJ45 to terminate the cable. RJ45 is attached to a UTP cable using crimping tool. To attach an RJ45 connector to a UTP cable, proceed as follows:

Cut a piece of cable of suitable length approximately 3 metres.
Strip off approximately a dimension centimeter of the cable sheath on both ends to expose the inner pairs.
Untwist the pairs.
Using the wiring diagram, place the wires in the correct order and trim the edges to make them even.

Key

Green striped 2. Green
Orange striped 4. Blue
Blue striped 6. Orange
Brown striped 8. Brown

Insert the wires into the RJ45 connector; plug it in their correct order and then push it into the crimping tool.
Squeeze the handles of the tool to make sure the wires are pierced and held tightly in the connector.
Repeat steps 5 and 6 at the other end of the cable. Your cable should now be terminated on both ends
You can then test the media for continuity and correct termination using the cable tester.

Connecting the computers to the hub/switch

It is now time to connect the computers together through the hub. To connect the computers:

Connect one end of the cable to the RJ45 port of the network card and the other end to one port in the hub. If the hub is powered, a LED will indicate the connection. Repeat all this process for all other computers that you wish to connect on the network.
To see if the networking is successful, right click the Network Neighborhood/ My Network Places on the desktop. If all the connected computers in the same workgroup can “see” one another then you have succeeded setting up a peer-to-peer network.
if not, you may decide to test the connection using the PING command. For example if you have two computers with the IP addresses 192.168.001.001 and 192.168.001. 028. To test the connection between the two, proceed as follows:

(a) From the START, menu of the computer with IP address

192.168.001. 001, choose the RUN menu and type the command

PING 192.168.001. 028.

(b) Click, 0K.A connection failure will be displayed on the screen

Sharing network resources

If you have successfully installed the network, you can then start enjoying the benefits of networking by enabling resource sharing. For example if you are using Windows XP, you can share resources by enabling sharing and security as follows:

Open Windows Explorer.
From the explorer window, right click the drive folder or file you wish to share with others on the network then select sharing and security.
Click the Sharing tab then enable “share this folder“.
Type in the share name and set other options as required.
Click 0.K.

Network security

Network security is like the security measures we implement in our homes. You do the best you can to protect yourself from intruders. Likewise in networking you should try to protect your data and information from intruders. In networking there are several ways of enforcing security one of them is share level and the other is the user level security.

Share level security

Share level security is a sample network security used in peer to peer networks. The user can decide which resources to give for sharing. Most desktop operating system such as Window 9X provide such kind of security.

User-level security

User level security model is used on server based networks. A network administrator assigns accounts to users. This means that each user is provided with a unique name and password which he or she can use to access network resources. For more on user level security, read documentations on operating system such as Microsoft Windows NT 4.0/2000/2003, UNIX, Novell Netware, Linux Fedora etc.

APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

Chapter outline

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Application areas of information and communication technology

2.3 Field work report

Introduction

Computers play an important role in every aspect of our society today. Hardly does a day pass without one coming across a computer system that is used in offering services that were initially done manually.

In this chapter, we shall look at how computers have been applied in the contemporary society to add value to the information systems of various organizations. An information system is a collection of specific human and machine efforts required to support the decision making process, data processing, information output and presentation.

Application areas of information and communication technology

Information and communication technology (lCT) has been applied in various areas such as in the development of financial systems, retail systems, reservation systems, educational systems, communication systems, industrial systems, scientific and research systems, library systems, entertainment systems, transportation systems, home use, office expert systems, marketing, virtual reality systems and law enforcement systems.

Financial systems

Financial systems enable organisations to manage their finances. They include:

Payroll systems.
Accounting systems.
Banking systems.

Payroll systems

The primary purpose of this system is to process the accurate information of employees including gross pay, deductions and the net pay. Because money spent on human resource is one of the largest operating expenses of a business, a payroll system is also designed to produce several analysis reports e.g. a breakdown of payroll expenses against production/income of the company.

Accounting systems

Accounting systems are popular in business management. There are six key business accounting activities/subsystems:

Customer order entry and billing
Inventory management
General ledger accounting
Accounts receivable
Accounts payable

Customer orders entry and billing

Customer orders entry and billing subsystem records incoming customer orders, authorises delivery of items or services ordered and produces invoices for customers who do not pay in advance or on cash basis.

Inventory management

Inventory management is used to keep track of the items in stock and help the management determine which items to reorder. This helps the management to have enough stock at all times to meet the needs of the customers.

General ledger accounting

General ledger accounting is used to keep track of how much a business makes and its worthiness by summarising the financial transactions. It produces reports on income, sources of income, expenses, and the net profit or loss earned. A summary report of these transactions is called a balance sheet and is usually generated at the end of an accounting period.

Accounts receivable

Accounts receivable system keeps track or records of the amount owed by each customer. This helps the management to make a follow-up by billing the customers for overdue payments.

Accounts payable

Accounts payable system keeps track of the amount the business owes others e.g. suppliers, tax organisations, transport e.t.c. Hence, it helps the management to produce cheques for payment of these amounts.

Banking systems

The banking industry was one of the earliest consumers of information and communication technology. The computerised banking services include:

Processing customer transactions.
Cheque clearing and processing.
Electronic funds transfer.

Processing customer transactions

Computers are used in banks to carry out financial transactions such as recording deposits, withdrawals and calculating interests on savings and loans. Such systems also generate reports on the current status of accounts. In most banks, these transactions are entered via terminals, which are connected, to a central computer for centralised processing. The tellers have revolutionised banking activity by offering 24 hour service to customers and more flexibility in cash deposits and withdrawals.

Cheque clearing and processing

Computerised cheques clearing and processing is made possible due to the special characters on cheques printed using ink containing magnetic particles. The characters identify the bank in which the cheque is drawn, the customer account number, the cheque number and the amount of the cheque. Using a magnetic ink character reader, these details are automatically entered into a computer for cheque processing. Manual processing used to take lots of time but with computer systems, millions of cheques are processed every day hence improving efficiency in service delivery to customers.

Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) is the movement of money using information and communication technology. When a cash dispenser is used, the amount withdrawn by a customer is deducted from his/her account. Another example is when paying for goods and services using a credit card. Payment is transferred electronically from the customers account to the recipients account.

Retail systems

Computers are becoming more and more popular in retail stores such as supermarkets, distributor outlets etc. Computers are used in such stores for:

Stock control
Transactions handling at the electronic point of sale terminals (EPOS)

Stock control

A computerised stock control system enables a user to manage his/her stock more efficiently. This system is used to track what is in stock and what needs reordering so as to reduce the risk of under stocking or overstocking. Overstocking ties up valuable space and capital that could have been used for other valuable items. On the other hand under stocking causes customer dissatisfaction.

Transactions handling at the electronic point of sale terminals

An electronic point- of -sale (EPOS) is a computer terminal used in retail stores to input and output data at the point where sales are transacted e.g. at the supermarket checkout counter. An EPOS terminal has all facilities of a normal cash register, but with additional direct data capture devices, e.g. bar code reader, card reader, a monitor and a receipt printer. In such retail stores, goods are identified by means of bar codes. For each item, a record is stored in secondary storage medium containing: the item number, item name or description, quantity in stock and the price.

Transactions at the point of sale terminal may involve the following steps:

The bar code reader (wand) is passed over the items bar code. The bar code is automatically converted to the item number, e.g. 2160, which is read to the computer.
Using this number, the computer searches for the item with a corresponding number in the products database.
Once the record is found, its description and price lookup file is used for processing the sale.

The advantages of electronic point of sales terminal systems are:

Correct prices are used at the checkout counter.
Faster since the attendant does not have to enter details manually.

Reservation systems

Reservation systems are distributed networked systems that are used mainly to make bookings in areas such as airlines, hotels, car-rental, theatres etc. Bookings are made from a remote terminal connected to a centralised computer database. To access the database, a customer makes enquiries via the remote terminal connected to the central computer.

For example to make airline booking enquiries such as finding out the seats reservation a customer uses a remote terminal in the nearest booking office. The response is immediately available to the customer within a few seconds.

Such a computerised reservation system is referred to as online enquiry since an individual directly requests for information through a terminal from a central computer and receives an immediate response.

Educational systems

Initially most educational institutions used computers for administrative tasks such as compiling examinational reports, writing memos and accounting purposes. Computers are playing an increasingly important role in educational institutions in the following ways:

Computer aided instruction (CAI)
Computer aided learning (CAL)
Electronic learning (e-Learning)
Computer based simulation

Computer aided instruction (CAI)

Computer aided instruction refers to the use of a computer to learn, drill and practice particular educational principles. For example when learning a new concept in foreign language such as Japanese, the learner is presented with the explanation of the concept. The computer then presents questions from which the learner is to select the correct answer.

Some CAI programs present learning content in form of educational games, which makes learning more fun especially for young children. A good example is a typing tutor program. Figure 2.3 below is an onscreen illustration of a sample typing tutor program that teaches a person to learn typing skills.

Computer aided learning (CAL)

Another educational technique that uses computers is computer aided learning. Unlike computer aided instruction, which is meant to drill the learner, computer aided learning present’s educational materials the way a teacher does in a classroom. For example, the program may pose a question and depending on the learner’s performance, it may present new content or revisit the topic.

In order to make learning effective, most computer aided learning programs have clear graphical presentations such as video clips and voice for demonstrating or explaining difficult concepts.

Electronic learning (e-Learning)

In e-Learning, lessons and lectures are presented from a central site and the presentation is transmitted to remote conference terminals or displayed on TV screens. The learner can also access learning material on the internet, sit for online examinations and receive results the same way. Learners therefore do not need to go physically to a college.

Computer based simulation

Computer based simulation refers to the science of representing the behavior of a real-life situation by using computerised models. Simulation has become very popular in learning and training institutions. For example, in distant or e-Learning, where a learner is not in physical contact with a trainer, simulation software can be used to provide the learner with clear illustrations about a certain concept or skill.

Simulation programs are mostly used in educational areas where practical skills have to be learnt like training drivers, pilots, engineers etc. have to be instructed using a virtual environment.

Communication systems

Communication refers to the distribution of information or data from one person or location to another. Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by use of high-speed electronic devices such as computers, cell-phones, radios and television. This integration of computerised electronic devices and telecommunication infrastructure for the purpose of communication is referred to as information and communication technology (lCT). Therefore ICT not only refers to computers but also all other devices that are used for effective and efficient communication. Examples of communication systems are:

Facsmile (Fax).
Radio.
Television set.
Video conferencing.
Telecommuting.
Internet.

Facsmile (Fax)

A facsmile machine, in short a fax, is a telecommunication device used to send documents via telephone lines. A document is placed in the machine, scanned and converted into analog form then transmitted over the telephone line. The receiving fax machine converts the analog data into the original softcopy and prints a hardcopy.

To send fax over the Internet, a special modem, called a fax modem is attached to the sending and receiving computers. This eliminates the need for a stand alone fax machine.

Radio communication

Computers can be used in radio broadcasting stations to do the following:

Record and manage radio programmes meant for broadcasting.
Manage the radio transmission and track performance. Most transmissions equipment are computerized for easy troubleshooting and operation.
Automate the running of the selected programmes.
Create slides, simulated objects and sound effects when preparing electronic and printed media advertisements.
Download information from Internet that can be used in preparing programmes such as international news.

Television sets

Television sets (TV) have become increasingly important in information and communication technology because they are much more available at homes and many places than computers. Data or information is transmitted via a TV channel the same way the channel is used to broadcast conversional TV programs. The most common types of data transmitted via TV include: teletext (ceefax) and videotex (view data).

Teletext

Teletext refers to a computerised service whereby news and other information are provided on television screens to subscribers. A TV is configured using a special add-on card or adapter. The subscriber can browse for information using a remote controlled device. However teletext is a one way communication (simplex) which means that the subscriber cannot communicate back to the service provider.

Videotex (view data)

Unlike teletext, videotex also known as view data is a two way communication service half duplex over a telephone line or cable television channel. A subscriber can interact with the service provider database and the information is displayed on a home TV screen. View data is used in reservation bookings, ordering for goods and services as well as sending electronic mails.

Video conferencing

Video conferencing refers to the use of computers, a digital video camera, audio capturing equipment and communication networks to enable people in different locations to see and talk to one another.

Each participant’s computer is attached with a video camera (camcorder), speakers and a microphone. With such devices and appropriate communication software, a person can participate in a virtual conference room. In such a room, all participants can see each other on the computer screen as if they were seated in a real conference room.

Video conferencing communication is popular in TV broadcasting stations where a field reporter interacts with newscasters. It is also popular in organisations where top managers in different geographical locations hold meeting via the Internet or the organistions intranet.

Telecommuting

Telecommuting is a term used to refer to a situation where an employee works usually at home using a computer connected to the workplace network. Telecommuting takes advantage of the growing communication networks to reduce unnecessary travel to the place of work. This in turn translates to reduced travel expenses and less stress due to commuting inconveniences such as traffic jams.

The Internet

The Internet has become one of the most popular means of information transfer and efficient communication. Some of the services available on the Internet are:

World wide web (www).
Electronic mail (e-mail).

World wide web (www)

World wide web refers to a collection of web pages, which may be made up of text, images, animations, sounds and video held on web servers. One can access the information using a computer or any other communication device such as a mobile phone. However, for a mobile phone to be used to access the Internet, it must have the wireless application protocol (WAP). A computer connected to the Internet or a WAP-enabled mobile phone allows the user to access a wide range of information such as news, entertainment, banking, reservations, business news, e-mails among others.

E-mail

This is a very fast and efficient means of sending and receiving messages, data, files or graphics. Once you subscribe for Internet services through a service provider, you can send or receive e-mails to or from anyone connected to the Internet using a computer or a WAP-enabled cellular phone.

Industrial system

The application of computer technology in industrial or manufacturing processes has become one of the most effective methods of automated production. This has resulted in tremendous improvement in productivity.

Industrial plants such as motor vehicle manufacturers, chemical plants, refineries and mining plants use computer systems in a number of ways. Some include:

Computer aided design and manufacturing.
Simulation.
Process control.

Computer aided design/computer aided manufacturing

Computer aided design Computer aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) is an integrated system that allows products that have been designed using design application Software, to be transmitted into an automated manufacturing system for the product to be manufactured as per the computer model. For example design of motor vehicle brake pads involves designing the model using computer aided design software then feeding it to an automated machine which engineers the required shape and dimensions as per the specifications. One application of computer aided manufacturing is the use of robots to carry out assembly line operations. A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human being in carrying out operations that would otherwise be hazardous, repetitive and boring to a human being. Such operations may include welding, lifting heavy objects; spray painting of vehicle bodies, removing red-hot materials from furnaces etc.

Industrial simulation

Simulation allows some activities that would otherwise be expensive and dangerous in real life situation to be put under test. For example, a car or plane crash test simulation is the use of a virtual model on the computer screen that attempts to represent the real situation or object. This enables the manufacturers identify the weaknesses of the real situation or object hence put the correct reinforcement to their designs. E.g. motor vehicle seat belts can be tested for their effectiveness in case of a car crash using a computer model. The general name of using computer models in such circumstances is known as non destructive testing (NDT).

Process control

Computerised process control refers to the use of a computer system to control an ongoing physical process especially in manufacturing. Such process controls may include regulating temperature, pressure, fluid flow etc. Computerised process control is mostly used in petroleum refineries, chemical plants and other manufacturing companies to manage machine intensive processes.

Scientific and research systems

Computers have a wide variety of applications in science, research and technology. Some of which are:

Weather forecasting.
Medical research.
Military and space exploration science.

Weather forecasting

Modern weather forecasting techniques have been automated using computerised systems; hence weather predictions are more accurate and reliable. Due to the large volume of data collected from rainfall, air pressure, humidity, temperature, wind speed and cloud cover, computers help in analysing, processing and predicting weather patterns using such data.

Another application of computers in weather forecasting is the use of geographical information system (GIS) and the geographical positioning system (GPS). This system represents geographical data in graphical form by positioning and superimposing it on the world map. Geographical information system is used to represent data on weather patterns in a clearer and coherent manner on a world map. Similarly, the path of storms can be accurately tracked and predicted. Such information is very important for the aviation industry and many other sectors of the economy.

Medical research

In health sciences, health professionals use computer technology for diagnosis, keeping patients’ records, inventory control etc. Computers are now being used to control devices that help to care for the handicapped such as the deaf, blind, bed ridden etc. In some health institutions, a more specialised computer system referred to as an expert system may be in use. An expert system is an interactive system that generates conclusions from captured data by comparing it with a set of rules held in a database called a knowledge base. The system emulates the reasoning of a human expert in a narrow field of specialisation. Expert systems have been developed to help medical professionals diagnose illnesses more accurately in the absence of human experts.

Military and space exploration science

The dynamic growth in military, space science and exploration would not be a reality today were it not for computer technology. Space exploration and military research bodies such as America’s national aeronautics and space administration (NASA) make extensive use of computer systems, for research, design, development and control of unmanned spaceships, aeroplanes and missiles.

Library systems

Libraries use computerised systems for a number of tasks. Examples are:

Lending system
Inventory control system.
Cataloguing system.

Lending system

The library lending system manages the issuance and return of borrowed reading materials. Books, magazines, journals, reports etc. are given unique identification numbers or codes. Once a member borrows a book, his/her details are recorded. When the book is returned the borrower’s record is updated to reflect the new status.

Inventory control

This involves use of computers to manage stock, which includes checking for books currently in the shelves and those on high demand for the purpose of adding more. Similarly, books that have become obsolete can be retired to the archives.

Cataloguing

A catalogue is a collection of cards with information about each book or reference materials found in the library. These cards may be kept in a drawer sorted in alphabetic order either by title or author name. To enhance service delivery and efficiency, computerised cataloguing has replaced the manual cards catalogue. This electronic catalogue is updated constantly when new reference materials are acquired.

Entertainment systems

The advancement in multimedia technology has produced computers that can be used in recreational and entertainment. Some application areas of computers in recreation and entertainment include:

Games
Music and video

Games

Games have come a long way from the simple solitaire to modem simulated 3D games. Digital video disks (DVDs) and three-dimensional (3D) multimedia games are now possible on personal computers. There are computer games that simulate sports such as driving, war combat etc. such games gives the player maximum pleasure in a virtual environment on the screen.

Although some games can be played using other accessories e.g. on the TV screen using a game console, such games have been developed using computers.

Music and video

Video compact discs (VCD) and digital video discs (DVD) have become a common feature in the entertainment industry.

In music industry, computers are used in recording, synthesizing, editing and adding special effects to music.

In video industry, computers are used to produce highly simulated and animated movies, generate scenes and actors. Some movies use a lot of computer generated images that make the movie interesting.

Transportation systems

Computers play an increasingly important role in transportation industry in areas such as:

Automobile traffic control
Air traffic control

Automobile traffic control

In busy towns where there are round about and road junctions, you will mostly find traffic control lights. These lights control both human and motor vehicle traffic using the three lighting system i.e. green, red and amber. These lights are either controlled using a small clock switch or a computer system. The clock switches the lights at regular intervals. However, some clock controllers are intelligent enough to vary the frequency of light change according to traffic direction and volume during rush hours. Computerised traffic light systems have sensor pads laid underneath the road which detect the pattern of the traffic flow. The collected data is sent to a computer system which detects and analyses the traffic flow and builds up a simulated image of the actual scene. Control signals can then be output to the traffic lights or motorists through their receiver devices to vary the light timings or redirect traffic to less busy roads.

Air traffic control

Computers are used to monitor air traffic movement, take off and landing of crafts. This has helped minimise human control errors and mistakes I that could result from human controlled systems. The computer technology used to direct aircrafts to follow the shortest path between two locations is known as geographical positioning system (GPS).

Shipping control

Computers are widely used to control and guide the paths taken by spaceships and water vessels as they travel to distant lands. The geographical positioning system is also used in shipping control.

Home use

Because microcomputers are nowadays affordable, most people are using computers at home for preparing domestic budgets, entertainment, research and teaching children on educational concepts.

Office expert systems

This is an information system usually developed and installed in the office of a human expert or knowledge worker. A knowledge worker is a person in any field who is formally trained to apply a specific set of knowledge in his work. Such as a system is capable of simulating the decision making process and intelligent problem solution just like a human expert. It also has a set of rules that help it to make conclusions when some parameters are entered.

Marketing

Without proper marketing, a business cannot survive in a competitive environment; hence computers are being used in a number of ways to enhance marketing. These include:

Electronic commerce or e-business
Electronic presentations
Advertising

Electronic commerce/e-business

E-commerce is a new way of doing business where the transactions are carried out electronically without physical interaction between the seller and buyer. For example a customer may decide to buy an item through the Internet by visiting the supplier’s web site, selecting the item and placing it in a virtual shopping tray. The website tracks the whole session as the customer chooses various items and calculates the total bill. Payment is then made through a cheque, credit card or through electronic funds transfer. Once the payment is made, the item is shipped to the customer.

This method of trade has enabled people to do business without much movement hence saving money and time.

Electronic presentation

Using computers, marketing agents can create exciting presentations concerning the products of a business and present them to the audience using presentation software. Electronic presentation adds value to traditional marketing techniques because they are attractive.

Advertising

Using simulation, presentation and animation software, it is possible to design catchy advert materials and video clips. Such materials can then be displayed on billboards, broadcasted over a television or placed on the Internet.

Virtual or artificial reality

The term virtual reality (VR) or artificial reality refers to a condition in which a person becomes psychologically immersed in an artificial environment generated by a computer system. Other terms used instead of virtual reality are cyberspace, virtual worlds and virtual environment. To achieve this effect, the following interactive sensory equipment are used:

Head mounted display/headgear
Gloves
Body suit
Virtual reality software

Head mounted display (HMD)/headgear

A headgear is made up of two tiny display screens and sound systems that channel images and sound from the source to the eyes and ears thus presenting a stereo three dimensional sound effect in the virtual world. The wearer of the headgear is able to look around in the virtual environment.

A boom is an alternative to the often-uncomfortable head gear. Screen, optical and sound systems are housed in a box. The user looks into the box through the two screens to see the virtual world.

Gloves

Gloves worn on the hands allow the user to navigate through the virtual world and interact with virtual objects. The gloves have sensors that collect data about the movement of the hands and relay the data into the system. They give the wearer a sense of touch in the virtual world.

Body suit

A body suit, worn during virtual reality session is made up of conductor wires wound in a rubber suit. The wires sense the body movement and relay the data into the virtual reality system which in turn adjusts the position of the user in the virtual reality world.

Virtual reality software

Virtual reality software such as body electric gives the wearer of the sensory devices an interactive virtual sensory experience that makes him/her feel as if he/she is in a real world. The software is responsible for simulation of all the aspects of the virtual reality world.

Application of virtual reality

Virtual reality is used to represent any three dimensional object or ideas that are either real or abstract.

Real objects include buildings, landscapes, underwater shipwrecks, spacecrafts, human anatomy, sculptures, crime scene reconstruction, solar system etc. For example, a house can be simulated before the actual building is physically set up. A client can be allowed to virtually move through the house, pull drawers and touch objects all in a computer generated environment

Other applications of virtual reality include entertainment, training in areas such as medicine, military, equipment operations, education, design evaluation, prototyping, simulation and assembly of sequences, assistance to the handicapped etc.

Law enforcement systems

Today, crime has become very sophisticated hence very difficult to deal with. Since immediate and accurate information is very crucial in crime detection, biometric analysis using computers is becoming a preferred tool in this area. Biometric analysis refers to the study, measurement and analysis of human biological characteristics. Biometric devices attached to a computer are used to identify people by recognising one or more specific attributes such as fingerprints, voice, lips, facial features like iris colour etc. Some of the devices that can be used here are video cameras and biometric scanners.

Field work report

Visit one of the information and communication technology (ICT) application areas discussed in this chapter and write a detailed report of about five pages on the use of computers in the area. The report should include the following:

Title page
Table of contents
Introduction
A detailed description of information and communication technology implementation in the area of field work study
Conclusion

IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ON SOCI ETY

Chapter outline

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Issues resulting from the use of information and communication technology

3.3 Evolution of computer systems

Introduction

This era of information and communication technology (ICT) continues to influence our lifestyle both positively and negatively. This chapter seeks to explain some of the issues that result from the use of ICT in the society.

Issues resulting from the use of ICT

The use of ICT offers a different set of opportunities and challenges in our society. Some of the effects of ICT in our society are:

Effects on employment.
Effects on automated production.
Issues of workers’ health.
Cultural effects.
Breakthroughs in ICT.

Effects on employment

The introductions of computers in the workplace have resulted in creation of new jobs, replacement of computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly manual.

Job creation

ICT has introduced new employment opportunities that never existed before. The use of computers in financial institutions, reservation systems, educational institutions, communications etc. has created new job titles such as computer operators, programmers, network administrators, information technology or infof?1ation science managers, database administrators, software developers, system analysts etc.

Job replacement

Since the introduction of ICT in workplaces, some clerical and repetitive tasks that required a large number of employees have been made redundant. Computer illiterate people have been replaced with those who have the desired computer skills. The question in the mind of workers and managers is whether computers will in future take over all the work currently being done manually by human workers.

Displacement

Unlike in replacement where an employee may lose the job, in displacement an employee is moved to another place or department where computer skills are not required. For example, a clerk may end up being an office messenger if computers are introduced at the workplace and such a person is not willing to acquire new skills of using the computerised system.

However, to avoid losing competent employees, most employers organise in-service training for their employees on regular basis in order to help them keep up with the rapid changes in ICT.

Automated production

A number of manufacturing industries such as vehicle assembly plants, oil refineries and food processing companies are using computers to automate their processes with an aim of increasing production. Computer controlled robots and assembly lines are a common feature in manufacturing industries.

The advantages of using automated production are:

Increased efficiency due to the balancing of workload and production capacity.
Improved customer service. Adequate and high quality goods are produced in time.
Efficient utilisation of resources such as raw materials, personnel and equipment hence less operating expenses are incurred.

However, automated production has its disadvantages too. These are:

High initial cost of setting up 1an automated system. For example, the cost of buying one industrial robot is high compared to employing human resource.
Automated production may lead to unemployment in some areas that are labour intensive. For example, what would have been done by thirty people may be done by one person using a machine.

Issues of workers’ health

The use of information and communication technology (ICT) and computers has some effect on our health. Some of the negative effects of ICT on our health include repetitive strain injuries, eye strain and headaches, electromagnetic emissions and environmental issues.

Repetitive strain injuries (RSI)

These are injuries resulting from wrist, hand, arm and muscle strain, tendonitis and neck strains due to forced repetitive movement e.g. when entering data using the keyboard. The cure for repetitive strain injuries is resting, sitting in a relaxed position and changing typing techniques.

Eye strain and headaches

Since computer users have their eyes at cross range with the monitor, there is danger of developing what is called computer vision syndrome (CYS). The syndrome is characterised by eye strain, headaches, double vision and other problems caused by the improper use of the monitors. The solution to this problem is to use monitors with good resolution and fitted with an antiglare screen that filters excess light. A computer user at all times must adjust the brightness of the screen to the intensity that is comfortable to the eyes.

Electromagnetic emissions

Electromagnetic field emissions are waves of electrical and magnetic energy that are emitted by current carrying conductors. Computer users are advised to use low emission devices in order to avoid exposing themselves to excess emissions.

Environment issues

Some of the environmental effects of information and communication technology include energy consumption and radiation, pollution, paper consumption and disposal.

Energy consumption and radiation

Initially computers consumed a lot of energy thereby generating a lot of heat and emitting electromagnetic radiations. However in recent years, the Environmental Protection agency (EPA) launched energy star policy to encourage minimal use of power by electronic devices. Electronic devices have to be energy star compliant to be recognised under this policy. You can tell whether your computer complies to EPA if it displays the star during boot up

Environmental pollution

Information technology has also contributed to environmental pollution. For example, huge garbage dumps of dead computer parts, printers, ink toner cartridges, monitors and other computer accessories are disposed in landfills hence causing environmental pollution. There has been concern on the disposal of Nickel – Cadmium laptop batteries that contain toxic cadmium which when buried in a landfill can leak into underground water tables and catchments areas.

Cultural effects

The rapid growth of information technology does not only provide us with different ways of working, playing and thinking but also presents challenges to our moral and cultural values. It is the moral standards that help in guiding human behavior. Information and communication technology has changed the way we talk, affected our privacy, human rights and integrity. For example Internet users are exposed to a form of communication called flaming. Flaming is writing on-line messages that use derogatory, obscene or of dirty language. Also through the Internet, one can view pornographic materials that affect moral values negatively. These free flows of immoral information have negatively influenced the behaviour of both the young and old in the society.

Computer related crimes such as hacking, eavesdropping, piracy are on the increase. This has been accelerated by the free for all Internets. Therefore, a lot has to be done to improve on privacy and security of information.

To some extent, people with eroded integrity have used computers as a tool to accomplish their vices. Take for example where a person would use a computer to forge certificates, passport and other documents. This means that the person is cheating and therefore his/her moral integrity has been compromised.

However, ICT has its advantages too especially where it has been used as a campaign platform against diseases like AIDS and drug abuse.

Breakthroughs in information and communication technology

As explained in the previous chapter, there has been a lot of breakthroughs in the fields of health care, education, communication, research, commerce, art and design, entertainment, transport since the inception of ICT . These breakthroughs have greatly changed our lifestyles such that it is hard to imagine how life would be today if information and communication technology is to be withdrawn.

Evolution of computer systems

The rapid evolution of computers and information technology has a lot of promise. It has always been fashionable for scholars and technologists to look out into the future and to try and predict the events of tomorrow. Future trends in information and communication technology will be characterised by:

Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software.
Artificial intelligence.
Expanded information superhighway.

Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software

Since the introduction of computers in the business world in the 1950s, a lot of technological improvements have been made both in hardware and software. The silicon revolution has seen rapid increase in microprocessor speeds and capabilities due to advanced research in the semi-conductor industry. Future trends will see reduction in size and cost of components but increase in capability. The capacity of computer memory is becoming larger and larger with reduced physical size and cost. Microprocessors of a thumb’s size can now execute instructions in a trillionth of a second hence leading to emergence of smaller but smart devices.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence can be defined as a branch of computer science that is concerned with the development of machines that emulate humanlike qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing. The idea of artificial intelligence developed from a need to develop computer programs that would even challenge human beings in playing games such as chess and scrabble! Computer scientists and engineers are still working hard and carrying out intensive research with the aim of coming up with smarter computers which can almost simulate human thinking and learning, instead of relying on static programmed instructions.

However artificial intelligence is still in its infancy stage and scientists are still working hard to make it a reality in the near future.

There are four main application areas of artificial intelligence namely:

Expert systems.
Natural language processing.
Artificial neural networks.
Robotics/perception systems.

Expert systems

This is software designed to make a computer operate at the level of a human expert in a specific narrow area of specialisation. Such software simulates the reasoning process of experts in certain well defined areas such as medical diagnosis, financial forecasting etc. An expert system consists of three components namely:

Knowledge base: This is the expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject. It contains relevant facts, beliefs, assumptions and procedures for solving a particular problem.

Inference engine: This is the software that controls the search for knowledge in the knowledge base and produces conclusions. It takes the problem posed by the user and seeks to analyse it in order to arrive at a conclusion.

User interface: This is the display screen that enables the user interact with the system.

An example of an expert system is MYCIN developed at Stanford University, USA. MYCIN is used in diagnosis of blood and meningitis infections. Another application area of expert systems is in predicting mineral deposits in a particular geographical area by analysing composition of soil samples.

Natural language processing

Natural languages are ordinary human languages such as Kiswahili, English, French etc. The problem of natural languages is that they are ambiguous and may be interpreted differently by different people. For example the word ‘sack’ has two meanings i.e. “a type of bag” and “the act of dismissing a worker from gainful employment”. Computer languages on the other hand are clearly defined.

Natural language processing is aimed at coming up with programming languages that would make computers recognise and understand natural languages, whether spoken or written. Currently there are voice recognition input devices and voice synthesisers are available but are limited to just a few vocabularies. However, before using them, the computer program must be trained to recognise the voice and the pronunciation of words by the user.

Artificial neural networks

The artificial neural network is the use of electronic devices and software to emulate the neurological structure of the human brain. The idea is to try and emulate the cognitive learning process of the human brain and how it recognises patterns. The human brain works by receiving signals from special sensory cells called neurons. When the neurons receive information, they either excite the cell to send a signal to the brain or not. Artificial neurodes in artificial networks work in similar manner by perceiving environmental stimuli and hence deciding whether to pass it on to the system or not.

The essential attributes of artificial neural networks are:

The neurodes can be trained to distinguish between what constitutes a signal and what does not.
They are capable of recognising patterns in large amount of data that are too complex for the human brain. From these patterns, they can make predictions and point out anomalies. For example, in banking the pattern of credit card usage can be tracked over time to try and generalise spending patterns of individual card owners. In case of loss or theft, the bank can notice the change of spending pattern and conclude that the card is in the wrong hands, hence take appropriate security measures even before loss of the card is reported.

Robotics

A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human being in carrying out tasks that would otherwise be dangerous and difficult. Although robots are being used in workplaces research is going on in order to come up with robots that will incorporate perception systems.

Perception systems are sensing devices that emulate the five common senses of a human being i.e. sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Such devices would operate under the control of a microprocessor. This development will give robots artificial senses. Such artificial senses include feeling the shape of an object, listening to ultrasound; detecting smell of a leaking gas or chemicals tasting food is quality and seeing using two miniature video cameras

Expanded information superhighway

Expanded information superhighway involves the integration of cabled and wireless technologies for the purpose of data and information transmission. In line with advancement in the other areas of information and communication technology, there is vast increase in throughput of various transmission media like fiber optic and wireless technologies. Scientists have demonstrated a fiber optic cable whose diameter is the size of a single strand of hair which is capable of carrying a trillion bit per second

Internet is growing tremendously causing what is generally referred to as a growth of the information superhighway to digital explosion or hurricane.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Chapter outline

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Description of career opportunities in information and communication technology

4.3 Further educational opportunities in information and communication technology

Introduction

The era of computers and automated information and communication technology has brought both blessings and disappointments in the workplace. Some people have acquired very well paying jobs while others have lost theirs. For example an ordinary typist has been replaced by one who can create documents using a computer. Many new jobs have been created in areas like banking, manufacturing, educational institutions, communication and other service industries.

Description of career opportunities in the field of ICT

Information and communication technology (ICT) has created new job titles such as computer operators, computer technicians, system analysts, computer programmers, software engineers, computer engineers, information systems manager, data base administrator, computer trainer, website administrators, computer graphics designers and network administrators. This section explains some responsibilities of these professionals who are generally called information technology workers.

Computer operator

Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include:

Entering data into the computer for processing.
Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all information processing activities.

Computer technician

Given that computers require regular maintenance, upgrading as well as emergency repairs, demand for computer technicians continues to grow as more and more people computerise their workplaces and homes.

Some of the responsibilities of a computer technician are:

Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage media and devices are in good working condition.
In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and creating some computer components such as storage devices, motherboards etc.

System analyst

This is a person who is responsible for analysing a company’s needs or problems then designs and develops a computer based information system. A good system analyst is one who has at least the following attributes:

Good problem solving skills and creativity i.e. must have wide experience in solving problems.
Good communication skills: The analyst must be able to communicate clearly and precisely both in writing and in speech. He/she must be able to talk to different groups of people e.g. managers, operators, attendant and general public.
Must have business knowledge: The analyst must clearly understand the environment for which the system is being developed.
Technical knowledge: A system analyst must be well trained in relevant areas of computer science such as hardware, software and programming knowledge.

Some of the responsibilities of a system analyst include:

(a) Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one.

(b) Working with programmers to construct and test the system.

Computer programmer

Large organisations such as insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms and government agencies hire programmers to work together with system analysts in order to:

Write in-house application programs or system programs.
Customise commercial application packages to suite the organisations needs.
Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed or customised for the organization.

Software engineer

A software engineer is one who is skilled in software development and technical operation of computer hardware. Some of the responsibilities of the software engineers are:

Developing system and application software.
Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
Maintaining and updating the software to meet day-to-day requirements while overcoming challenges.

Computer engineer

Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with new and more efficient technologies in information and communication technology almost daily. Since computers are electronic devices, hardware designers must be good in electronic engineering in order to be able to:

Design and develop computer components such as storage devices, motherboards and other electronic components.
Determine the electrical power requirement of each computer component:
Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices such as robots.

Information system manager

The information system manager controls, plans, staffs, schedules and monitors all the activities of the ICT department in the organization. Using computerised management information system (MIS), the manager can test the impact that an alternative course of action might have on the business.

Other responsibilities of an information system manager include:

making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time in order to support business planning, control and decision making processes.
Preparing budgets for the department.
Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date.
Managing the human resource within the department.

Database administrator (DBA)

The major purpose of computerising organisations or institutions is to store data in an organised way for easy access, retrieval and update. The organization requires a person who should be responsible for updating records in an information system database. For this reason, a database administrator is responsible for:

Designing and developing database applications for the organization.
Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting unnecessary records.

Computer trainer

Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology, there is a high demand for qualified ICT trainers. Some of the responsibilities of an ICT trainer are:

Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs.
Developing training reference materials.
Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
Advising the learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field of ICT.
Preparing learners for ICT examinations.

Web administrator/webmaster

Internet is one of the areas of information and communication technology that has drawn the interest of most people. Thus people are able to exchange messages, search for information and do business through the Internet.

Business organisations, educational institutions and individuals put information on the Internet by developing websites. Most organisations hire the services of a web developer who is given the role of the company’s web administrator also referred to as a webmaster. A web administrator is responsible for:

Developing and testing websites.
Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the web site to meet new demands by the users.
Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing security measures.
Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from Internet websites.

Computer graphics designers and typesetters

In publishing skilled graphics designers and typesetters are required in order to design graphical objects and professional publications. Such people may get employed in publishing houses to typeset books, newspapers and magazines.

Self-employment

Self employment can be achieved by using computers or other ICT devices such as mobile phones to start bureau services, Internet services, consultancy services and computer hardware and software vendor business.

Network administrator

A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:

Set-up a computer network.
Maintain and enforce security measures on the network.
Monitor the use of network resources.
Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems.

Computer sales representatives

Computer sales representative should have good knowledge in information and communication technology. This would helps them to analyse customer needs and advice them accordingly. A good computer salesman needs to be self confident, persuasive and proficient in business communication.

Further educational opportunities in ICT

Most computer related educational opportunities offered at post-secondary level are relatively new and dynamic in nature compared to other disciplines. It is therefore difficult for most institutions that offer ICT courses to update their ICT curricula in order to accommodate these rapid changes. These changes also make it difficult for aspiring ICT professionals to identify the best career opportunities and training institutions. ICT courses are offered in the following tertiary institutions:

Universities
Polytechnics
Colleges

Universities

A university is considered as the highest institution in formal education. In most countries, universities are categorised into two major groups’ namely public and private universities.

Public universities

Public universities are established by the state through the award of a charter and are run by a state appointed management team. However, current trends in educational management point to the fact that even state universities should be allowed to operate in an autonomous manner. Admission to such a university is controlled by either the state or a recognised body. However, most universities in developed countries do their own independent admissions.

Private universities

Private universities are self-sponsored institutions set up by individuals, churches or any other organization. Such universities are privately run and students’ enrolment depends on whether the student is capable of sponsoring himself/herself. However, for these universities to operate they must be registered or accredited by the commission of higher education or any other quality assurance body that is recognised worldwide. Accreditation leads to public acceptance and confirmation evidenced by the grant of charters by the state or accrediting bodies.

Universities are authorised to offer approved diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. Some of the ICT related degree programs offered at university level courses include Bachelor of Science in computer science, Bachelor of Information Technology/Systems, Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering etc.

Research institutions

Although for a long time universities have been considered as centers for research and excellence, other specialised research institutions that concentrate on narrow fields of study such as computer or ICT technology, agriculture and space science exist. There is a lot of research being undertaken in the field of computing such as artificial intelligence. It is possible to enroll in such institutions as a research trainee.

Polytechnics

These are institutions of higher learning that mostly offer diploma and certificate courses’ in technical fields such as ICT, mechanics, food production etc. A polytechnic may also be accredited by a university or the state to offer degree programmes.

Some of the ICT courses offered at polytechnic level are diploma and certificate in computer studies, computer repair and assembly, computer operator, management information system etc.

Colleges

Just like the polytechnics, middle level colleges offer diploma, certificate and craft courses in many disciplines such as technical, ICT, teacher training, business management etc.

Most public and private colleges are now offering ICT related courses both at certificate and diploma level.

The most important consideration to make before you join a college to pursue an ICT course is:

Whether it offers ICT courses recognised both locally and internationally.
The cost of training with such an institution.

DEVELOPING A PROJECT USING MICROSOFT ACCESS DATABASE

Chapter outline

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Preamble

5.3 Identification and definition of the problem

5.4 Fact-finding

5.5 System design phase

5.6 Constructing Bukuma information system

7 Database security and startup options

5.8 Testing and implementing the system

5.9 Sample user manual

5.10 Project appendix

5.11 Bibliography

5.1

Introduction

In this chapter, we undertake a case study entitled Bukuma information system. The objective of this case study is to help the student apply the system development techniques learnt in Form 3. We shall address each step that is required in developing a working information system.

5.2 . Preamble

Due to your expertise and experience in system development, you have been hired to be the head of Information Technology (IT) at Bukuma Limited, a company that runs a supermarket. Your first task is to develop a computer based information system that would ensure that:

Stock control and monitoring is efficient and effective.
Customers’ orders are processed accurately within the shortest time possible and invoices sent in time.
Purchase orders are processed accurately in time t~ avoid delays in items delivery.
Data entry screens or forms are easy to use hence eliminating data entry errors.
On-demand reports by the management are generated within the shortest time possible. 6. Communication between the branches is efficient.
Company data and information is secure from unauthorised users and only certain company employees can access certain reports.
The overall operating cost is reduced by at least 40%.

By the end of this case study, we shall have demonstrated how to:

Carry out the initial study.
Carry out fact finding.
Define system hardware and software requirements.
Design a system using system and program flowcharts.
Construct a system that would allow:

(a) Inputting of data through forms.

(b) Updating, modification, deletion of existing data.

(d) Search or filter specific records, query and retrieve specific records.

(e) Generate various transaction reports.

(f) Set up database security, menus and other startup options.

A sample user manual has been provided to help the student identify some components of a good user manual.

Identification and definition of the problem

The problem at hand is to develop a computer based transaction processing system (TPS) that would capture and process data about business transactions. The system should also do data maintenance i.e.

provide for ability to update stored data. Some features of this system include:

Input data collected from transactions products, orders etc.
Output in the form of invoices, pay vouchers etc.
The system is also supposed to produce a variety of reports that are to be used for managerial purposes. Such reports include inventory levels, sales reports, payroll, expenses etc.

Reports produced by the system can be classified according to purpose. These are:

Summary reports – Shows totals and trends such as total sales by category.
Track stock levels and automatically alert the purchases department when restocking is necessary.
Produce monthly product sales and purchases reports.

In a nutshell, the following project charter outlines the objectives, preliminary investigation report and other pertinent issues that will be considered before embarking on system development:

Project charter for Bukuma information system

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS LTD.

lndustrial area, Funzi Road Box 30307, NairobiKenya

Phone: 257- 020655147 Fax: 02065551418

Computerised transaction

Processing and stock control system

Project name: Bukuma computerised information system

Team leader: Jane Okindia, System analyst

Project objectives

The project development team will develop new computerised information system tl1at will support the operations of the company in order to realise the strategic vision for Bukuma products sales and delivery of customer services. It’s anticipated that the new system will provide highly integrated processes and. services that will not only reach out directly to customers and suppliers but also increase internal operational efficiency.

Therefore, improvement to the current system can result in a number of benefits. These include:

Improving corporate profits by 10% through reduction of bouncing orders.
Ensuring improved customer services by efficiently managing stock levels.
Improved employee’s morale due to better processing and operations management.
Improved internal decision support so that decisions are more reliable and made on time.
Support the competitive strategy of the business.

Preliminary investigation

preliminary investigation and feasibility study of the current manual system and the proposed was done through:

Studying the organisational chart.

Quantifying work output against performance criteria.
Observing the behaviour of the employees.
Listening to external feedback from vendors, customers and suppliers.

By going through the investigative process, the team discovered the following problems with the current manual system.

The constantly changing products presented to the market have created numerous internal inefficiencies and customer service problems.
Increased customer base and sales through aggressive advertising may overload the current system’s ability to process transactions.
Unpaid orders have increased from 4%, only two years ago, to 12%. The current credit management system has to be improved.
Suppliers who have failed to deliver as per contracts have increased by 17% due to poor procurement procedures.
Competition from other companies threatens the survival of the company unless there is a change in management strategies.
Many orders are bouncing due to poor stock control. The orders that bounce are not given priority when new stock arrives.
The management is not exploiting the Internet as a marketing and service delivery channel.

Scope of the system

The proposed computerised system will support the following internal business functions:

Sales and customer order transaction processing.
Inventory control and procurement processing.

Team vision

The strategic information management team has come up with the following recommendations for the new system.

Adoption of automated data capture technology and methods e.g. using bar-coding as a means of capturing product stock records and sales, which is an automatic identification system currently being implemented in many modem business organisations.
Triple the order processing capacity of the unit by the end of fiscal year.
Reduce order response time by 50% by the end of fiscal year.
Rethink any underlying business processes, procedures and policies that have any visible impact on member satisfaction and complaints.
Provide improved marketing and promotion programs.
Provide improved follow-up mechanisms for orders and backorders.

Feasibility of the proposed system

The feasibility analysis of the proposed system centered on the following:

Feasibility report

Schedule: The system would take 9 months to develop.
The technology required to develop the new system is readily available in the market.

The system users are happy with the proposal to develop the new system.

Cost benefit analysis

(a) Costs: The entire development and operational costs can be estimated as follows:

(i) Development – Kshs 20 000 000

(ii) Monthly operational costs – Kshs 1 000000

(iii) Total lifetime of the new system – 5 years

Total lifetime costs = 20 000 000 + (12 x 1 000 000) x 5

= Kshs 80 000 000

(b) Benefits:

(i) Profit from increased sales per month – Kshs 100 000 000 (ii) Savings from introduction of paperless mail

Kshs 1 000 000

(iii) Savings from reduced travelling costs – Kshs 20000000

Total monthly benefits. Kshs 121 000000

Total lifetime benefits = Kshs (121 000000 x 12 x 5) = Kshs 7 260 000 000

Conclusion

The development of the new system is cost effective and beneficial to the company because lifetime benefits greatly outweigh the costs.

Team resolutions

In order to develop the system within the shortest time possible, the team made the following resolutions:

The team will hold weekly status meetings, chaired by the project manager (system analyst). All project status meetings minutes and reports will be shared with management and all IT directors.
Team members will be communicating through e-mails, dialogue and written memos to keep in touch on project development.

Conclusion

This report is intended to help the management to make decisions about undertaking the project.

Although the system seems expensive it will contribute positively towards corporate objectives when implemented in the future. Its benefits will outdo the costs by billions of shillings throughout its operational lifetime.

Thanks.

Jane Okindia System analyst.

Fact finding

The management has responded and given the system development team an okay to start developing the information system. The next task now is

to discover user requirements of the new system through collection of facts. The members have been given the responsibility to carry out a detailed fact finding activity through the following:

Documentations study.
Interviews.
Observation.
Questionnaires.

Documentions study

A number of manual documents were analysed. These include products catalogue, invoices, purchase orders, sales reports etc.

Interviews

Various interviews were conducted which involved the management, employees in the company, customers and suppliers. For each of the interviewee an interview guide was used. Figure 5.1 shows a sample interview guide used with one of the staff at Bukuma distributors.

Interviewee.name.’		Interviewer
Date:.
Time:	.

Subject.;

Time	Interviewer	Interviewee
Allocated	Question or Objective	Response
I to 2 min.	Objective Open the interview: -introduce ourselves .. Thank Mr.&&&for his valuable time State the purpose of the interview- to obtain an existing credit..checking.policies.





5min	Question. I What conditions determine whether a customer’s order is approved for delivery? Follow-up



5inin	Question 2 What are the possible actions that might be taken once These conditions have been evaluated? Follow-up’



3 min	Question3 How are customers notified when stock is unavailable for their order? Follow-1.Ip



Lmin	Question 4 After a new order is received, approximately how long Does it take to process it and put the order under shipment?



lmin	Question5
	Who are the individuals that perform the credit checks? Follow-up

1 -3min	Question 6
	May 1 please have permission to interview all the people
	who carry out credit checking?
	Follow-up
	If so When would be the best time to meet with each of them?

1 min	Objective
	Conclude. The interview:
	Thank Mr. &&& for his cooperation and assure him that
	He will be receiving. a copy of what transpired during the
	interview.
21 min	Time allotted for base questions and objectives
.9min	Time allotted for. follow-up questions and redirection
30min	Total time allocated for interview (2.00 p.m,to 3:00 p,m)

Fig,5.1: Sample interview guideline

Questionnaires

In our preliminary investigation of the business operations we decided to prepare some que.stionnaires that would help us seek some classified information without the respondent feeling threatened. Below is an extract of one of the questionnaires used.

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS INFORMATION SYSTEM

Date………. ,…….

.Introduction: The IT department is in the process of developing a new information system. Please, take a few minutes to fill in this questionnaire and return it to the IT office before date………..

Q I. How often do customer orders bounce due to lack of enough stock?

0 Very often 0 Often 0 Not often 0 Not at all

Q2. After receiving an order, how long does it take to process it from reception to date of shipping?

0 .1 hour () Several hours () One day () Many days

Fact finding summary and recommendation report

As opposed to the preliminary investigation report which dwells on problems of the existing system from the general point of view, this report gives a more detailed analysis of the system and proposals for improving or overhauling it altogether. The following is a layout outline of the report.

Detailed system analysis report for Bukuma distributors

Current system: Manual system

Proposed system: Computerised model

Executive summary (about 2 pages)

(a) Recommendations

(b) Summary of problems opportunities and alternatives

Background (about 2 pages)

(a) Details of all the fact finding methods used e.g. interviews.

(b) Description analytical techniques used.

The current system (about 5 pages)

Models of the current system in terms of:

(a) Data entry techniques e.g. form.

(b) Files and data storage methods and media.

Analysis Of the current system communication (about 5.10 pages)

(a) Performance, problems, causes and opportunities.

(b) Economic Problems, causes and opportunities

(d) Efficiency and service problems, causes and opportunities

Detailed recommendations (about 5-10 pages)

(a) Reason for the current system improvement.

(b) Limiting problems (recommendations).

(i) Scope and refinement.

(ii) Master plan.

(iii) Plan for the design phase.

Appendixes

(a) System models.

(b) Other appropriate documents.

System design phase

This is the most crucial system development phase. The design phase has been broken into two:

Preliminary design
Detailed design

Preliminary design

Preliminary design describes the functional capabilities of the proposed information system. There are many tools that can be used at this stage. However, the system flowchart tool was selected to design the system.

System flowchart

The system flowchart shows an overview of the functionality of Computerised system. Considering Bukuma distributors, the proper system required should achieve the following:

Process customer orders which may be in form of electronic messaging, post or personal visit.
Maintain the stock levels by automatically alerting the management when .the items go below the reorder level.
Produce various transaction documents like dispatch notes pay vouchers, various expenses and sales reports and invoices.

Figure 5.2 shows a system flowchart of the proposed system.

Detailed design

Once the general functionality of the system has been designed it is now possible to design detailed designs for various system functionalities. These include:

Output design.
Input design.
Files and data stores design.
Hardware and software requirements.

Output design

This design of both screen and printed output. The output requirements for Bukuma distributors system include: Picking lists, invoices, payment vouchers, inventories, sales reports. However in this design we shall only consider invoices, payment vouchers and sales reports.

Invoices

The sample invoice below is one of the reports that the system is expected to produce after delivery of goods to a customer. Notice that it is designed carefully to display all details necessary to seal a transaction.

BUKUMADISTRIBUTORS LTD.

Industrial area, Funzi Road Box 30307, Nairobi Kenya

Phone:257-020655147 Fax: 02065551418

Invoice

Bill To:

Company name……………. Contact name …………….

Destination city……………….. Postal code Sent via………………

Date due………………… Country……………….

Order number	Customer name		Order date		Required date		Date shipped

Product name		Quantity		Unit price		Discount		Amount

				Subtotal
				Freight cost
				Total

Payment voucher

This is almost similar to an invoice only that it is used to authorise payments to the suppliers.

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS Industrial area, Funzi Road Box 30307, Nairobi Kenya

Phone: 257-020655147 Fax: 02065551418

Voucher

Payment To:

Supplier name———- Contact title————

Postal address—– Region———-

City———— Country——-

Sent via——–

Purchase ID		Supplier name		Date ordered		Date required		Date received

Product ID	Quality delivered		Purchase price		Purchase discount		Amount

			Subtotal
			Freight cost
			Total

Sales report

Sales report gives a summary of sales made with a period of time such as weekly, monthly or annually. Below is a sample sales report design.

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS

Product sales for the year Category name

Order ID	Customer name	Product	Amount

		Total sales

All other output reports were designed as per system requirements collected during the fact finding stage.

Input design

The quality of system input determines the quality of output. Well designed forms or screens should be effective, easy to use, attractive and consistent. The forms for data entry for Bukuma system should be clearly captioned and easy to use. Some examples of data entry forms

needed for this system are invoice processing form, products entry form, : customer entry form etc. Likewise all other entry forms should be appropriately designed according to the requirements collected.

Inventory and products entry form

Categories entry form is a compound form that should allow the user to enter or view both category and products in that category. This means that the products details should be a sub form in the categories main form. Below is the lay out of the categories and products entry sub form.

Category Details

Category ID ……………….

Category Name ……………..

Description…………………..

Products details subform

Product ID	Product name	Quantity per unit	Price	Unit in stock

Customer entry form

This is intended to be a columnar form with the following controls:

Customer ID Phone

Company Name Region

Contact Name City

Contact Title Country

Address

Since the fields for the customers are too many for one columnar form, they can be grouped into company information and personal information. The two categories will be implemented using a tab control form.

Company info tab Personal info tab

Employee ID Address

Last Name City

First Name Country

Title Date of Birth

Hire Date Telephone

Invoice processing entry form

This form is intended to be a compound form used to enter customer details in the main form and the items purchased in the products sub form.

Bill To:

Customer ID …………………

Order number…………………

Contact name………………..

Title …………………

Country………………

Destination name

Date ordered

Date required

Date dispatched

Freight cost

Product name	Unit price	Quantity shipped	Discount	Amount

Pay voucher processing entry form

Like the invoice processing entry form, pay voucher processing is also intended to be a compound form that allows the user to enter supplier’s details in the main form and the items delivered in the products sub form.

The controls in the supplier’s main form are:

Company Name Purchase Number

Contact Title Freight charges

Phone Date Ordered

Country Date Received

Products supplied sub form

Product name	Unit price	Quantity received	Discount	Amount

Suppliers entry form .

Supplier’s details entry form may be a two tab form with company and contact information tabs.

Company Info tab

Supplier 1D

Company Name

Contact Name

Contact Title

Contact tab

Address City

Region Postal Code

Country Phone Fax

Transporter entry form

Entry form for companies offering transport services to Bukuma may have the following controls:

Vehicle Number

Company Name

Postal Address

Phone

Files and data stores design

After designing the input and output, the last detailed design step is that of files or data store. The files and data store are considered the heart of any information system.

There are two methods of data storage in a computer namely flat files and databases.

Flat files

In flat files, records are stored in separate files each with particular details. The use of such separate files means that the same data is often stored in more than one place as illustrated by the tables below.

File A

Product Number	Product Name	Quantity	Price

File B

Product Number	Product Name	Supplier ID	Supplier Name

Database systems

A database is a centrally controlled store of data. It allows different users who share the database to have access to different data. This method of storage eliminates the validation problems of the flat file system.

In Bukuma Distributors Information System, the database approach is used. This will ensure that the following objectives are achieved:

Sharing of data among the users of the system.
Maintaining accurate and consistent data.
Availability of data required for current and future applications.
Giving users easy access to data.

Designing tables /tiles structures

The following points are considered before designing a file or a table structure:

The types of files to be constructed – is the file a master, transaction or report file?
Data access method in the file i.e. is it random, sequential or indexed sequential. .
The size of the files hence the storage media to be used.

Data structures allow the system analyst to produce a view of the elements that make up the data structure. In our system, the basic data structure that will be used to store data elements of the various entities is the record.

The initial data structure design that shows only “what” the records will contain e.g. Name, Address etc. is called the logical design. This design would then eventually be converted to the physical design which specifies how the various data elements in the record will be implemented such as

Product Name as string, Product _Number as integer etc.

Below is the logical view of some of the file structures that will be designed for the Bukuma information system.

Table/file structure Elements

Inventory – Inventory number

– Inventory name

– Description

Products – Product number -Unit price

-Product name – Purchase price

– Quantity/unit – Quantity in stock

Customers -Customer number – Address

-Company name – City

-Contact name – Country

-Contact title

Supplier –Supplier number – Contact title

-Company name – Physical address

-Contact name

Purchase orders – Purchase number

– Product purchased

– Quantity purchased

Sales orders -Order number – Product ordered

-Customer name – Unit price

-Order date – Quantity

– Required date – Discount

Transporter -Transporter number -Physical address

-Company name – Postal address

– Address -Phone

NB: The bolded attributes will be considered as the primary keys in the database. ‘

Entity relationship diagram (E-R diagram)

Some of the entities that may be used in constructing Bukuma distributor’s information database are categories, products, customers, employees, orders suppliers, transporters and purchase orders. The first step is to construct the entity relationship diagram. Figure 5.3. below shows an example of E-R diagram for customers and the products ordered.

Customer	Places	Order	Contains.	Product
	1 Many		1 Many

Fig. 5.3: Entity relationship diagram

Interpretation

One customer may place several orders but each individual order can be placed by only one customer (one-to-many relationship). Each order placed by customers may contain many products. However, many products can be contained in one order.

. Hardware and software requirements

After studying the detailed system design specifications and recommendations, the management of Bukuma decided to settle for a computer based system. This means that the development team must start looking for all the required hardware and software resources.

Hardware and software specialists in the team have already visited various suppliers in major towns and brought quotations and price lists for most

Table 5.1

	Hardware facility	Example	Estimated cost (Ksh)
1	Computer	IBM desktop Computer	Documents collected from various suppliers’ Quotations.
2	Storage media	Optical disks, magnetic disks
3	POS terminal equipments	Wand reader, magnetic card reader, bar code printer etc.
4	Printers	Laser printer, Matrix printer
5	Scanner
6	Others

of the required resources. Table 5.1 below gives a sample summary of the hardware requirements recommendations for Bukuma Distributors information system.

Table 5.2 below gives a summary of the software requirements for Bukuma distributor’s information system.

Table 5.2

	Software	Example	initial cost
I	GUI based	MS- Windows 9x, 2000,
	Operating System	XP; Mac OS9, X etc.
2	Application	MS-Office Suite, Lotus	Documents
	programs	Suite, Corel Word	collected from
		perfect Suite	various suppliers’
3	Antivirus software	Norton, MacAfee, AVG.	Quotations.

Constructing Bukuma information system

Since relational databases store data in a series of two-dimensional tables, the first step in designing the information base is to design tables that are related to each other via primary and foreign keys. Throughout this section the following shorthand’s will be encountered:

PK – Primary key
FK- Foreign key

Customer Customer ID (PK), Customer name……….

Sales order Sales ID (PK), Customer ID (FK), ……

Product Product ID (PK), Sales ID (FK), Inventory ID CFK) ……

Purchase order purchase ID (PK), Inventory ID (FK), Supplier ID (FK)…….

Supplier Supplier ID (PK), Supplier name . . . . . .

Transporter Transporter ID (PK), Supplier ID(FK) ……

Inventory Inventory ID……….

These entities can be implemented in an entity relationship

Setting up integrity constraints

After setting up the database based on the entity relationship diagram, some integrity constraints need to be set in the database to enhance accuracy. Examples of constrains are lookup fields and data integrity constraints.

Creating a lookup field

A lookup field displays a list of acceptable values that may be entered into a field. This avoids the problem of wrong data entry in a field. It is recommended that all foreign keys be lookup fields.

To create a lookup field:

Display the table in design view.
Select lookup wizard in the data type column of the desired fields. 3. Complete the prompts in the lookup wizard.

Figure 5.5 below shows how to set up a lookup for the category field in the Product table.

When the table is displayed in data entry mode (datasheet fonn), you simply select from the list as shown in Figure 5.6 below.

Data integrity constraints

Data integrity constraints are rules that govern entering, changing and deletion of data and records in a database. There are several types of integrity constraints. Some of them are:

Entity integrity constraint.
Referential integrity.
Domain integrity.

Entity integrity

These are the rules that govern the composition of a primary key. A primary key cannot contain a null value, it must be unique. Null values are empty spaces in a field that have no data. Figure 5.7 below shows that the Customer ID field (which is the primary key) does not allow duplicates.

Referential integrity

Referential integrity governs the nature of records in a one-to-many relationships between tables in the database. All foreign keys in the child table must have a matching record in the parent table. Referential integrity is implemented in the following ways:

Restricted database- The system deletes or updates a parent record if there are no matching child records. A parent record is the one that has the primary key of the relationship while a child record is the one that has the foreign key of the relationship in the second table.
Cascaded database- Cascaded database will delete or update all matching child records when the parent record is deleted or updated. The cascade approach is better when changing records. For example if the customer ID changes, all foreign keys in the child records are updated as well. Figure 5.8 shows how to set up referential integrity between customer and orders table in Bukuma database.

Fig. 5.8: Setting referential integrity

Domain integrity

In databases, the term domain is used to refer to the acceptable range of values an attribute can have. This ensures that no field takes on a value outside the range of valid values. For example in the Purchase Orders table, the date of items received is always less than or equal to the current date <=Now() as shown in the validation rule property box in Figure 5.9. Now() is a function that returns the current date.

Fig. 5.9: Setting domain values

Constructing data entry and user-interface forms

The main purpose of creating forms is to reduce data entry errors. The volume of data to be entered should be minimised and validation and integrity checks such as data type, domain and referential integrity are enforced.

This section examines creating graphical user interface (GDI) forms in Microsoft Access using the appropriate controls, macros and Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) code. Notice the code that is associated with each form and the objects on the form. In Microsoft Access most of these codes are generated by the wizard associated to each during the design. However, in some cases, general subroutines have to be written by the programmer. For the purpose of clarity, these forms are grouped into two main categories namely primary and advanced forms:

Primary forms

These are the forms primarily used to enter data into underlying tables. They include customers, categories, employees, products, suppliers, transport and employees details forms.

Advanced forms

These are more complex forms that are based on underlying queries and unbound controls. The forms provide the user with easy access to and manipulation of data in the underlying tables and other database objects.

Creating the primary forms

The main factors to be considered in creating primary forms are:

The general form properties e.g. record source that is, the underlying table.
Control properties for each of the objects.
Command buttons and their underlying event procedures and codes.

Customers form

It was designed as a columnar form as shown in Figure 5.10.

Fig. 5.10: Customers form

The form draws its data from the customers table. Apart from bound controls, the form has command buttons Add Customers, Search Close, and Delete. These buttons are brought to life by their underlying event procedures. The codes are generated using the command button wizard that automatically starts when you draw a command button on the form. Below are the code listings for each command button’s event procedure.

Option Compare Database

Private Sub CloseCustomers – Click()

On Error Go To Err Close Customers Click

DoCmd. Close

Exit CloseCustomers Click:

Exit Sub

Err Close Customers Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit CloseCustomers Click

End Sub

Private Sub deleterecord – Click()

On Error Go To Err deleterecord Click

–

DoCmd.DoMenultem acFormBar, acEditMenu, 8,, acMenu Ver70

DoCmd.DoMenultem acFormBar, acEditMenu, 6,, acMenuVer70

Exit deleterecord Click:

Exit Sub

Err deleterecord Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit deleterecord Click

End Sub

Private Sub addcustomer – Click()

On Error Go To Err addcustomer Click

DoCmd.GoToRecord” acNewRec

Exit addcustomer Click:

Exit Sub

Err addcustomer Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit addcustomer Click

End Sub

Private Sub SearchRecord – ClickO

On Error GoTo Err SearchRecord Click

Screen.PreviousControl.SetFocus

DoCmd.DoMenultem acFormBar, acEditMenu, 10,, acMenu Ver70

Exit SearchRecord Click:

Exit Sub

Err SearchRecord Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit SearchRecord Click

End Sub

Categories form

The categories table has many products. Hence, the fonn has the products list subfonn which shows the items in each category as shown in Figure 5.11.

Fig. 5.11: Inventories form

The main form is a columnar form. It is populated with data from the categories table. It has command buttons New Category, Search, close and Delete. In this case, the categories are the same as the inventory ID.

The subform is a data sheet form embedded in the categories form. It gets its data from the products table.

Products form

This is a single columnar form as shown in Figure 5.12.

Fig. 5.12: Products form

The text box controls are populated with data from the products table. Suppliers and Category are lookup controls that source data from Supplier and Categories tables respectively. To operate the form, four command buttons used i.e. New Record, Close and Delete.

Suppliers form

The suppliers form is designed using the tab tool from the toolbox. Figure 5.13 shows an illustration of the form.

Fig. 5.13: Suppliers form

The form is populated with data from the suppliers table. However, apart from the already discussed form operation buttons for adding a new record, closing a form, searching and deleting records, there is an Open Products Form button, brought to life by the OpenF orm wizard. The OpenForm event procedure code is as listed below:

Private Sub OpenProducts – Click()

On Error Go To Err – OpenProducts _Click

Dim stDocName As String

Dim stLinkCriteria As String

stDocName = “Products”

DoCmd.OpenForm stDocName,,, stLinkCriteria

Exit _–OpenProducts _Click:

Exit Sub

Err_–OpenProducts _Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit – OpenProducts _Click

End Sub

Transporter form

This is a single columnar form as shown in Figure 5.14.

Fig. 5.14: Transporters form

The form is populated with data from the transporter table. The four command buttons are Add New, Delete and Close.

Creating advanced forms

As stated earlier, these are the forms which draw data from underlying queries. This section not only analyses the form properties but also gives illustrations of the underlying queries in design view and any event procedure used to automate the forms and controls. The advanced forms are further classified into groups namely:

Data entry and manipulation forms.
User interface forms.

Forms for data entry and manipulation

These are the forms used for entering and manipulating data in the underlying query. These forms include the customers invoice and suppliers’ pay voucher.

Customers invoice data entry form

This is a compound form that has the purchase orders subform contained within it as shown in Figure 5.15.

Fig. 5.15: Customer invoice form

The main form is a columnar form whose record source is Customer Bills query made from two tables, Customers and Orders as shown in Figure 5.16.

Fig. 5.16: Customer bills query

The customer details are automatically filled by selection from the lookup combo box of the customer control.

The sub form gets its data from the order amount query. The order amount query is designed using two tables, products and order details as shown in Figure 5.17.

Note that the query has a calculated field i.e. Amount that calculates the amount for each product ordered based on the UnitPrice, Quality and

Fig. 5.17: Order amount query

Discount. The expression for this field is:

Amount: ccur([order details). [unit price]*[Quantity]* (1-[Discount]/ 100)* 100

The subform has an event procedure for trapping data entry errors. This is tied to the on error event of the form properties. Since the user may forget to select a customer before entering products details in the main form section, the on error event procedure ensures that a customer is first selected before entering order details. A listing of on error event procedure is shown below.

Private Sub Form_Error(DataErr As Integer, Response As Integer)

, Errors can occur if the user has not selected a customer for

, this order on the main form. If there is an error and Orders!BillTo is Null

, inform the user and cancel the entry made in the subform.

If DataErr > 0 Then

If IsNull(Me.Parent!CustomerID) Then

MsgBox “Select a Customer to bill to before entering order details info. ”

RunCommand acCmdUndo

Me.Parent!CustomerID.SetFocus

Response = acDataErrContinue

Else

Response = acDataErrDisplay

End If

End Sub

The ProductID in the subform is a lookup control that enables the user to select an item from the dropdown list. This control also has an event procedure used to automatically fill the UnitPrice control from the products table once an item is selected. This minimises errors that may result from erroneous unit price entry. The code listing for the UnitPrice lookup event procedure as shown below.

Private Sub ProductID – AfterUpdate()

On Error GoTo Err _ProductID – AfterUpdate

Dim strFilter As String

, Evaluate filter before it’s passed to DLookup function.

strFilter = “ProductID = “& Me!ProductID

, Look up product’s unit price and assign it to UnitPrice control.

Me!UnitPrice = DLookup(“UnitPrice”, “Products”, strFilter)

Exit _ProductID – AfterUpdate:

Exit Sub

Err _ProductID – AfterUpdate:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit _ProductID – AfterUpdate

End Sub

Command buttons that have been used include Print Preview invoices, Print and Close. Their underlying event procedures are similar to those generated in the other forms discussed earlier.

Suppliers voucher details entry form

This is almost similar in functionality to the customers’ invoices entry form but it is intended to process payment vouchers for goods supplied to Bukuma. Figure 5.18 shows the voucher processing form.

Fig. 5.18: Payment voucher

The main form is a columnar form that derives its data from Suppliers Delivery Note query. This is created from two tables, Suppliers and PurchaseOrders tables. The supplier details are automatically filled by selecting the supplier name from the lookup combo box of the Supplier control. Figure 5.19 shows the source query in design view.

Fig. 5.19: Suppliers delivery note query

The subform draws its records from an underlying query, Products Purchased shown in Figure 5.20.

Fig. 5.20: Purchase query

The Total Puchase is a calculated control with the expression:

Total Purchase: Ccur[purchase Details].[Purchase

Price]*{QuantityOrder]* ([Purchase Discountj)/l 00) * 100

Just like in the customers’ products ordered sub form, the product ID in the products purchased subform is a lookup control from which the user selects the product name. Once a product/item is selected, the Purchase Price is automatically filled with the purchase price from the products table using the lookup event procedure shown below:

Private Sub ProductID – AfterUpdate()

On Error Go To Err _ProductID _After Update

Dim strFi/ter As String

, Evaluate filter before it’s passed to DLookup function.

strFi/ter = “ProductID = “& Me!ProductID

, Look up product’s purchase price and assign it to PurchasePrice control.

Me!PurchasePrice = DLookup(“PurchasePrice”, “Products”, strFilter)

Exit _ProductID – AfterUpdate:

Exit Sub

Err _ProductID _AfterUpdate:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit _ProductID – AfterUpdate

End Sub

Data validation and integrity checks have been enforced so that the pay voucher cannot be processed for a null or a non-existent supplier. This is achieved using the on error event shown in the listing below.

Private Sub Form – Error(DataErr As Integer, Response As Integer)

, Errors can occur if the user has not selected a supplier for

, this order on the main form. If there is an error and PurchaseOrders!PaylTo is

Null , inform the user and cancel the entry made in the subform.

If DataErr > 0 Then

If IsNull(Me.Parent!SupplierID) Then

MsgBox “Select a supplier to process the voucher for before entering pay details.”

RunCommand acCmdUndo

Me.Parent!SupplierID.SetFocus

Response = acDataErrContinue

Else

Response = acDataErrDisplay

EndIf

End Sub

The command buttons used to control the form are New Voucher, Print Voucher, and Close.

User-interface forms

These are forms that enable the user to access, manipulate, display and print other forms and reports. Two such forms used in Bukuma System are sales report dialog and the main switchboard.

Sales report dialog form

As shown in Figure 5.21 this form is mainly designed using unbound controls such as radio buttons, a text box and command buttons.

The three groups of controls are tied together using the code listing shown below.

Fig. 5.21 : Select report

Option Compare Database’ Use database order for string comparisons.

Option Explicit’ Requires variables to be declared before they are used.

Sub PrintReports(PrintMode As Integer)

On Error GoTo Err-Preview-Click

, This procedure used in Preview_Click and Print_Click Sub procedures.

, Preview or print report selected in the ReportToPrint option group.

, Then close the Print Sales Reports Dialog form.

Dim strWhereCategory As String

strWhereCategory = “CategoryName = Forms![Sales ReportsDialog]! SelectCategory”

Select Case Me!ReportToPrint

Case 1

DoCmd.OpenReport “Products stock level”, PrintMode

Case 2

DoCmd.OpenReport “Summary sales by date”, PrintMode

Case 3

DoCmd.OpenReport “Sales by category summary”, PrintMode

Case 4

IfIsNull(Forms![Sales Reports Dialog]!SelectCategory) Then

DoCmd.OpenReport “Sales by Category”, PrintMode

Else

DoCmd.OpenReport “Sales by Category”, Print Mode, ,strWhereCategory

End If

End Select

DoCmd.Close acForm, “Sales Reports Dialog”

Exit_Preview _Click:

Exit Sub

Err_Preview _Click:

Resume Exit_Preview _Click End Sub Private Sub Cancel- Click() , This code created by Command Button Wizard.

On Error Go To Err Cancel Click

, Close form.

DoCmd. Close

Exit Cancel Click:

Exit Sub

Err Cancel Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit – Cancel_Click

End Sub

Private Sub Preview – Click()

, Preview selected report. This procedure uses the PrintReports

, Sub procedure defined in (General) section of this module.

PrintReports acPreview

End Sub

Private Sub Print – Click()

, Print selected report. This procedure uses the PrintReports

, Sub procedure defined in (General) section of this module.

PrintReports acNormal

End Sub

Private Sub ReportToPrint – AfterUpdate()

, Enable SelectCategory combo box if user selected Sales by Category

, report.

Const conSalesByCategory = 4

If MefReportToPrint. Value = conSalesByCategory Then

MefSelectCategory.Enabled = True

Else

MefSelectCategory.Enabled = False

End If

End Sub

Main form (Switchboard)

The main form also referred to as the switchboard is the user-interface or main menu that is loaded when an application is started. The form mainly contains command buttons that enables the user to select the task to work on. Figure 5.22 shows the main form in design view used in Bukuma information system.

Fig. 5.22: Switchboard in design view

Creating reports

Reports present information to system users. These are the most visible components of a working system.

This section focuses on some of the reports expected from Bukuma information system. The main features to be highlighted in creation of reports are:

General report properties and data source.
Control properties, grouping and event procedures.
The report in design view.
Layout of report needed.

Sales by category

This is a comprehensive report that gives sales details for each product in each category group shown in Figure 5.23.

Fig. 5.23: A sample sales report

The report draws its data from products sales query. Figure 5.24 shows the query in design view.

Fig. 5.24: Product sales query in design view

The report has calculated controls for a number of items sold and total sales in each category whose expressions are:

Record count:

= Summary for” & ” “ & [CategoryName] & ” (” & Count(*) & ” ” & IIf(Count(*)= 1, “detail record”, “detail records”) & ”)”

Total sales: Sum([ Amount])

Sales by category summary

This is a compound report that has a chart subreport in it. The report gives summary total sales for each category both in tabular and graphical form as shown in Figure 5.25.

Fig. 5.25: Chart summarising sales by category

The graph shows that the most selling category is beverages followed by soaps. This report is meant for the management to decide which category of products sells more than the other.

The main report is populated with data from a select query, category sales summary shown in Figure 5.26.

Fig. 5.26: Category sales query design

Summary sales by date

On opening this report, the user is prompted to enter the beginning and ending date. Once the valid dates are entered, the sales for the duration are displayed as shown in Figure

Fig. 5.27: Yearly sales report

The record source for the report is the products by years query. The query has a compound criteria expression in the freight date field. The expression is:

Is Not Null And Between [Beginning Date] And [Ending Date]

Purchases by category summary

Just like the Sales summary, this is also a compound report that has a pie chart subreport in it. This report gives a summary of money spent on purchases.

The main report is populated with data from a select query, products purchased shown in design view in Figure 5.28.

Fig. 5.28: Purchases query

Products stock level

The stock report is meant to help the management make orders in good time. Figure 5.29 shows the items currently in stock and indicates those that need to be reordered.

Fig. 5.29: Stock report

The report draws its data from product sales query. The report is grouped by category and the stock balance is obtained using a calculated control:

= ([units in stock] – (sum([Quantity])))

While the reorder remark Yes or No is obtained using an if function:

= Ilf(([UnitslnStock]-(Sum([ quantity])))<[ReorderLevel], “Yes”, “No”)

Invoice to customers

This is a report sent to the customer showing detailed description of what is to be paid for, the total payment and the due date. Figure 5.30 shows a sample invoice to one of the customer’s ofBukuma Distributors.

Fig. 5.30: Invoice sample report

The report draws its data from invoice to customers query. Figure 5.31 shows the source query in design view.

Fig. 5.31: Invoice query design

Calculated controls have also been used, these are as shown below:

Subtotal: = Sum([amount])

Total:= sum([amount])+ [freight]

Payment voucher

This is similar in design to the invoice, only that it is meant for the processing of payments for the suppliers of Bukuma Distributors. Figure 5.32 shows a sample pay voucher report to one of the suppliers.

Fig. 5.32: Pay voucher report

The report draws its data from the products purchased voucher query. It also has an unbound image of the company logo inserted using the image tool, from the toolbox. Calculated controls have also been used as follows:

Subtotal: = Sum([Total Purchase])

Total: = sum([Total Purchase])+ [freightCost]

Products catalogue

This is a document available to the customers and other interested persons who may want to know the items sold and the unit price of each. Figure

5.33 shows a page of a catalogue generated from Bukuma’s information system.

Fig. 5.33: Products catalog

The report draws data from the products table.

NB: There are other reports that may be created in a real business environment but only a few have been considered. It is the responsibility of the learner to visit a computerised business organisation to learn more about the variety of reports used.

Database security and startup options

To protect the information system from unauthorised access, Microsoft Access database management software, provides a number of options. These includes:

Password protection.
User and group permissions.
User-level security.
Data encryption.

To set up any of these security options, click the Tools menu, point to security and then select the type of security you want to setup.

Password protection

This is the simplest security set-up that can be implemented using any Microsoft Windows operating system. A password to open or edit the database file is set for any user who wishes to do this action.

User and group permissions

Some operating systems like Windows New Technology (NT) lets an administrator assign permission to users on database objects such as queries, forms and reports. These permissions include opening and running the object, modifying etc.

The user and group accounts dialog box is used to assign accounts to the database users. However, this can only be done by a user who is a member of the Administrators group.

User-level security

This feature is used to assign permissions to users in order to limit user access to certain database objects. For example, the order entry clerk may not have access to payroll information. Figure 5.34 shows the log on dialog box used to log into Bukuma information system.

Fig. 5.34: Loging into an application

For more on setting up User Groups, Accounts and Permissions, read the online help of the Windows NT based operating systems.

Data encryption

If the database is to be used in a network or sent electronically, encryption secures the data from unauthorised access. Only the intended receipient can use the decryption key to read the message. .

Start up options

The last step in developing a customised application is to specify the startup options. Figure 5.35 shows the startup settings for Bukuma information system.

Fig. 5.35: Setting up start up options

Testing and implementing the system

Testing

Individual system modules were tested using test data and found to work accurately and properly. Sample test data and error messages that were encountered due to invalid data entry are given in the appendix of this project report.

Implementation

This is the final stage in system development which involves putting the new system into use. The tasks during the implementation stage are:

System management – This involves installation, resource and staff allocation.
Staff training – This is done without interfering with the business operations.
Security control and contingency planning incase the system breaks down
Changing over from the old system to the new system using the most appropriate method.

Once the system has been installed and is running, the programming team must ensure that it is working as expected through a follow up evaluation. The evaluation report for Bukuma information system shows that apart from a few minor issues concerning the screen forms, the following issues have been addressed:

Out of stock problems have been addressed satisfactorily.
Stock transfer between warehouses is running smoothly.
Store managers, accounts clerks and order processing managers feel that they are in full control of the system.

The programming team has promised to address the minor emergent problems encountered during the system maintenance phase.

Recommendation and conclusion

The new system received recommendation from all sectors of the organisation after the first month of operation.

Sample user manual

Below is a sample of user manual aimed at helping the users ofBukuma information system.

Introduction

Bukuma information system is a computerised information system that enables users to process business transactions more efficiently and accurately.

With this system, you can prepare most of the documents that take a lot of time to prepare manually such as invoices, pay vouchers, sales reports, profit and loss accounts and many others.

Loading the system To load the program:

Click the Start button, point to programs then click Bukuma System. A logon dialog box shown in Figure 5.36 is displayed.

Fig. 5.36: Logon dialog box

Enter your user name and password and click OK. The system main menu such as the one shown in Figure 5.37 below appears.

Fig. 5.37: Main menu ,

Menu descriptions

Within the main menu are submenus that help the user to choose on the specific task to process. These submenus are grouped into two:

Details processing submenus.
Viewing transaction reports.

You activate a submenu by clicking on its button. Figure 5.38 shows the customers submenu.

Fig. 5.38: Customers submenu

Description of submenu items

Customer’s submenu

Once you click the customer’s button, you will get the following items:

Customer entry and editing form.
Customer orders and invoice processing.
Preview and print invoices.
Preview and print a list Bukuma customers.

Categories and Products

Clicking this button displays categories submenu with the following options:

Entering and editing and categories and products details.
Preview products per category and invoices to customers.

Suppliers

This buttons displays the supplier’s submenu with the options

Entering new editing the supplier details and products supplied.
Processing purchase details for items below reorder level.
Preview and print supplier’s payments.
Preview and print a list of Bukuma suppliers.

Viewing transaction reports submenus

In this category, you activate a submenu by clicking on its button.

Sales reports

Clicking this button displays the sales dialog box from which you can select the report to preview or print.

Purchase reports

Click this button to preview purchases made for each purchase order.

Preview catalogue

This option is available to any authorised user who wants to preview or print the list of products available for sale to any interested client.

Exiting from the program

To exit the program, simply click the Exit button located at the bottom of the main menu.

Troubleshooting data entry related errors

Invalid and erroneous data entry results to error messages being prompted on the screen. Some of the error messages that you may encounter are:

Error message: The changes you requested to the table were not successful because they would create duplicate values in the index, primary key or relationship.

Description: You are trying to enter the same item twice.

Solution: Avoid double entry.

Error message: The field OrderDetails.ProductID cannot contain a null

value because the required property in the field is set to true. Description:You are trying to proceed to another record or field yet you have not selected the product name of the record in focus.

Solution: Select the product before proceeding to the next record. Error message: The value you entered isn’t valid for this field. Description: You are trying to enter an invalid data type in the field. For example, you are entering text in a numeric field or an invalid date such as 46/34/2005

Solution: Enter the correct data type.

Error message: Select a customer to bill to before entering order details info.

Description: You are trying to enter order details before selecting a customer.

Solution: Select or enter the customer before entering order or invoice details.

Incase you may experience other data entry related problems, please consult the system administrator.

Project appendix

Below is a sample appendix of the project report.

Test data used in Bukumu information system

Although a variety of test data was used to test each operation of our system, we have given only two test data tables to emphasize the need to provide test data in system development. In real situation, you are expected to provide as many test data as possible to prove the functionality of your system.

Inventory table

Table 5.3

Inventory	Inventory Name	Description
1	Beverages	Soda
3	Washing Powders	For Washing
4	Maize Flour	For Ugali
5	Daily Products	Milk, butte r, etc.

Order details query results

Table 5.4

Bibliography

Below is a sample bibliography of the project report.

The bibliography shows a list of books and reference materials used in

developing Bukuma information system.

Sarah E.H, Glen J. c.: Microsoft Access 2000 Complete Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Kendal E.K, Kendal J.E: System Analysis and Design, 5th Ed, Prentice-Hall (Now Pearson Education inc), 2002.
Taylor G.: GCSE Computer Studies, Macmillan Press Limited, 1991.
Jeffrey L. W etel: System Analysis and Design Methods, McGraw Hill, 2000
Williams BK: Using Information Technology: A practical introduction to computers and communications, IRWIN, 1995,
Saleemi N.A.: Systems Theory and Management Information systems, N.A. Saleemi Publishers, 1997 & 2000,
Gareth W: Student Handbook. ICT, Pearsons Publishing, 2000.
Microsoft Access 2000: Northwind sample database, 1999.

DEVELOPING A PROJECT USING VISUAL BASIC PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Chapter outline

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Preamble

6.3 Problem recognition and definition

6.4 Developing algorithms

6.5 Developing the system in Visual Basic

Introduction

In this chapter, we shall undertake a case study entitled A school canteen management system. The objective of this case study is to help the students to apply the programming techniques learnt in Form 3

Preamble

A school canteen operator sells confectionaries and toiletries to the students. The canteen operator requests you to develop a canteen management system that will accomplish the following:

Allow storage of stock records in a file.
Enable searching of a file to retrieve a particular record for editing and adding new stock.
Process sales transactions and calculate the total bill and change due to a customer.
Generate daily sales report showing all the items sold for a particular day.

Problem recognition and definition

A careful analysis of the above scenario reveals that the system will need the following tasks:

Entering stock records and storing them in a file.
Searching for the stock file to retrieve records.
Processing of daily transactions.
Recording of any sale transactions in a transaction file.
Generating sales reports for a specified date.

Developing algorithms

Before coding, the programmer needs to develop algorithms for each task. These algorithms will enable the programmer to develop the code for each of the processes.

Algorithm for entering new stock records

The new stock module should enable the user of the system to continually enter new stock records in the file until he/she is through with the process. Therefore, the computer should request the user to key in records until the last item is entered. The following pseudocode extract can be used to represent the algorithm:

Output “Enter a new item?” Enter “yes” or “no”

Input reply

While Reply <> No

Output “Enter stock item details”

Write to stock file

Output “Are you through with entering the records Yes/No”

Input Reply

loop

End While

Algorithm for searching for a record

This process will enable the user to access the records in a stock file and retrieve a particular record. The record search can be done as per the identification number of each record i.e. record ID. The search algorithm can be represented as follows:

Begin

Enter the code of the record

Open stock file for reading

While Not end of file Begin

If code entered = record itemcode Then

Output record details

Else

Output ‘Record not found’

End if loop End while Close file End

Algorithm for processing sales

Sales processing requires that the stock file be opened in order to read details of the items bought. The sales module then calculates the amount of the sale and the change owed to the customer. The module should also update the quantity of the items in stock. The following algorithm will be used:

Begin

Retrieve item from stock file by record ID

Specify quantity to be sold

Compute bill and customer change

Save transaction in sales file

END

Saving a sales transaction

After selling an item, the sales details must be stored in the system for future reference. In our case, the current transaction has to be stored in a file which we shall refer to as a sales file.

Constructing the system in Visual Basic

Open Visual Basic and create a new project called Canteen.vbp. Create five forms in the project window i.e. Form1, Form2….Form5. To create a form, simply Click Project then Add Form command. Save the forms with the following names:

Form Name

Form I	UserInterface
Form2	AddNewStock
Form3	SellItem
Form4	SearchItem
Form5	SalesReport

Remember while saving that all Visual Basic forms have the extension .frm. After saving, change the Name property for each form in the properties window to start withfrm e.g. frmCanteenManagementSystem for Form 1. Change the captions for each form as you proceed through the project. At the end of this activity, the forms in your project should look as shown in Figure 6.1 in the Project Explorer window.

NB: Simply click the Project explorer icon to view this window. Alternatively, click View project Explorer on the menu.

It is now time to start placing objects on the forms and entering the code associated to each of the objects.

Creating the user-interface form

Double click UserInterface.frm in the project explorer window and design it as shown in Figure 6.2.

NB: Change both the Name and caption properties of the command buttons as shown below:

Control	Property	Setting
Command 1	Name Caption	cmdAddNewStock Add New Stock Record
Command 2	Name Caption	cmdSellItem Sell Item
Command 3	Name Caption	cmdGenerateReport Generate Sales Report
Command 4	Name	cmdEnd
	Caption	End Program

The File menu on the form has only one command namely: Exit used to close the program when clicked.

To add this menu clicks the Menu Editor icon on the toolbar. Alternatively click, Tools then select: Menu Editor Command. Create the menu as shown in Figure 6.3 of the menu editor window:

To place the command buttons on the form, simply double click their icons on the toolbar.

Since this is the first form that the user will see when the project is run, the various controls are meant to help the user access other forms in the project.

Adding code the “Canteen management system” form

This is the main form that has commands that enable the user to access other forms.

Click the File menu then command Exit. Notice that the code window for the Exit command opens on the screen. Type the word “End” in the body of the event procedure as shown below:

Private Sub mnuExit – click()

End

End Sub

This means that when the Exit command is clicked, the program will stop executing. Save and close this code window.

Double click the “Add New Stock Record” button and add the code below in the body of the event procedure as shown:

Private Sub cmdAddNewStock- Click()

Load frmAddNewStock

frmAddNewStock Show

End Sub

This code loads frmAddNewStock form and display it on the screen when the user clicks Add New Stock record command button.

Double click the “Sell Item” button and add the following code in the body of the event procedure as shown:

Private Sub cmdSellltem – Click()

Load frmSellltem

frmSellltem.Show

End Sub

Double click the “Generate Sales Report” button and add the following code in the body of the event procedure as shown:

Private Sub cmdGenerateReport – Click()

Load frmDailySaleReport

frmDailySalesReport.Show

End Sub

Double click the “End Program” button and add the following code in the body of the event procedure as shown:

Private Sub cmdEnd – Click()

End

End Sub

Designing and adding code to the” Add New Stock to File” form

Design your AddNewStock form to look like Figure 6.4 below:

Double click the “Click Here to Add New Stock Item” button and add the following code in the code window that appears. Ignore the line numbers.

1 Private Type Item

2 ID As Integer

3 ItemName As String * 20

4 Q As Integer

5 CostPrice As Integer

6 SellPrice As Integer

7 End Type

8 Private Sub cmdAddStock- ClickO

9 Dim ItemRecord As Item

10 Dim Old File As String

11 Dim Count As Integer

12 Dim Number As Integer, Reply As String

13 ‘CommonDialog 1. CancelError = True

14 ‘CommonDialog1.Filter = ”Data file (*.dat)l*.dat”

15 ‘CommonDialog 1.ShowOpen

16 ‘Old File = CommonDialog1.FileName

17 Open “c:\Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual

Studio I VB98 \ Old File. dat” For Random As #1 Len = Len (ItemRecord)

18 Reply = “No”

19 Do While Reply <> “Yes”

20 ItemRecord.ID = InputBox(“Enter Record ID If”,“ItemRecord.ID ”)

21 ItemRecord.ItemName = InputBox(“Enter Record Name”,”ItemRecord.Name ”)

22 ItemRecord.Q = InputBox(“Enter Quantity”,”ItemRecord. Q”)

23 ItemRecord.CostPrice = InputBox(“Enter the Cost Price”,”ItemRecord. CostPrice”)

24ItemRecord.SellPrice = InputBox(“Enter the Selling Price”,”ItemRecord.SellPrice ”)

25 Put # 1, , ItemRecord

26 Reply = InputBox(“Are you through with record entry? Yes/ No”, “Reply”)

27 Loop

28 Close #1

29 EndSub

Explanations

Line 1: Declares a user defined data type called Item. The data type is a record.

Lines 2 – 6: Declares the fields in the record.

Line 7: Ends the type declaration.

Line 8: Declares an event procedure or subroutine which is executed on clicking a button called AddNewStockltem. You double click this button in order to get the code window.

Lines 9 – 12: Variable declarations.

Lines 13 -16: Notice that they are commented off, hence the computer will not execute them. However, if they are not commented, they would display the Open dialog box when the button is clicked

Line 17: It opens a file called OldFile.dat stored on the disk. This is the file in which all stock records are kept. Notice that the full path to the file has to be specified. This eliminates the need for an Open dialog box. The whole statement should be on the same line.

Lines 18 – 19: It sets a looping condition that will stop only when the variable Reply has a value of “Yes”. Each numbered statement should be on the same line.

Lines 20 – 24: Displays an input box on the screen which requests the user to input the various data elements of the record such as the ID, Name etc. Note the syntax of display a standard input box.

Line 25: It outputs a record to the file. The blank (, ,) ensures that the next record is written after the last Put operation. However if you want the record to be written to a particular position in the file, then you can specify e.g. Put # 1 ,1, ItemRecord, which means write the record at position 1 in the file.

Line 27: It encloses all the code that will be repeatedly executed in the loop.

Line 28: Closes the file after writing to it.

Line 29: Ends the event procedure.

Double click the “Click Here to Update Existing Record” button and add the following code:

Private Sub cmdUpdateRecord _–Click()

Load frm UpdateRecordDetails

frm UpdateRecordDetails, Show

End Sub

Save the code and exit from the code window.

Designing and adding code to sell Item form

In the Project Explorer window, double click frmSellItem and design it as shown in Figure 6.5. Remember that this form is loaded by

Fig. 6.5: Sell item

clicking the “Sell Item” command button that you created in the user-interface form.

Design’ a menu bar on the form with the following commands:

(a) File

.. .. Open

…..Exit

(b) Transaction

….Save Transaction

Enter the following code in the mnuOpen code window:

Private Type Item

ItemID As Integer

ItemName As String * 20

Q As Integer

CostPrice As Integer

SellPrice As Integer

End Type

Private Sub mnuOpen – Cliek()

Dim ItemReeord As Item, Quantity As String, Last As Integer

Dim Target As Integer, Current As Integer, First As Integer

CommonDialog 1. CaneelError = True

CommonDialog1.Filter = “Datafile (*.dat)/*.dat”

CommonDialog 1.ShowOpen

Old File = CommonDialog 1.FileName

Open “c: \Program Files \Microsoft Visual Studio \ VB98 \ Old File. dat”

For Random As #1 Len = Len(ItemRecord)

First = 1

Target = InputBox(“Please Enter ItemID of Item to be sold”, “Target”

Quantity = InputBox(“How many units are you selling”, “Quantity”)

Last = LOF(1)/ Len (ItemRecord)

Do While First < = Last

Get #1, First, ItemRecord

Current = ItemRecord.ItemID

If (Current = Target) Then

txtItemID. Text = ItemRecord.ItemID

txtItemName. Text = ItemRecord.ItemName

txtUnitPrice. Text = ItemRecord.SellPriee

txtQuantitySold. Text = Quantity

txtQuantityInStoek. Text = ItemRecord. Q – Quantity

ItemRecord. Q = Int(txtQuantityInStoek.Text)

End If

First = First + 1

Loop

Close #1

End Sub

Explanation

This code enables the user to open a file on the disk called OldFile.dat by selecting it in the open dialog box. The use can then select a particular record from the file by entering its identification number (ID).

To sell another item after the first, you need to search for it in the file again. You can add the “Sell Next” button on the form having the same code as the one for the mnuOpen command.

Add the following code to the mnuSave _Transaction command that enables the user to save the details in the transaction file called SaleFile.dat

Private Type ItemSold

ItemID As Integer ItemName As String * 20 QSold As Integer

Sell Price As Integer DateSold As String * 9 Sale Value As Integer

End Type

Private Sub mnuSave – Transaction – Click()

Dim Sale As ItemSold

Dim First As Integer, Last As Integer

Open “c:\Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual

Studio \VB98 \SalesFile. dat” For Random As #2 Len = Len(Sale)

Last = LOF(2) / Len (Sale)

RecordNumber = Last + 1

Sale.ItemID = Int(txtItemID. Text)

Sale.ItemName = txtItemName. Text

Sale. QSold = Int(txtQuantitySold. Text)

Sale.SellPrice = Int(txtUnitPrice. Text)

Sale.DateSold = txtTodaysDate. Text

Sale. Sale Value = Val(txtBill. Text)

Put #2, RecordNumber, Sale

Close #2

End Sub

Double click the compute totals button and then add the code listing below in its event procedure.

Private Sub cmdComputeTotals – Click()

Dim Cashgiven As Integer, ItemRecord As Item

txtBill. Text = txtQuantitySold * txtUnitPrice. Text

Cashgiven = InputBox(“How much money has the customer given”, “Cashgiven”)

IblChange. Caption = Cashgiven – txtBill. Text

Open “c: \Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual

Studio\VB98\0IdFile.dat”

For Random As #1 Len = Len(ItemRecord)

ItemRecord.Q = Int(txtQuantityInStock.Text)

Close #1

End Sub

Finally double click the “Cancel” button and then add the code listing below in its click event procedure

Private Sub cmdCancel- Click()

Unload frmSellItem

End Sub

Designing and adding code to controls on Search Item form

This form lets the user add or edit the fields of an existing record in the stock file. For example, when you buy some more items, you enter the item quantity in the quantity control. Design the form as shown in Figure 6.6.

Fig. 6.6: Edit records form

Double click the button labelled “Search” and add the following code to it:

Private Type Item

ItemID As Integer ItemName As String * 20

Q As Integer

CostPrice As Integer

SellPrice As Integer

End Type

Private Sub cmdSearch – Click()

Dim ItemRecord As Item

Dim Target As Integer, Current As Integer

Dim RecordNumber As Integer, Stock Value As String

Open “c: \Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio \VB98\OldFile. dat”

For Random As #1 Len = Len(ItemRecord)

First = 1

Target = Int(txtRecordId.Text)

Last = LOF(1) / Len (ItemRecord)

Do While First < = Last

Get #1, First, ItemRecord

Current = ItemRecord.1temID

If (Current = Target) Then

Label3.Caption = “Search successful: Now edit details and Click Save”

txtName. Text = ItemRecord.1temName

txtQuantity. Text = ItemRecord.Q

txtCostPrice. Text = ItemRecord.Cost Price

txtSellingPrice. Text = ItemRecord.SellPrice

Stock Value = txtCostPrice. Text * txtQuantity.Text

IblStockValue. Caption = Stock Value ‘display total value of item in stock”

End if

First=First+1

Loop

Close #1

End Sub

Explanation

The code searches for a record whose ID is typed in the Record ID text box. After editing the retrieved record, the changes can be saved by clicking the “Save” button. Below is the code for save button:

Private Sub cmdSave – Click()

Dim ItemRecord As Item, Stock Value As String

Open “c: \Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual Studio \ VB98\OldFile.dat”

For Random As #1 Len = Len(ltemRecord)

Target = Int(txtRecordID.Text)

First = 1 ‘first record in file is at position 1

Last = LOF(1) / Len (ItemRecord) ‘length of file equals record length

Do While First <= Last

Get #1, First, ItemRecord ‘get the record that was edited

Current = ItemRecord.ID

If (Target = Current) Then ‘search whole file for correct record

ItemRecord.ID = Int(txtRecordID. Text)

ItemRecord.ItemName = txtName. Text

ItemRecord. Q = Int(txtQuantity. Text)

ItemRecord. Cost Price = Int(txtCostPrice. Text) ‘save fields as record

ItemRecord.SellPrice = Int(txtSellingPrice. Text)

Put #1, First, ItemRecord

Stock Value = txtCostPrice. Text * txtQuantity. Text

IblStockValue. Caption = Stock Value

End If

First = First + 1

Loop

Close #1

End Sub

Explanation

The code takes the contents in the text boxes of the form and saves them as a record in the file. Code for the cancel button is

Private Sub cmdCancel- Click()

Unload frmUpdateRecordDetails

End Sub

Designing and adding code to controls on Sales Report form

This form is used for displaying the daily transactions when the user specifies a particular date in the fomart mm/dd/yyyy. Design the report interface as shown in Figure 6.7.

Code for the sale report

.Double click the “show report” button and add the following code that will search for all the items sold on a particular day and display them on the form:

Private Type ItemSold

ItemID As Integer

ItemName As String * 20 QSold As Integer SellPrice As Integer DateSold As String * 9

Sale Value As Integer

End Type

Private Sub cmdShowReport_Click(),

Dim Sale As ItemSold, Daysale As Integer

Open “c:\Program File&\Microsoft Visual

Studio\VB98\SalesFile.dat” For Random As #2 Len = Len(Sale)

First = 1

DaySale = 0

Last = LOF(2) / Len (Sale)

Target = txt Target Date. Text

Print “”

Do While First <= Last

Get #2, First, Sale

Current = Sale.DateSold

If (Current = Target) Then

DaySale = DaySale + Sale. Sale Value

Print “”

Print Sale.ItemID, Sale.ItemName, Sale. QSold, Sale.SellPrice* Sale. QSold

End If

First = First + 1

Loop

Print “”

Print “Total sales/or”, Target, “Are: Ksh, DaySale” Close #2

End Sub

Running the project

To run the project click the Start button on the toolbar. Alternatively, click the Run then Start command on the menu. The user-interface screen comes on the screen as shown in Figure 6.8.

Before doing anything else, we need to create two files on drive C and enter all the records for the stock available. This program accesses the files in a folder called VB98 through the path:

c: \Program Files \Microsoft Visual Studio \ VB98

Open Microsoft Windows Notepad and save two blank files in the folder

VB98 having the names: OldFile.dat and SalesFile.dat

Click the “Add New StockRecord” button and add the following records to the file that will hold all stock. This should be the OldFile.dat that you created on drive C. Enter the following records:

ID Name Quantity Cost Price Selling Price

100 Bread 120 25 30

200 Milk 50 20 40

300 Jelly 200 40 50

400 Cake 300 15 30

500 Biscuit 1000 10 20

Figures 6.9 (a) to (f) shows sample input boxes for an item for sale. After entering all the records, type Yes in the input box (f) to stop this process.

Opening the stock file to sell an item

Click the “sellitem”command to display the form in Figure 6.10.

Fig. 6.10: Click File – Open.

Click the open command. Open dialog box of figure 6.11 appears.

Locate for the file OldFile.dat and open it. Notice that you have to provide a record number so that when the file opens, the record requested for is displayed on the form. Click the compute totals button. You will be prompted to state how much money the customer gives. This will compute the change due to the customer. Figure 6.12 shows a form with the amount payable and change due to the customer. The units in stock for the item sold also are updated automatically.

Save the transaction by clicking the “transaction” menu, then Save transaction command. To sell another Item, click the “Sell Next” button

Viewing a sales report

Click the “generate Report” button. The Daily Sales Report appears. Enter the date of the transactions you want to view then click the show report button. All items sold on the particular date will be displayed as shown in Fig 6.13 below.

Teachers' Resources

CBC Lower Primary Subjects (Grade 1, 2, 3)

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Subjects taught at lower primary include:

Literacy Activities or Braille Literacy Activities
Kiswahili Language Activities or Kenya Sign Language (for deaf learners)
English Language Activities
Mathematical Activities
Environmental Activities
Hygiene and Nutrition Activities
Religious Education Activities
Movement and Creative Activities

Teachers' Resources

CRE Form One Good Notes, Revision Questions and Answers {All Topics Covered}

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION I

PART I

Identify five occasions in which Abraham’s faith in God was demonstrated. (5mks)
Give secular reasons for the coming of missionaries to Africa. (5mks)
State five roles played by Africans in spreading Christianity in East Africa. (5mks)
Identify five contributions of the church in the society today. (5mks)
List down five taboos and regulations that were observed by an expectant mother in African traditional society. (5mks)
Give five ways in which the covenant foretold by Jeremiah is different from Sinai’s covenant. (5mks)
State five ways in which the living benefited from the living dead. (5mks)
Identify five ways in which names were given to children in African traditional society. (5mks)
Give five contributions of Krapf in establishing Christianity. (5mks)
Outline five teachings of Jesus about God’s Kingdom. (5mks)
Identify five social conditions condemned by Amos. (5mks)
State five teachings of Paul to the Corinthians on the issue of marriage. (5mks)
State five reasons why David is important. (5mks)
Identify five effects of the process of colonisation on missionary work in Kenya. (5mks)
Outline five causes of childlessness in the society. (5mks)
State five motives that drive people to misuse drugs. (5mks)
Identify five problems of leisure in Kenya today. (5mks)
Outline five occasions when Jesus prayed. (5mks)
Identify five effects of Bible translation. (5mks)
State five reasons why Christians accept suffering as part of discipleship in this world. (5mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 1

PART II

a) Explain the Biblical origin of sin and it’s consequences in Genesis chapter 3. (14mks)
b) Outline the traditional African understanding about evil. (5mks)
c) What are the great evils that face mankind today? (6mks)
a) What are the Christian teaching about work both in the Old and New testament (8mks)
b) Why was work seen as very important in the traditional African society. (7mks)
c) i) List any six causes of unemployment in Kenya today. (6mks)
ii) Give the solutions to the problems mentioned above. (4mks)
a) Why is divorce common in East Africa today. (10mks)
b) Why was divorce not common in Africa traditional community. (8mks)
c) Identify some of the remedies to be applied to slow the high rate of divorce nowadays. (10mks)
a) Give a comparison between the call of Samuel with that of Moses. (12mks)
b) State reasons that made the Israelites to demand for a king. (5mks)
c) Give ways in which leaders of nations misuse their positions today. (8mks)
a) Relate the miracle of the healing of the man born blind. (12mks)
b) What lessons do Christians learn from this miracle. (10mks)
c) List three other miracles of Jesus. (3mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 1

PART I

MARKING SCHEME

Abraham’s faith in God was demonstrated in the following ways:

– His readiness to begin God’s plan of salvation when called though he had not seen that God .

– His readiness to leave his ancestral land for a new land.

– His readiness to offer Isaac as a sacrifice yet he was the only son.

– His faith on the birth of Isaac yet they were aging.

– Offered sacrifices to God when he reached Canaan.

– His readiness to offer sacrifices as commanded.

Secular reason for the coming of the missionaries:

– To civilize Africans.

– To stop slave trade.

– To explore new lands.

– For adventure i.e find out what was happening outside.

– To establish legitimate trade.

– To rehabilitate freed slaves.

Role played by Africans in spreading Christianity in East Africa:

– Taught the missionaries their vernacular language.

– Preached to their fellow Africans.

– Acted as guides & porters.

– Provided material support to the missionaries.

– Provided land for building of schools, hospitals & mission churches e.g chief Kaneni of Muranga.

– Became catechists who denounced African customs.

Contributions of the church in the society today.

– Helping refugees.

– Provision of food in the famine striken areas.

– Establishing homes for the destitute, the disabled and the aged (Thogoto).

– Provision of medical in various parts of Kenya.

– Providing security to clash victims.

– Providing education through their mission schools.

– Evangelising so as to enhance virtues in the society.

Taboos & regulations that were observed by an expectant mother in the African traditional society:

– Abstain from sexual intercourse till after birth.

– Forbidden to eat certain foods & and encouraged to eat others.

– Returns to the home of her parents when the time of giving birth draws near.

– Not allowed to do heavy work and handle certain tools like metals.

– Not allowed to speak to her husband directly.

– May carry protective charms.

– Prayers for the mother and child are made to God.

Ways in which the covenant foretold by Jeremiah is different from Sinai’s covenant.

– Jeremiah’s covenant emphasized on forgiveness of sins unlike Sinaitic covenant .

– Jeremiah’s covenant emphasized individual / personal responsibility.

– The laws to be followed would be written in peoples hearts unlike Sinaitic covenant which was written on stone -tablets.

– Jeremiah’s covenant would be permanent and would be fulfilled unlike the Sinai covenant which had repeatedly failed.

– In the new covenant there will be personal knowledge of God, while in the Sinaitic, there would be need for a -mediator.

– In the new covenant there would be spontaneous forgiveness of sins, whereas in the old covenant sins were called -forward to the next generation.

Ways in which the living benefited from the living dead:

– Communicate the wishes of the relatives to ancestors.

– Welcome the dying into the spiritual world.

– Pass the request of the living to god.

– Help to sustain community standards / values.

– Help in controlling the behaviour of the living.

– Bless the living.

– Avert the consequences of curses from anywhere.

– Help them recover lost property.

Ways in which names were given to children in African traditional society:

– Given according to the prevailing circumstances at the time of the birth.

– Given ancestral names in honour of the dead.

– Named after elder members of the community.

– Given according to the experience of the parents.

– Given during adolescence to describe observed characteristics of the young man or woman .

– Name would be fixed before the child is born.

– Name given according to the season of births.

Contribution of Krapf in establishing Christianity:

– Wrote the first Kiswahili dictionary i.e participated in Bible translation.

– Translated St Luke’s Gospel into Taita language.

– Translated the New Testament in to Kiswahili.

– Assisted in setting up mission stations in Ribe, and part of Ukambani.

– Converted various people e.g Akamba & established churches that were used in worship.

Teachings of Jesus about God’s kingdom:

– The kingdom of God meant the rule of God.

– Had already come for Jesus had obeyed the will of God.

– It was present in the worlds & words of Jesus.

– The kingdom will not be joyful event for everyone in future.

– Kingdom belongs to the humble, poor e.t.c.

– The rich cannot buy their way.

– The kingdom goes on growing and spreading quietly e.t.c

Social conditions condemned by Amos:

– Oppression and exploitation of the poor by the rich.

– Social injustice & luxury.

– Disorder & unfair practices like harshness.

– Wealth derived from slave labour.

– Exorbitant rents.

Teachings of paul to the Corinthians on the issue of marriage:

– Paul advised the Corinthians to copy his example of remaining celibate if they wished to serve God better.

– Paul advised those who’d lost their partners to remain so as to avoid being immoral.

– Warned that marriage was permanent and therefore those who married would not separate.

– Paul advised those who separated for neighbours reasons not to remarry.

– He warned Xtians not to marry non-Christians.

Reasons why David is important:

– Was chosen by God.

– Was filled with the spirit from the time he was anointed.

– Had outstanding leadership qualities.

– Knew and obeyed God.

– Was acclaimed & publicly anointed king by the whole nation.

– Captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites & made it the capital.

– United the people.

– Established a most powerful state.

– Encouraged trade with other nations e.g Tyre.

– Brilliant military commander.

Effects of the process of colonization on missionary work in Kenya:

– Establishment of British authority in the interior resulted in law & order.

– Colonial administration encouraged some missionaries to work in the country.

– The building of the Kenya – Uganda railway enabled the missionaries to move to the interior

– Land given to the British was given to the missionaries to build mission stations.

– Colonial government gave financial aid to the missionaries.

– Freedom of worship was granted by the British government led to rivalry amongst churches.

– Missionaries were not accepted where the colonial administration used punitive expeditions.

– African teachers in missionary schools left to join the army due to reasonable salaries in the forces.

Causes of childlessness in the society:

– Infertility of one partner or both.

– Accidents for example, war & natural disasters.

– Use or misuse of certain drugs.

– Abortion.

– Biological, psychological & health problems.

Motives that drive people to misuse drugs:

– To escape frustration

– Influence from the others

– Curiosity

– Commercial advertisements

– Idleness

– Search of identity (show – off)

– Prevention or cure of diseases.

Problems of leisure in kenya today:

– Drug-Taking

– Theft

– Fighting

– Rape

– Gossip

– Reading Or Watching Pornographic Materials

– Drinking Alcohol & smoking.

Occasions when Jesus prayed:

– After baptism at river Jordan.

– Prayed alone away from the crowd.

– During the feeding of the five thousand.

– Before asking his disciples what people said about him.

– Just before the transfiguration.

– After the return of the 72 disciples.

– When he taught his disciples how to pray.

– During the last supper.

– At the garden of Gethesemane just before his arrest

– Prayed to his father when he was on the cross.

Effects of bible translation in Kenya:

– More Africans became Xtians.

– Missionaries were able to easily evangelise the local people.

– African Xtians were able to have a clear understanding of the Holy scriptures.

– Led to the formation of schools where the African Xtians could be taught.

– African Xtians re-discovered their own cultural identity.

Reasons why Christians accept suffering as part of discipleship in this world:

– Suffering is a necessary part of a Xtian’s life.

– It brings eternal life.

– Suffering brings salvation / redemption.

– A sign of true commitment to Jesus.

– Christ suffered – they emulate Him as their model

– Enables one to carry out the cross of Christ on account of the gospel

– Trains a Xtian in endurance

– A manifestation of God’s glory

– A preparation for eternal glory.

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION I

PART II

MARKING SCHEME

1(a) i) Biblical origin of sin:

– Sin is understood to mean rebellion against God.

– Sin originated with the devil or Satan in heaven.

– The serpent came to the woman & told her to eat fruits of the tree that God had forbidden – – – – —

Adam & Eve to eat.

ii) Consequences of Sin:

– The whole Adamic race became alienated from God.

– Man changed and became prone to sin.

– The sentence of death was passed upon all men.

– The ground was cursed on account of man.

– Childbirth and work became associated with hardship.

– Sin entered into the world.

– Man began to take life of fellow men.

– The life span of man was reduced.

– The language of mankind was confused after the flood.

(b) Traditional African understanding of evil:

– Most African communities believe that god did not create evil nor is the temptation to do evil.

– Some African communities attribute the origin of evil to spiritual beings that is evil spirits.

– Others believe that evil is caused by bad magicians.

– If someone broke an established community taboo, he would suffer some form of evil like sickness or bareness.

– Dead ancestors, if offended by the living were also believed to cause / send evil to the offender.

– Some African communities have myths which show that God created the would with a possibility of evil.

– Poverty

– Ignorance / illiteracy

– Diseases e.g A.I.Ds

– Corruption / bribery

– Wars & fighting’s

– Natural calamities (floods, – El-nino, famines).

(a) Christian teaching about work both in the old and New Testament:

– God’s creation is talked of as work.

– Man was to work in order to subdue the earth.

– God himself worked in the creation story so man should work.

– In the commandments both work and rest are shown as part of God’s plan for mankind.

– Work is good & can be fulfilling & enjoyable – proverbs, laziness is condemned.

– Although work is good man should not be overworked & exploited.

– Jesus was a worker (carpenter).

– Jesus gave his examples from the world of work e.g sower, shepherd, fishermen, tax collectors e.t.c.

– Paul used to work (tent maker) .

– He who does not work should not eat.

(b) Work was seen as very important in the traditional African society.

– Work is the basis of wealth.

– Work was obligatory.

– Division of labour – age, sex & status.

– Kept people physically fit.

– One feels proud due to achievement through work.

– Work as a means of basic needs.

– Brought people to share talks and media of instruction.

– High population. –

– Inappropriate education system rapid growth in labour force.

– Industrial seasonality.

– Job selectivity.

– Skill imbalance.

– Unappropriate technology.

– Shortage of foreign exchange.

– Unfavourable terms of trade.

ii) Solutions to the problems mentioned above:

– Mobilisation of national resources

– Discouragement from white collar jobs

– Technical education

– N.Y.S

– Informal sector – Jua Kali

– 8-4-4

3 (a) Why divorce is common in East Africa today:

– Unfaithfulness

– Long separation – job opportunities

– Drunkenness

– Cruelity

– Feminist liberation

– Random choice of partners

– No room for polygamy

– One who earns can manage without a husband

– Lack of parental consultation

– Couple break marriage due to hearsay

– Individual affairs

– No go-between hence reconciliation after disagreement

– Permissiveness

– If dowry is not fully paid.

(b) Why was divorce not common in African traditional community:

– Dowry acted as cement

– Divorce not allowed – marriage was permanent

– Was a communal affair

– Both parents consulted

– Women substituted for second marriage

– Women were subordinate

– Took place at a mature age

– Unfaithfulness was not there and if, then one was given severe punishment.

– Always a go-between in all marriages.

– Partners to pray.

– Forgive each other as Jesus advocated for love and forgiveness.

– Marriage counsellors.

– Monogamy should be upheld to avoid divorce that occurred because of polygamous marriages.

– Should avoid immorality.

– Couples to adhere to their oaths.

– Couples to stay together.

(a) Compare the call of Samuel with that of Moses:

– Both were called by their names by God.

– Both were called to serve God.

– Both were called to be leaders of their people.

– Both were to be prophets to the Israelites.

– Both were called to be settling disputes among individuals or groups.

– Both were away from their home by the time they were called.

– They were to lead people in worship & prayer.

– Moses was sent to Egypt while Samuel was sent to Eli by God.

– Moses was herding animals while Samuel was ministering unto the Lord.

– Moses received the call in the wilderness while Samuel received the call at Shiloh staying with priest Eli.

– God appeared to Moses in a vision of burning bush but to Samuel in a dream.

– Samuel was young & unmarried but Moses was mature & married.

(b) Israelites demanded for a king because:

– Samuel’s sons had failed as leaders due to their being corrupt.

– Israelites wanted to be equal to other nations.

– Wanted a king to lead them to war against philistines.

– Wanted a stable hereditary leadership.

– Needed a human leader with national authority.

– Wanted a political government for law & order.

– Taxing citizens heavily.

– Practicing tribalism.

– Grabbing fertile pieces of land from their subjects.

– Harassing religious leaders.

– Murdering their political opponents.

– Suppressing weaker nations.

– Imposing his religion (Islam) to all citizens.

– Detaining people without trial.

– Misusing public funds.

5 (a) Relate the story of the man born blind:

– Jesus saw a man blind from birth.

– His disciples asked him “Rabbi” who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind.

– It was not that this man sinned or his parents, but that the work of God might be made manifested in him.

– He must work of him who sent me, while it is day, night comes when no one can work.

– Jesus said, I am the light of the world.

– Jesus spat on the ground and made clay of the spittle & anointed the man’s eyes with the clay.

– Told him to go & wash in the pool of Siloam .

– He went & washed & came back seeing.

– People doubted his identity.

– He confessed he was the one (blind man).

– He was asked how his eyes were opened.

– He answered, the man called Jesus made clay & anointed my eyes & said to me “Go to Siloam & wash, so I went & washed & received my sight.

– The pharisees said “This man is not from God, for he does not keep the sabbath”

– He was again asked to testify about the man who healed – He said, he is a prophet

– The parents were also asked if he was their son.

(b) Lessons Christians can learn from this miracle:

– The suffering of man gives Jesus an opportunity of showing the glory & the power of God on earth.

– By working on the Sabbath day Jesus meant to show us that there is no limit of day or time for doing god’s work.

– The use of spittle shows us that Jesus was keeping conformity with the curative methods & customs of the Jews of his time.

– Obedience to god’s will brings us remarks.

– The account of this healing also show us the gradual development of faith in the disciple of Jesus

– Jesus affirms that those who might reject his healing are spiritually blind.

– Jesus cast out the spirits of the unclean demon at Carpenaum – Feeding of five thousand

– Raising of Jairus daughter – Transfiguration

– Jesus calms a storm – Healing of a paralysed man

– Raising a window’s son at nain – Healing of centurion’s servant

– Unexpected catch of fish – Healing of ten lepers

– Healing a man full of leprosy – Heals a man possessed by demons

– A child seized by convulsing demon – Jesus, son of a virgin without a father.

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. II

PART 1

Give five reasons why it was difficult for the apostles to believe that Jesus arose from death. 5mks
Give five reasons why Christians should forgive 5mks
Write down five occasions when Jesus prayed. 5mks
Write down five qualities of God found in the Lords Prayer. 5mks
Write down five reasons why Christians should accept suffering as part of discipleship. 5mks
Write down five priviledges of a young initiated African man. 5mks
Give five reasons why burial rites are important. 5mks
Write down five reasons why children were important among the Africans. 5mks
Give five reasons for decline of female initiation. 5mks
Mention five factors which make (made) Africans to feel at home in independent churches. 5mks
Suggest five ways in which a Christian might test whether a person claiming to be Gods Prophet is

telling the truth. 5mks

Write down five reasons why unemployment was rare in Traditional African Society
Write down five reasons why Christians are opposed to child labour. 5mks
Identify five causes of death in traditional African Society. 5mks
List down five teachings about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of Pentecost. 5mks
State five effects of the conversation of Paul on the early church. 5mks
Give five qualities of the servant of Yahweh according to prophet Isaiah. 5mks
Give five duties of ordained people in the church. 5mks
Write down five motives that drive people to misuse drugs. 5mks
List down five reasons why people get married. 5mks

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION II

PART 1

MARKING SCHEME.

– It was an extra – ordinary event, outside their experience

– The story of resurrection was fore told by women, the disciples being Jews thought that it was idle tale

from women

– The disciples lacked faith and understanding, they had not understood, Jesus when he told them about

his resurrection.

– Their concept of a messiah was not a suffering Messiah, but a victorious one.

– Jesus helplessness during the arrest and crucifixion ruled out any possibility of resurrection.

– Conflicting stories confused them. Some were saying that Jesus arose, others said that the apostles stole

the body

– Events leading to his death, denial by Peter, betrayal by Judas made the disciples to question his

messiahship.

– Things happened so fast, death, burial, resurrection, too much for human mind to comprehend.

– The disciples had witnessed the death and the burial of Jesus hence convinced that he was dead / gone

completely 5mks

– We are forgiven by God, hence we should forgive

– So as to receive a reward from the father

– Others do forgive us

– God is perfect and Christians should be like him and that is why Christians should forgive.

5mks

3.- During the temptations.

– During transfigurations

– During the feeding of the 5 thousand

– During the pass over (prayer on the Mt. Of Olives garden of Gethsemene)

– On the cross 5mks

– God is loving, caring and good

– God is transcendent ie beyond human beings (who is in heaven)

– God is holy and worthy of worship (hallowed be thy name)

– God is eminent (near)

– Giver and provider ( give us our daily bread)

– God is protective (protects us from devil)

– God is forgiving, merciful and compassionate (forgive us our sins.)

– God delivers and deliberates (deliver us from evil)

– God is glorious (for thine is the glory)

– God is powerful (for thine is the power)

– God is eternal (everlasting) 5mks

– True commitment involves suffering , Lk 9:57 – 62 suffering brings salvation and redemption’s).

– Choosing eternal life involves suffering Mt 8:34 – 38 (leads one to heaven)

– Christ suffered hence Christians should suffer to emulate his mode of life

– It strengthens faith and develops endurance.

– Endurance manifests the glory of God

– Following Christ means self – denial and carrying the cross 5mks

– Could marry

– Could inherit

– Could be told the secrets of the community

– Could join adults

– Could become a worrior 5mks

– Give people a chance to release their grief and suitable rituals

– Enabled people to appease the ancestors

– Enables people to normalize life (life has to go on)

– Enabled people to bid farewell to the departed.

– United people (both the living and the dead) 5mks

8.- Inheritance

– Provision of labour

– Accumulation of wealth

– Enhancing ones social status

– Helping parents at old age

– Carry on with the lineage

– Sign of protection / security 5mks

– Western culture

– Christianity condemns it

– Medical reasons

– Modern education

– Modern ways of life 5mks

– Africans are allowed to carry on some of their cultural practices e.g circumcision / polygamy

– Africans use their language

– Africans have an opportunity to become leaders

– Africans use local tunes and instruments

– Africans generate finance locally

– Africans are led by fellow Africans. 5mks

– He must be holy

– Must be willing to take risks and self – sacrifices

– He must speak with authority

– Must be righteous

– His prophecies must be fulfilled

– Must be fearless 5mks

12.- There were no white collar jobs

– No paid jobs

– All aspects of life were integrated

– There was division of labour

– People accepted and appreciated any kind of work

– There was no need for training or professional skills/ no specializations

– No corruption / evils that can cause unemployment. 5mks

13.- Children are gifts from God

– Children should not be exploited

– Should be loved and taken care of

– Children are not objects, they are in a state of development physically, socially, mentally and morally.

– A child made to labour at the expense of his freedom to a better training employment will hate whoever caused this inconvenience when he grows up

– Children should be considered as human beings who are supposed to enjoy same rights and priviledges. 5mks.

– Sorcery / witchcraft

– Insulting deity

– Curse

– Natural causes / old age

– Capital punishment. 5mks.

– Jesus was Lord

– Jesus was the son of God

– Jesus was Christ

– Jesus was from Nazareth

– Jesus had divine/ human nature

– Jesus was sent by God to work miracles

– Jesus conquered death

– Jesus ascended into heaven

– Holy spirit is a gift from Jesus

– God had made Jesus both Lord and Christ

– Jesus is a descendant of David

– Jesus death and resurrection was a fulfilment of prophecy.

– Jesus was exalted and seated at the right hand of God. 5mks

16.

– Good news spread to the gentile world.

– Persecution of Christians decreased / hence increase in Christians

– Paul wrote letters of advice and encouragement to Christians

– Helped to set up structure of the church

– Spelt out the relationship between the church and the state

– Set a model for other Christians

– Defended the gospel against attacks

– Expanded new faith

– Interpreted Christian doctrines

– He became an apostle hence spread the good news 5mks

17.

– Chosen one of God / anointed / Messiah

– Will be a good shepherd

– Pleasing to God

– Gods spirit is in him

– Man of justice

– Patient, tolerant, endurance

– Humility/ non violent / weaker / gentle

– Courageous

– Righteous

– Liberator from oppression

– Knowledgeable, ready to learn, teacher

– God is glorified in him/ reflects Gods glory 5mks

18.

– Organize church services

– Incharge of offering sacrament

– Run church affairs

– Organize finances in the church

– Settle disputes among Christians and solve any problems that would arise

– Officiate in matters of marriage baptism and burial. 5mks.

19.

– Escape frustration

– Influence from others / peer pressure

– Curiosity

– Commercial advertisements

– Idleness

– Search for identity – showing off / a feeling of self importance.

– Prevention / cure of diseases. 5mks

20.

– For procreation

– Strengthening social relationship

– Get permission for legitimate use of sex

– In obedience to gods command and ancestors

– To avoid temptation of prostitution

– Acquire status in the society. 5mks

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION II

PART II

a. Why did the Israelites demand for a king 10mks
Why was Samuel against the idea of a king 10mks
What was the significance of the fact that the youngest son of Jesse’s eight sons was chosen to

become a king 5mks

a. Mention various factors which caused disunity in the early church and what possible solutions were

offered by Paul. 15mks

What causes disunity in the church in Kenya today and what are the solutions to these. 10mks.
a. Discuss the cause of high incidences of divorce in our modern society. 15mks
What problems are encountered by victims of divorce or separation 10mks
a. Outline the meaning and significance of initiation rites 15mks
Why are Christians baptised? 10mks
a. Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel had message of hope to the exiles. Narrate specific the message of

hope given by Jeremiah and Ezekiel to the exiles 15mks

What do you consider to be good qualities of a religious leader eg. Pastor 10mks
a. What is the biblical teaching on alcohol.
Give different reasons as to why people take alcohol.

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION II

PART II

MARKING SCHEME.

1.a. To be like the other nations surrounding them

– Wanted a viable king instead of their unseen king.

– Needed an army leader to inspire his people to rebel against their oppressors who had become more powerful and technologically more advanced than them.

– Needed a king to lead them to war.

– Samuel had grown old and his sons whom he had appointed to be judges for Israel did not walk his

ways / they had become corrupt and accepted bribes and prevented justice.

– They had rejected Yahweh as their king

– The King will take their sons and make themselves with his chariots / make them run infront of his

chariots

– Will take their daughters to be performers and cooks and bakers

– Will take the best of your fields and vineyards and give them to his attendants.

– Take a 1/10 of their grains and vintage and give them to his attendants

– Will take their maidservants and menservants and best of their cattle for his own

– Will become his slaves.

Significance.

Man looks at the outward appearance but God looks at the Inward appearance and that is why he

choose the youngest.

a.
Distribution of food: Greek speaking Jews (Hellemst) complained that during

distribution of food their widows were being discriminated because they were not pure Jews.

Solution: Paul appointed seven deacons to be responsible for the distribution of food so that

everybody was cartered for.

Leadership: Some claimed to be followers of Apollos who was a theologian, others followers

of Peter, others followed Paul because he was the founder of the church at Corrinth.

Paul was unhappy with these divisions and he adviced them to be united since the church is led by the power of the holy spirit. It was not the cleverness of the preacher that mattered, but all preached about Jesus who suffered and had been crucified. The personalities they rallied behind were messengers of God. Christ died for everybody. The should avoid dividing Christ into groups.

iii. Idolatry: Some Christians were eating meat offered to idols. These were the ones who had strong

faith and knew idols were powerless such actions misled others who were weak in faith. Paul that

enlightened Christians were free to buy and eat meat offered to idols but for the sake of weak

Christians they were to refrain from the practice lest they led the weak ones astray.

– He advised Christians to keep away from idol worship so as to avoid being joined to the actual idol.

iv Spiritual gifts: Some Christians thought speaking in tongues was great gift and started boasting about

it, this made other believers with other gifts to dry and prove there was the best and this created

disunity among the Christians.

Solution: Paul discouraged them from boasting and reminded them that all thesegifts come from God and were to be used for strengthening the church and the common good of believers. He urged them to aspire for the greatest gift of all which is love.

Lords Supper:

Christians in corinth grouped themselves according to their status in society hence an abuse to the Lords supper.

– The rich ate plenty of food and got drunk while the poor watched. This made the Lords supper

loose its meaning and were concentrating more on social status.

– Purpose of Lords supper was for all to come together as believers to share the Lords supper.

– It reminded them of great love Jesus had for them by dying on the cross.

Solution: They were to approach Lords supper with honour and respect in order to avoid Gods

judgement.

Resurrection of the body: Some believed in resurrection of the body while others doubted it and it

created different feelings among them.

– Paul confirmed the resurrection of the body as proved by the fact that Jesus rose from the dead and

appeared to his disciples.

2b. Causes of disunity in the church today.

Leadership: Those who are power thirst want the top seats in the churchfor recognition purposes but not delivering the message.

Solution: All should have a call to be leaders in the church and should not aspire to show off.

Need purity of their hearts.

Misuse of church funds: this can lead to disunity in church.

Solution: Church funds should be accounted for and tabled so that all believers could know

how their funds were used.

iii. Backbiting: Some leaders backbite others thinking that they are better preachers and have many followers.

Solution: What matters is your faith in Christian but not fame. Since all are preaching the same

message.

Education: Those more educated than the others, tend to undermine those with lower education. What matters is the message, no matter what tactics are used, hence the truth must be preached without misleading. When pastors demand too much money from the congregation the freedom to offer what they want without dictating.

Solution: Should give the congregation the freedom to offer what they want without dictating.

Incitement caused by other churches towards another about their undertakings.

Solution: Each church to set their own priorities and not compete with other churches.

Social status – high class and low class those rich associating with the rich in the church and the poor with the poor hence no unity.

Solution: all are equal and should mix freely since they are all in the church for one purpose.

vii. Political influence.

3 a.Causes of high incidences of divorce in our modern society.

– Adultery and unfaithfulness / Extra marital affairs

– Childlessness / impotence / infertility

– Difficult and handicapped children

– Separation due to work/ careers, may lead others to divorce their wives

– Poor communication

– Finances: If there is no proper budgeting or open discussion about finances this can lead to

divorce.

– Level of education when one has higher education than the others, defending on how they handle

it may lead to inferiority / superiority complex hence divorce.

– Cultural differences.

– Impotence.

– Diseases eg. STDs

– Domestic violence

– Religious differences.

1 mark for mention

2 mark for elaboration (10mks)

– Become social misfits in the society

– Sexual un-fulfilment

– Psychological torture which can lead one to committing suicide

– Financial problems especially if one was not working and was relying on the other one.

– Jealousy – when you see other couples together

– Children lack both parental love

– Bitterness towards the other party can lead one party to kill the other.

– Children might seek other sources of love

– Lack of trust – you wouldn’t trust anyone again

– Promotes homosexuality / lesbianism

– Psychological stress leading to insanity / suicide

– Promotes diseases eg. multiple personality disorder.

– Makes children hate one parent or be against them because of influence from other parents

– Deterioration in physical health.

– Initiation introduced the youth virtually to the life in the community.

– Initiate became a member of a specific age group

– The initiate was allowed to participate in various responsible roles in society

– Initiation ceremony allowed communion with ancestors to take place

– The rites enabled the society to select future age-group leaders

– The rites acquainted the initiates with the rules and regulations regarding the social relationships

between men and women.

– After initiation, the parents of the initiates were promoted to higher social status in society.

– During and immediately after initiation, the initiates were temporary separated from other people

and they lived either in fields forest or in other specially prepared houses away from their homes.

– Initiates went through a period of withdrawal from society, during which they received secret

instructions before they were allowed to rejoin their relatives

– It appears the initiates experienced the process of dying and being reborn.

– Integration into their families meant that they were new members with new personality traits

– They cast off their childhood and become adults, in some societies they acquired new names.

– Introduction to adult life meant the initiates were allowed to share in privileges and duties of the

society. Ie Allowed to marry and acquire property.

– Initiation prepared the youth in matters of sexual life, procreation and other domestic roles

– Initiation rites were educative. They marked the beginning of acquiring society, wisdom which is

hidden from the youth.

– Initiates learn to endure pain and hardships live with one another, obey their seniors.

– Accept their present state which resulted from their disobedience, but God would need them

– Make new life for themselves in babylon by building houses, settling down, planting gardens,

marrying and having children Jer: 29: 4 – 6.

– Not to allow themselves to be destroyed or rebel against city and its inhabitants

– Encouraged to work for the good of the rulers and people in babylon and pray for their prosperity

so that they may also prosper Jer. 29:7.

– Not to listen or be influenced by false prophets or future tellers.

– That God would gather His people and bring them back to their land.

– The remnant will be restored and live in prosperity and peace.

– During their return God would guide them as a father or as a shepherd guides his children or flock

– Descendant of king David would be enthroned as king and would rule them with justice forever

(Jer. 23: 5 – 6; Ez. 34: 23 – 24)

– Jerusalem would be rebuilt and would be a source of Joy and pride (Jer 30: 18 – 22)

– Jeremiah bought a piece of land in Jerusalem to signify that exiles would return to Jerusalem and be

able to buy fields there (Jer: 32:36 – 44).

– Ezekiels call to repentance was because God does not take pleasure in the suffering of a sinner

(Ez 18:23)

5b. – Must speak the truth regardless the consequences

– Be ready to suffer for the truth.

– Set a good example to the people he is handling / others

– Must have a call from God

– Should not expect praises from people

– Must not be money conscious

– Must deliver the message (true) to the people as directed by God

– Should think of others before himself / herself spirit (love, joy, peace)

– Should not be an hypocrite.

a. – Alcoholism brings poverty prov 23:20

– Alcoholics suffer depression and they are miserable prov. 23: 29-30.

– Alcoholics cause trouble because they engage in violence, suffer from illusions and hallucinations

– Wine makes a person incapable of thinking clearly (hos 4:11)

– Isaiah condemns people who spent their time drinking ( is. 5:11 – 12)

– Wine leads people astray (prov 20:11)

– Wine is a gift from God (Deutro. 7: 13)

– Paul speaks against drunkenness (Eph 5: 18) Romans 13:13: 1cor 5:11)

– Wine like all Gods creation is a gift from God and is good but it becomes bad if misused.

6.b

– Escape frustration / release tension

– Influence from others

– Curiosity (to know the effects it has

– Due to advertisement / influence from advertisement

– Idleness

– To show off / prestige

– For pleasure

– Better digestion especially wine

– For social status.

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION III

PART I

State the five social and religious evils condemned by Jeremiah at the Temple Gate of Jerusalem. (5 mks)
State five religious conditions that existed in Israel before King Josiah carried out the
religious reforms. (5 mks)
What are the causes of unfaithfulness among married couples today? (5 mks)
Mention five practices by Christians carried over from Judaism. (5 mks)
What were the causes of death in African Traditional Societies? (5 mks)
How was law and order maintained in African Traditional Societies? (5 mks)
How can a Christian show responsibility to others in the community? (5 mks)
What was the significance of dowry in Traditional African Society? (5 mks)
What qualities made Peter to be a successful leader of the first apostolic church? (5 mks)
What do you think were the terms of Saul’s conversion? (5 mks)
What are the causes of evils as found in Genesis 3 – 11? (5 mks)
State five teachings of Jesus on forgiveness. (5 mks)
Why are Jesus’ miracles regarded as His saving works? (5 mks)
What factors helped to maintain Harmony and mutual responsibility in African traditional
communities? (5 mks)
What can Christians learn from the feeding of the five thousand people? (5 mks)
What features of worship were observable in the early Christian community? (5 mks)
How has Christianity helped in transforming the African Society? (5 mks)
Give five examples of independent churches in Kenya. (5 mks)
Why do you think it was mandatory for everyone to marry in traditional African communities? (5 mks)
List five evils committed by King Ahab according to Prophet Elijah. (5 mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION III

PART II

(a) Explain the origin of sin and its consequences as found in Genesis chapters 1-11. (13 mks)

(b) What was Jeremiah’s understanding of suffering? (7 mks)

(a) Explain the New Testament’s understanding of the death of Jesus Christ. (10 mks)

(b) How was death understood in African Traditional community? (8 mks)

Compare and contrast the destiny of the soul in African Traditional Religion and Christianity? (7 mks)

(a) Why do you think there should be co-operation between the church and the state?

(8 mks)

(b) Explain the areas of ecumenical co-operation among churches in Kenya today?

(9 mks)

(a) What was the significance of Abraham’s call for him and his descendants? (8 mks)

(b) What is the relevance of God’s promises to Christians today? (8 mks)

What lessons can Christians learn from Abraham’s faith? (9 mks)

(a) How has modern Technology and Economy changed the Traditional African attitude to work? (9 mks)

(b) Explain in detail why a Christian should work. (8 mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION III

MARKING SCHEME I

Five social and religious evils condemned by Jeremiah at Temple gate:

(i) Stealing.

(ii) Murder.

(iii) Following other gods.

(iv) Committing adultery.

(v) Perjury – cheating especially in Law Courts.

(vi) Burning incense to Baal.

(vii)Oppression of the alien, fatherless and widow. (5 x 1 marks)

Five religious conditions that existed in Israel before King Josiah carried out the religious reforms:

Temple prostitution.
There were many high places for worship of Baal and Asherah.
There was practice of human sacrifice which was done to idols.
Idol worship was even carried out in Jerusalem Temple.
The covenant way of life was abandoned.
There were many wizards who were consulted by the people. (5×1 marks)

Causes of unfaithfulness among married couples today:

Unfulfilled sexual desires.
Need for revenge. A man may have extra marital sex because the wife has it or the other way

round.

Craving sexual adventure.
Bad Company/ influence.
Temptations due to long periods of separation.
Drunkenness especially in the man.
When a woman is not supported financially she may turn to prostitution to earn money.
If a woman denies a man his conjugal rights he may turn to other women.

(Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Five practices done by Christians which are carried over for Judaism:

Use of Psalms in worship.
Reading of Old Testament scriptures.
Communal prayers.
Giving of offerings to God.
Attending church services
Dedication of children to God.
Worship is conducted by Priests/Pastors.

(Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Causes of death in African Traditional societies:

Divine will.
Insulting or dishonoring God.
Breaking a binding oath.
Breaking a taboo. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

How Law and Order was maintained in Traditional African societies:

Through oathing.
Through making covenants.
Through supervision by clan elders or Chiefs, Priests.
Through punishment of wrong doers (e.g. fines, caning, curses, ex-communication).
Through keeping customary beliefs and regulations.

(Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

How a Christian can show responsibility in the community:

Visiting and praying for the sick.
Caring for the needy.
Sharing in the problems of others.
Helping the needy in the society.
Evangelizing to the non-Christians. (5×1 = 5 marks)

Significance of dowry in African Traditional society:

It acted as marriage seal.
It was a show of appreciation by the boy’s family to the girl’s family.
It was a compensation to the loss of the girl.
It acted as constant reminder that the girl was not cheap.
Dowry served as a sign of the girl’s presence in her home.

(5×1 = 5 marks)

Qualities that made Peter to be a successful leader of the first apostolic church.

He was a good orator.
Peter had great courage – he spoke without fear even when he was sure he would face a persecution.
He was full of Holy Spirit that enabled him to speak as he did on the Pentecost day.
He performed miracles e.g. healed a cripple and raised Dorcas.
He would make right judgements under influence of Holy Spirit e.g. judged Ananias and Saphira.
Peter was ready to die for his faith – He accepted death by crucifixion.

(vii) He was a man of great faith. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

The terms for Saul’s conversion:

He was to preach to Kings and other men of high social status.
Saul was to be a messenger to the gentiles.
He was to be a chosen instrument set aside by the Lord himself.
Saul was to be made an example of Jesus Christ’s suffering for Christ’s sake.
Saul was to be a messenger to gentiles but also to Jews because he was a good Pharisee. (5×1 = 5 marks)

Causes of evil as found in Genesis 3-11:

Desire for worldly glory.
Temptation by Satan.
Disobedience to God.
Human weakness.

(vii) Jealousy. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Jesus’ teaching on forgiveness:

We should forgive everybody even our enemies.
It is never too late to ask.
One should seek for God’s
God forgives those who repent.
Forgiveness should be unlimited.
God forgives those who forgive others.

(Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Why the miracles of Jesus are regarded as his saving works:

The miracles show that Jesus is the Messiah who has come to set mankind free from sin.
Driving out of demons shows liberation of people from the power of Satan
The miracles of Jesus manifested God’s saving power.
Miracles of Jesus manifested god’s saving power.
Raising people from the dead shows that Jesus has conquered pain and death. (5×1 = 5 marks)

Factors that helped to maintain harmony and mutual responsibility in African traditional communities:

Observance of moral values or taboos and customs.
Belief in common ancestry.
Common ownership of land.
Common religious beliefs.
Communal work.

(vii)Concern for others shown through sharing.

(viii)Respecting the rights of others as defined by rules and regulations.

(Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

What Christians can learn from the feeding of the five thousand:

Should seek the imperishable food the word of God.
Should be able to share what they have with others.
Recall the Old Testament prophecies about the Messianic Banquet.
Jesus is the bread of life.
Not to be anxious about material and physical needs.
Should show concern for the needs of others.
Jesus has power over nature. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Features of worship observable in the early Christian community:

They attended Temple worship.
There was the anointing with oil.
They had special hours for prayers.
They had fellowship in their private houses.
Baptism was a must for those who were to join the new people of God.
They underwent the Apostles’ instructions. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

How Christianity has helped in transforming the African society:

The church offers recreational facilities.
Reduced fear of witchcraft, sorcery and magic.
Helped in dropping rituals which were a threat to health.
Formal education brought by Christian missionaries has changed African lifestyles.
Polygamy is dying out giving room to Christian monogamy.
Formal education replaced informal education.
Traditional beliefs have been replaced by Christian beliefs. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Examples of Independent Churches in Kenya:

Church of the Holy Spirit (Dini ya Roho).
African Independent Pentecost Church.
African Greek Orthodox Church.
Legio Maria of Africa.
Pentecostal Assemblies of God.
African Brotherhood. (Any 5×1 = 5 marks)

Why it was mandatory for everyone to marry in Traditional African Communities:

To continue family and clan through procreation.
To prove one’s fertility.
So as to be remembered after death through naming by their children.
To have many relatives and friends because African marriages joined families.
To earn respect as unmarried people were never respected in African traditional societies. (5×1 = 5 marks)

Evils committed by King Ahab according to Prophet Elijah:

Worshipped Baal and Asherah.
Built temples for Baal and Asherah.
Married Jezebel who was not an Israelite contrary to Old Testament teachings.
Killing Naboth and his family;
Taking Naboth’s vineyard. (5×1 = 5 marks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION III

PART II

MARKING SCHEME

(a) The Origin of Sin:

Man was created good and innocent.
His relationship with the Creator was perfect.
He was endowed with the will to choose between good and evil.
The man and woman were tempted by the serpent/Satan to eat the forbidden tree/tempted to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge.
Both rebelled against God/Creator, willfully disobeyed God.
Man sinned when he desired to be like the Creator which was not the intention of God.
It was because of his pride and desertion of God’s love and guidance that he violated the will of the Creator. (Any 4×1 = 4 marks)

(II)

The consequences of sin:

(i) Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Paradise/Aden where they lived under God’s great

care.

(ii) Man no longer could communicate with his Creator, for the communication was broken.

(iii) Man and woman became ashamed of their nakedness or a feeling of guilt resulted.

(iii) Sex, which was blessed by God, became a shameful act.

(iv) Life became a matter of struggle for man now has to eat from his sweat or toil to survive.

(v) Work became an unpleasant engagement.

(vi) Man was to populate the world with his offspring. However child bearing became a fearful and painful

experience.

(vii)The woman became subordinate to man because she has to do his will.

(viii) Man was to struggle against hostile nature full of thorns/hardship.

(ix) Sin spread all over the world (Gen. 4-11).

(x) Man struggled to reach the Creator with no success.

(xi) Death resulted. (Any 9×1 = 9 marks)

(b) Jeremiah’s understanding of suffering:

The theme of suffering starts with Jeremiah’s call whose mission was to deliver an unpleasant message to the people.
Judah suffers because of her failure to live to the ideas of the covenant way of life or their rejection of Yahweh’s love for them.
The home of David had to suffer because of the unfaithfulness of her custodians or rulers who did not portray the character of their forefather David.
His life is a good example of an innocent person suffering because of the evils of his society. He suffered greatly even to the point of accusing God of betraying him.
The massive defeat of Judah by foreigners which was God’s judgement was aimed at warning the people of their religious and moral failures.
Jeremiah experienced a terrible conflict in himself almost wanting to give up his prophetic mission.

(vii) God shared his agony of suffering when his people rejected Him and persue evils.

(viii) The innocent could suffer not because of punishment from God as the Israelites believed but due to existence of evil.

(ix) After the suffering, those who accept it in the right spirit, a great era of great joy will replace it. Judgement and suffering of God’s people keep a ray of hope.

(Any 7×1 = 7 marks)

Christian understanding of suffering:
Jesus gave a good example of suffering and he taught his disciples suffering was part of their being followers of Christ. True followers are those who accept suffering.
Innocent suffering is part of the redemptive purpose of God.
Peter says that it is through suffering that the faith of the believer is strengthened.
Those who are not discouraged and endure suffering, will be made perfect.
It is through trials and temptations that man seeks God’s guidance and protection. It makes Christians rely on the divine love of God.
They are assured that the end of suffering and evil is promised in the final victory of God.

(vii) It is in this suffering that Christians share in the glory of God through Jesus Christ.

(viii) When Christians suffer, they witness to Christ in the world.

(ix) Suffering can be as a result of social, political, moral and economic situations surrounding the Christian community.

(a) The New Testament understanding of the death of Christ.:

The death/the cross is the means by which the Kingdom of God is established.
In the gospels, Jesus spoke with his disciples about his coming death which was doing the will of God.
In John’s gospel, the death is the ‘hour’ when the son glorifies the father and the father glorifies the son.
The blood shed on the cross is the blood that seals the New covenant.
The death is a sacrifice that atones man’s sin/the pascal lamb which liberates man from the bondage of sin.
Since God’s loved the world, he gave his only beloved son whose death is the sign of God’s love for sacrifice of Christ.
It is the meeting point between the divine and the human – Jesus sealed the gap that separated

man with God – direct communication between man and God (e.g. the cutting of the temple

curtain).

(viii) The Roman soldier at the time of Jesus’ death confessed that Jesus was surely the son of God.

(ix) The death symbolized the day of God’s judgement and the beginning of a new age (e.g. the criminals crucified with Jesus and the dark that covered the whole world at the time of his death).

(x) Jesus is both the suffering servant Messiah and a universal Messiah.

His death broke the hard hearts of men – the crowd that jeered at him was moved when Jesus died.
It symbolized the victory of good over evil.
The death was the source of boldness during the apostolic preaching since they believed that they

had already been saved and incorporated in the risen Lord. (Any 10×1 = 10 marks)

Death in African Traditional Community:
Death was one of the stages of life/a link between the physical and the spirit world.
Death normally was not associated with natural happening but always has a religious or mystical explanation.
It was not a very welcomed occurrence and especially when one died while young, it was feared.
It could be a punishment from the spirits or God for misbehavior in society.
Could be a warning or activities of an evil spirit.
The Africans believed that the spirit left a person when he died to join the spirit of those who had died before.
The dead still continued to link with the living.
The death of an old person was taken as being called by God to join the spirit world.
Death brought sadness to the bereaved and neighbours.
It was a phenomena after which people had to be purified to ward off more deaths.
The Destiny of the soul in African Traditional Religion and Christianity:
Both believe that at death the soul separates with the body.
Both African Traditional Religion and Christianity believe that there is transformation and change in state.
In Christianity the soul goes to purgatory(Roman Catholicism) to wait for final judgement whereas in ATR it joins the spirit world.
While Christians talk of final resurrection, this concept is lacking in African belief systems.
In African Traditional societies the soul goes in the sky or underground, for Christians it goes to heaven.
The living dead exercise powers over the physically living while such concept is not in
Both traditions believe that the fate of the soul is determined by the life led by the individual when he was alive.
In traditional African beliefs the spirits of the dead were feared, a belief that does not exist among Christians.
African communities poured libation to appease the departed, a practice that is not encouraged by Christians.
After a certain period of time, the spirits of the dead fade away in the world but in Christianity the soul awaits the final judgement.
The ancestral spirits acted as messengers between the living and the spirit world whereas in Christianity the communication is by the Holy Spirit.
In both traditions the spirits of the dead are nearer to God than those physically living. (Any 7×1 = 7 marks)

(a) Why there should be co-operation between the church and the state:

The state and the church belong to one Nation hence they have similar goals – National goals.
Both the state and the church meet at fund raisings for the church as well as in state ceremonies i.e. politicians attend church functions and Christians attend state functions.
The state provides security for all people including Christians e.g. police are called upon to maintain order when we have functions in the church , while the church takes care of spiritual needs of the people.
Today some Government officials hold important positions in the church while also some Christians hold important positions in the Government
The church and the state co-operate in condemning immoral and criminal activities in the society.
Both must co-operate because they serve the same community.
Christianity teaches that all Authority comes from God and all Christians must obey state laws.
Both church and state co-operate in the provision of health, education and other social needs of the community. (8×1 = 8 marks)
Areas of ecumenical co-operation among churches in Kenya today:
Different churches are involved in provision of medical services throughout Kenya.
Today we have some Theological colleges training church ministers from different churches e.g. Pan African Christian College, which trains pastors from all Protestant churches.
Nearly all churches lead religious programmes on Sundays on the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC).
The Bible Society of Kenya is made up of many churches and its main function is translation of the Bible into local languages.
Different churches join hands in Harambee functions to build churches and schools.
Many churches come together and give food relief in areas that are seriously hit by famine like North Eastern Kenya.
Today different churches hold joint prayers in schools.

(viii) Today the church helps the government in preparation of C.R.E. curriculum,

syllabuses and text books.

Inter-church marriage is a major area of co-operation among churches in Kenya. (9×1 = 9 mks)

(c) Effects of translating the Bible into local African languages:

It is possible for Africans to participate actively in preaching the gospel.
The Bible became a learning resource.
As a result of translation of the Bible into local languages many people can read the Bible in their own vernacular.
It promoted revival movements.
It became the first book to be written in African languages.
Translation of the Bible into African languages led to the development of some African languages.
It encouraged people to learn how to read and write so that they could read the Bible for themselves.
It led to the development of the spirits of ecumenism as many churches came together in the translation of the Bible in African languages.
Translation of the Bible in African languages contributed to the development of African Theology. (8×1 = 8 marks)

(a) The significance of Abraham’s call for him and his descendants:

They are expected to emulate Abraham’s example (Heb. 8:9-19)
God’s promise was not a personal reward to Abraham. It was part of a grand plan through which all mankind would benefit. (Gen. 12:3). He is the ancestor of Jesus who brought salvation to all men (Acts , Gal. 3:16, 29).
The willingness of Abraham to leave his motherland and go to a strange land signified an act of faith.
To Abraham’s unquestionable act of faith, the chosen people (Abraham’s descendants) owe their existence and destiny.
Abraham ‘s descendants must note that physical descent from Abraham it not enough to guarantee them God’s blessing. (Mt. 3:9). (Any 4×2 = 8 marks)
Relevance of God’s promises to Christians today:
Abraham was promised that his descendants will be delivered from physical oppression while Christians are promised deliverance from spiritual oppression.
While to Abraham circumcision was a physical sign of inner faith, baptism is the physical sign of inner faith.
Just as Abraham was promised protection by God, so also are Christians assured of God’s protection.
While Abraham was promised the land of Canaan, the Christians are promised eternal life/kingdom of God.
Abraham was promised fame/greatness. The Christian leaders (some of them) are great.
While Abraham was promised a heir, the Christians are expected to be heirs of the kingdom of God.
Christians are beneficiaries of Abraham’s promise that all mankind will receive God’s blessing.
As Abraham was promised that his descendants will be many in number Christians too expect to be many in number. (Any 8×1 = 8 marks)
Lessons that Christians can learn from Abraham’s faith:
They should be ready to accept God’s call as Abraham did.
They should be prepared to inherit.
They should be ready to accept they will always have God’s protection as Abraham believed.
They should accept to be sent anywhere as Abraham did when he was to move from the known land to unknown land.
They should be confident/trust in all God’s promises.
As Abraham was essentially chosen by God because of his faith, so also are Christians chosen.
They should have trust that God will always answer their prayers/their requests.
They should have faith that God is not ready to destroy life but rather save it as he did to Isaac.
They should be ready to sacrifice anything that God requires from them as Abraham was ready even to offer his son as a sacrifice.
They accept that they will be great in serving God just as Abraham accepted to become great.

(a) How modern technology and economy changed the Traditional African Attitude to work:

Today there is change of roles. Duties which were done by man only are being done by women and also duties which were done by women only are also being done by men.
One’s talents are not fully utilized because of job specialization.
Today some people have machines to work for them as opposed to the idea that everyone was a worker in Traditional African societies.
In modern society some people do not want to work but they want to earn a living through begging, stealing and playing games like gambling.
Today people view work in terms of career, which one gets into after work as part and parcel of entire life process. That is work begun at youthful stage upto old age till one was too old to work.
In traditional African communities, age, sex and inheritance determined the work one did but today the choice of the occupation one does is determined by the education he has received.
In traditional African communities there was co-operation in work, but in modern society there is steep competition that may lead to rivalry.
Today some people are doing unacceptable jobs like prostitution just to earn a living.
In modern society work is meant to benefit an individual whilst in traditional African communities work benefited the entire community.
Unemployment was unheard of in traditional African communities because everyone was employed but today it is a common problem.
Today job inheritance is rare but in traditional African communities many jobs were inherited from parents e.g. blacksmith, craftsmanship.

(8×1 = 8 marks)

Why Christians should work:
To Christian work is a way of furthering the creation activity of God.
Christian work because Paul said that those who do not work should not eat.
Through work Christians avoid parasitic life.
Through work Christians avoid idleness, which lead to sin.
Christians work to protect or care for God’s creation.
Through work a Christian can serve his community.
In work a Christian provides for life’s
Christians who work can share their incomes with the less fortunate members of the community.
It is necessary for a Christian to work because God blesses the hardworking. See Psalms 128;1.
Christians work because God instituted work during creation. God commanded human beings that they must work. (8×1=8 marks)

Effects of alcoholism on career:
Alcoholism affects one’s efficiency at work. Infact it reduces performance significantly.
Alcoholism can easily lead one to embezzle public funds, which are entrusted to him.
Alcoholics may have great risks in their career especially drivers, who cause accidents when they drive under the influence of alcohol.
A lot of money is spent on drinking at the expense of the basic necessities like food, shelter, and clothing.
Drunkards may collide with fellow workmates hence affecting one’s career.
Alcoholism affects the health of a person rendering one ineffective at work.
Alcoholism may lead to break-up of one’s family and this adversely affects one’s performance at work.
Alcoholism may make one to absent himself from work..

(8×1 = 8 marks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. IV

PART 1

Give FIVE occasions when Jesus prayed (5mks)
Give teachings Christians can learn from the parable of the good Samaritan (5mks)
State FIVE methods used by missionaries to improve the living standards of the Africans. (5mks)
State any FIVE moral obligations of the state to her citizens (5mks)
List FIVE occasions when Jesus appeared to his disciples after resurrection (5mks)
Outline any FIVE modern idols that threaten the worship of God in Kenya today. (5mks)
Outline any FIVE factors promoting prostitution in Kenya today. (5mks)
State FIVE gifts of the holy spirit (5mks)
Outline any FIVE social injustices, which were condemned by prophet Isaiah. 5mks)
What FIVE factors united African traditional community (5mks)
Identify FIVE rights of an employer (5mks)
State FIVE ways in which the church continues with the mission of Jesus. (5mks)
Outline any FIVE evidences that Jesus arose from the dead. (5mks)
State FIVE lessons that Christians learn from the repentant THIEF during the crucifixion of Jesus. (5mks)
State FIVE effects of the conversion of Paul on the early Church.
Mention FIVE problems Christian churches face in Ecumenical co-operation. (5mks)
Mention FIVE Christian alternatives to marriage. (5mks)
List FIVE characteristics of independent churches (5mks)
Mention FIVE ways through which people misuse wealth. (5mks)
With reference to Gen. 3:11, state FIVE causes of evil (5mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. IV

PART 1

MARKING SCHEME

Five occasions when Jesus prayed.

After his baptism in the wilderness.
At a table in Emmaus after resurrection.
Before choosing the twelve apostles
When he taught his disciples how to pray
Before/during the transfiguration
On the cross
Before feeding the 5,000 and 4,000 men.
During the last supper.
In the garden of Gethseman

Any 5 pts 1×5=5mks

Teaching Christians can learn from the parable of the good Samaritan

Concern for others
Readiness to help one in need
Eternal life is for those considered unworthy
Faith without deed is dead
Ceremonial laws do not put us right before God
They should not have a holier than the attitude
They should not discriminate. Any 5 pts 5×1=kmks

Methods used by missionaries to improve African living standards.

Educating the Africans
Introduction of cash crops
Opening up of hospitals to improve their health
Teaching them hygiene
Studying legitimate trades
Vocational training
Introducing western culture e.g

Any 5 points 1mk each = (5)

Moral obligations of the state to her citizens. (5)

Protect the citizens from eternal aggression
Maintain and uphold bill of rights.
Provision of essential services
Developing economic policies e.g. creation of employment.
Upholding justice.
Maintaining law and order/stability.

– Provision of fair tax system.

Any five 5×1 =5

Occasions when Jesus appeared to his disciples after Resurrection. (5)

To Peter
Disciples on the way to Emmaus
Disciples in a closed room
Disciples fishing
To Thomas Any other relevant point 5×1=5

Modern idols threatening worship to God.

Wealth – Power politics – State personalities
Fame – Beauty/Glamour – Sex
Sports – Education/Career/Profession Any other relevant point 5×1=5

Factors promoting prostitution in Kenya. (5)

Unfulfilled sexual desires
Uncontrollable sexual craving
Economic difficulties
Sugar daddies/mummies
Rural/ urban migration
Divorce
Poor upbringing
Peer influence
Pornography/films

Any five pts 5×1=5

Gifts of the holy spirit (5)

– Miracles – Tongues

– Healing – Decrement of spirits

Faith
Word of wisdom’s – Interpretations of tongues
Prophecy
Word o knowledge

Any 5 points 5×1 =5

Social injustice condemned by Isaiah (5)

Oppression of the wisdom and orphans
Greed that led to exploitation of the week
Practices of library
Cursing those who can no longer distinguish good from evil

Factors uniting African traditional communities (5)

– Sharing – Communal work

– Marriage – Virtues

– Children – Religious beliefs and practices.

– Roles

– Observation of social norms. Any 5pts 5x = 5

Rights of an employer. (5)

Obtaining business without undue interference from the government
A right to enjoy the fruits of their business
Getting a fair days work from their employees
Forming associations of their own choice
Protection from unfair competition
Fair taxation
Repatriation of their profits abroad Any other relevant point 5×1=5

Ways in which the church continue with the mission of Jesus

Through medical work/ establishment of hospitals.
Participation in Education in order to contribute to the welfare of people
Providing pastoral care
Administration of sacraments
Worship/praying for the sick
Provisions of employment opportunities in their institutions.
Involvement in social/communal work
Involvement in agriculture/technical/industrial work to improve the standard of living of the people.
Living exemplary life for others to emulate.

Any other relevant point 5×1=5

Evidences that Jesus arose from the dead.

The angel told the woman that Jesus had risen
Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene
The woman who visited the tomb found it empty
His appearance to the disciples at Jerusalem
Jesus appeared to the two disciples of Emmaus.
Jesus shared a meal with his disciples after resurrection in Jerusalem.
Thomas felt the scars of Jesus hand.
The disciples witnessed Jesus ascend to heaven after his death

Any five points 5×1=5

Lessons learned from the testimony of the repentant thief. (5)

It is important to correct erring brother .sister the way the repentant thief did
Recognition of ones sinful condition so as to repent.
Jesus had no sin/did not deserve death
Jesus had power to overcome death /would resurrect.
Jesus is the Messiah /Lord.
Jesus is the savoir of mankind.
Jesus would establish Gods kingdom for the saved.

– Jesus is merciful to the repentant sinners. Any 5 pts 5×1=5

Effects to the convertion of Paul on the early church. (5)

Establishment of Jerusalem council
The first apostolic council
Establishment of churches in the gentile world e.g corrinth. Gallatia
Solving the nagging problems in Corinth eg marriage, Lords supper, food offered to idols
Writing the epistles of exhortation/ encouragement to the established churches eg. Rome, Titus.
Led to the spread of the gospel in the gentile world/ tribulations to his ministry eg imprisonment,

confinement.

Any 5 pts 5×1=5

Problems of ecumenism (5)

Some churches have withdrawn their cooperation.
Some churches fear loosing their identity
Theological differences/interpretation of the Bible /day of worship
African Christians have strong denominational loyalties
Accusation of fellow church ministers before high authorities
Failure to involve Africans in formation of church unity
Controversy over female circumcision
Inferiority complex due to semi –education/illiterate leaders.
Religious prejudice/filling of superiority by some churches.
Racialism /tribalism
Culture differences/language differences.

Any 5×1=5

Christian alternatives to marriage.

Consideration of oneself as eunach for the kingdom of God

– Remaining unmarried to serve God.

– The claim by some Christian to have received a call to lead a celibate life.

– The claim by some Christians to have married Jesus and thus not accepting matrimonial relationships.

– Some church leaders are required not to marry eg Catholic Priest, bishop pope.

– Some Christian choose to devote all their time in serving the community and so don’t marry eg

catholic nuns.

Any 5×1=5

Characteristics of independence churches

– African leadership/controlled by Africans

– Member were mostly local people

– More allowances are given for the integration of African traditions into the church.

– Emphasis in on spiritual experience

– They all confess Christ as saviour and lord.

– They are Christian churches

– They use local language in their worship

– Emphasis is on church as community closer communities.

Any 5×1=5

Five ways through which people misuse wealth

– By over indulging in alcohol / drugs

– By indulging in immoral practices some of prostitution, sex tourism, extra marital sex.

– Use of wealth in gambling which might lead to loss of it.

– By buying luxuries e.g expensive clothes, cars which are not necessary

– Using wealth to frustrate – exploit others

– Using wealth to bribe to get out of problems

– Using wealth to buy positions, power status, votes or get employment.

– Use wealth to show off.

Any other relevant 5×1=5

Causes of evil (Gen . 3-11.)

– Disobedience to the will of God (Adam and Eve)

– Temptation by satan (Adam and Eve yield)

– Desire for worldly glory (the tower of Babel) or pride.

– Human weakness/ violence / drunkenness

– Jealousy /rivalry (as in the case of Cain and Abel)

– Anger (Cain)

– Lack of self control/lust

Any 5 pts 5×1=5

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IV

PART II

a) Discuss the teaching of Jesus on the role of the holy spirit. (9mks)
b) Explain how the power of the Holy Spirit is seen at work in the independent churche in (16 mks)
a) Describe the call of Abraham. (9mks)
b) What was the significance of this call in relation to his future life and that of his (12 mks)
c) What does circumcision mean to the descendants of Abraham. (5 mks)
a) Describe the activities which took place on the day of Pentecost. (12mks)
b) Explain the teachings of Jesus on the coast of discipleship. (8 mks)
c) Outline the significance of suffering to a Christian today. (5 mks)
a) Explain the factors that have affected the traditional African responsibilities to God, spirits and

ancestors. (14 mks)

b) What problems do contemporary parents encounter in guiding and counseling their Children,.

(11 mks)

a) Why were Josiah`s reforms necessary during the time of the prophet Jeremiah . 8 mks)
b) How were the reforms carried out. (12mks)
c) What were the results of the reforms (5 mks)
a) Show how a persons work may be another persons leisure activity. (10 mks)
b) Explain ways in which an employer can motivate his employees. (7 mks)
c) Why is it important for a worker to be allowed to have a rest. (8 mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. IV

PART II

MARKING SCHEME.

Q1. The teaching of Jesus on the role of the holy spirit.

The Holy Spirit will take the place of Jesus after physical departure.
The role of the Holy Spirit was to represent and glorify Christ in the church. i.e to encourage build, edify etc.
The holy spirit reveals truth about God .
To be helper who stays forever
To make the world aware of its sins and the judgement of sin.
To continue to guide and teach the disciples about God .
To continue with the work of Jesus witnesses
To speak on behalf of God the Father i.e.the messenger of God.
To make the world aware of the righteousness of Christ.
To make the world aware of the overthrow of the devil.
To work as wise counselor.

Any 9 points @1mk= 9mks

How the power of the holy spirit works in independent churches.

– Their evangelists are inspired by the Holy Spirit to preach.

– Their evangelists preach with power, courage and boldness.

The Holy Spirit leads them to predict /prophecy) certain future events.
They cast out demons by the power of the holy spirit / in Jesus name
It leads members to publicly repent their sins/ask for forgiveness
It guides them to make right decisions.
They are led to speak in tongues
Leads them to dedicate themselves to Gods work e.g evangelism.
The Holy Spirit helps them to overcome temptations.
It gives them love, joy/happiness/mutual understanding.
It helps them pray for the sick/heal the sick /perform miracles.
It assists them in interpreting the tongues.

Any 8 ponits @ 2mks = 16 mks

Q 2. a) The call of Abraham.

It was through a dream / vision/an inner voice
God told him to leave his home/familiar land/haran to unknown land/Canaan.
He obeyed /trusted God
He was 75 years /an old man
On the way he set up two alters at Shechem and Bethel

Any 4 pts 2@ = 8mks

The significance of Abraham`s call

Abraham would be the founder /father of a great nation.
Abraham would be blessed
Abraham would be a blessing to others
Abraham’s name would be great
His descendants would be given a land of Canaan
His own son by Sara would inherit his property
Their names were changed to Abraham and Sara from Abram and Sarai
Circumcision was to serve as a sign of covenant between God and Abraham.

Any 6 pts 2mks @ = 12mks

Meaning of circumcision to Abraham’s descendants.

A sign of covenant with God
A bound of relationship as the people of God
The initiates are joined to God
The initiates are joined to ancestors (Abraham’s)
A mark to identify Abraham’s people.
It was compulsory. Any 5pts @ 1mk = 1×5 = 5mks.

Q.3 a) Activities which took place on the day of the Pentecost .

The disciples gathered together in Jerusalem.
They prayed
A sound came from heaven and filled the room like a rush of a mighty wind
Tongues like of fire appeared and touched them
They were filled with the power of the holy spirit
They (the disciples) talked in foreign languages / tongues,.
The on lookers were amazed
Those who observed them said they were drunk
Peter stood and explained the case of the disciples as being the work of the holy spirit
Peter told the Jews around that the lord they rejected and crucified had filled them.
People asked Peter what to do
Peter told the people to repent and be baptised
On that day 3000 people joined the Christian church

Any 12 pts @ 1mk = 12mks.

b) Teaching of Jesus on the cost of discipleship.

One must self deny himself/take up the cross and follow Christ/accept suffering

(Mark 8: 34-38)

One must be totally committed to Christ /his work/preaching/teaching the word of God / No turning back (Luke 9: 57 – 62)
One must cost to persevere (Luke 14 :25-33)
One must renounce all that one has in order to follow Christ and be a disciple (LK 18:18-30)
One must deny all in order to follow Christ e.g hate brothers/ Mothers/ Sister/ Wife for Christ’s Any 4 pts 2 mks = 8mks.

c) Significance of suffering to a Christian today.

To emulate Christ’s sufferings
It leads to eternal life
It brings redemption
It trains one to endure / prepare for hard times/ persecutions
It is a sign of true commitment Christ / God creator
It manifests Gods glory
It acts as a test of ones faith
It act as a test of ones faith
It strengthens a Christians faith.

Any 5 pts 1mk @ = 5mks

Q4. Factors that have affected the traditional African responsibilities to God, Spirits and ancestors.

Money economy i.e success depends on money / wealth
Science and technology ie relying on interpretation of catastrophes and epidemics etc
Witchcraft
Worship of power
Christianity and its teachings
Western cultures
Western education
Fame /heroship
Competition among people in all fields i.e business.

Any 7 pts @ 2mks = 14mks.

b) Problems contemporary parents encounter in guiding and counseling their children

Influence of modern education
Different religions / religious denominations and traditions.
Lack of forums for parents and their children for teaching traditional values.
The school systems
Pluralism exposure to other cultures/ lifestyles
Differences in traditional and Christian teachings.
Ignorance of some parents differences of beliefs/ traditions of educators.
Intermarriages
Freedom of worship in the country
Influence of mass media
Money economy and salaried employment
Urbanization
Changing roles in leadership patterns
Communication barriers between the youth and parents.

Any 11 pts @ 1mk = 11mks.

Q5. Why Josiah`s reforms were necessary.

They were aimed at bringing Israelites back to the worship of Yahweh.
The found scroll by the high priest had laws of God which had been forgotten
King Josiah in examining the scroll discovered that Mosaic law /the covenant way of life long forgotten were very important to the people of Israel.
The teaching in the scroll was new to the king made him troubled and he had to improve the situation.
God was bringing back his people to the covenant way of life.

Any 4 pts @ 2mks = 8mks

How the reforms were carried out.

He searched for a prophet for guidance
Josiah commanded all the people of Jerusalem to come to the Temple
Prophetess had prophesied doom for those who had turned away from the covenant way of life/ Gods mercy for the repentant
Josiah read to the people all the words of the book of the covenant.
He performed a ceremony of the renewal of the covenant on behalf of the people.
The people and the king pledged themselves publicly to walk after the Lord/ keep God`s commandments
The king ordered for the cleansing of the temple/ Jerusalem/ all places
The king destroyed all high places Canaanite gods/idols were worshiped.
He burnt all objects for the worship of baals /Ashesah
He executed the pagan priests
He drove wizard /evil doors out of Jerusalem into hiding
He pulled down places where Temple prostitution was carried out.

Any 6 pts @ 2mks = 12mks.

The results of the reforms

The reforms did not change the heart of the people
The people did not understand the words of the reforms/laws
However, they stopped worship of caanite gods in public
The old evils of Israel were immediately revived
There had been no return to the covenant way of life

Any 5pts @ 1mk = 5mks

Q6. a) How a persons work is another s leisure activity

Playing a game like football
Reading a novel/magazines compared to reading for examinations.
Fishing / shamba work
Eating / drinking to satisfy hunger/ thirst and going for dinner/ wedding parties
Sleeping as a body function and sleeping after lunch

Any 5 pts @ 2mks = 10mks

Ways in which an employer can motivate his employees

By incorporating them as partners in business/ allowing them to buy shares.
Sharing profits with them
Appreciating their work
By setting good example / being respectful/hardworking/punctuate
Practice of charity /good will
By paying terminal benefits
Allow employees leave/ rest with their families
Allow them time for entertainment’s/ leisure /worship etc
Treating the employed humanly

Any 7 pts @ 1mk = 7mks

Reasons why it is important for a worker to be allowed to have a rest.

To worship/ fellowship/ counseling /preaching.
For family union
To socialise with others in activities such as harambees.
For cultural development eg dances
For personal development e.g reading /farming.
For hobby activities
To attend celebrations e.g. Moi Day
To travel
To regain lost energy
To explore nature appreciate Gods work
To improve on ones talents
To allow one to meditate over ones problems/short comings

Any 6 pts @ 1mk = 8mks

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. V

PART I

Give five advantages of polygamous marriages in Traditional African Society. (5mks)
State five revelations of the angel about Jesus during his birth annunciation. (5mks)
State five factors that lead people to sin today. (5mks)
State five occasions when God protected and guided Moses before and during the exodus. (5mks)
State five reasons why Jesus used parables in this teachings. (5mks)
State five advantages of translating of the Bible into African languages (5mks)
Identify five rights of an employee. (5mks)
State five ways through which a Christian can use wealth to serve God. (5mks)
State five significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians (5mks)
State five roles of a citizen to the state. (5mks)
State five importance of suffering to a Christian today. (5mks)
Mention five costs of discipleship.
List five importance of circumcision in African traditional society. (5mks)
State five problems which face those who are self employed in Kenya today. (5mks)
State five consequences of separation in a family. (5mks)
Give five symbols used to express unity of believers in the New Testament. (5mks)
Name five forms of modern leisure. (5mks)
Give five obstacles to complete church unity in Kenya. (5mks)
Give five factors which a Christian seeking a vocation will consider. (5mks)
State five reasons why some people in the society abstain from marriage. (5mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. V

PART I

MARKING SCHEME

Advantages of polygamous marriages in T.A.S.
– Many children were considered as wealth.
– Polygamy was a show of wealth.
– Many children provided abundant labour
– It acted as a marriage security to a husband e.g death of one of the women.
– It guaranteed family existence and continuity.
– Children acted as a source of security to the family. (5marks)
The angels revelation about Jesus during his birth annunciation:
– That Jesus will be great.
–     Jesus will be called the son of the most high God.
–     God will make Jesus a king as his ancestor David.
–     The kingdom of Jesse will never end.
–     His name was given as Jesus.                                                                            (5mks)
Factors which lead people to sin
– Power struggle
–     Greed/Materialism
–     Jealousy
–     Egoism
–     Lack of morals and character formation.
–     Insecurity
–     Extreme poverty                                                                                               (5mks)
Occasions when God guided and protected Moses.
– God guided Moses to elect his successor
–     When Moses was leading the Israelites in the desert. (Desert enemies )
–     When being given the ten commandments to help him guide his people.
–     During the crossing of the Red Sea.
–     When he performed miracles
–     The rescue of Moses by pharaohs daughter
–     When Moses grew up in the Egyptian palace, he escaped death after killing the Egyptian.
Reasons why Jesus used parables
– To create interest and to hold the attention of his listeners.
–     To avoid arousing the anger of his enemies
–     In order to render his listeners less capable of resisting the known truth.
–     To separate the true seekers of the kingdom of God from those who were not.
–     To raise the minds of his listeners to heavenly things from a consideration of ordinary

experiences of life.
– To present abstract and spiritual ideals in a simple way to help his heavens retain them.

Advantages of the translation of the Bible into African Languages.
– Better appreciation of the African culture which reduced suspicion.
–     Led to participation of Africans in church leadership.
–     More Africans showed interest in Education
–     More printing presses were established
–     Christianity spread faster and more Africans were able to read and write.
–     Led to greater understanding between the missionaries and Africans.                 (5mks)
Identify five rights of an employee
– Entitled to a good working conditions
–     A fair salary and reasonable workload
–     rested and time off.
–     Safety in his or her place of work and protection.
–     Entitled to promotion in a fair way.
–     To be respected as a human being.
–     Furthering his training and developing of productive skills
–     Protecting his labour interests.
Ways in which wealth can be used to serve God.
– Contributing to the poor and the less privileged in society.
– Donating church
– Building homes for the destitute.
– Sponsoring church activities
– Contributing to charitable organisations, relief. (any other relevant point.)
Significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians.
– It is the basis/foundation of Christianity
– Because Jesus resurrected we shall resurrect.
– There is life after death
– The resurrection of Christ conquers death
– It give us hope of re-union with our lost loved ones.
( Any other relevant point.)
Roles of citizens to the state.
– Abide by the state law’s (be law abiding)
–   Defend the state when called upon.
–   Reporting law breakers to the authority
–   Participating in electoral process
– Taking children to school
–   To engage in gainful activities that are beneficial to the state e.g Teaching, Treating,
Any other relevant point.
Importance of suffering to a Christian.
– It strengthens a Christians faith
– To emulate Christ’s sufferings
–   It leads to eternal life
–   It brings redemption
–   It trains ones to endure/prepares one for hard times.
–   It is a sign of true commitment to God/Christ
–   It acts as a test of one’s faith.
Costs of discipleship.
– Denying oneself/sacrificing for others
– Total commitment to Christ/work
–   Perseverance
–   Renouncing of all that one has in order to follow Christ to be a disciple.
–   Denying and forsaking earthly materials e.g brothers, mothers.
Any other relevant.

Importance of circumcision in A.T.S
– A sign of identity with a community
–   A rite of passage
–   It unites the initiates or age groups
–   Gave one a right to own property e.g land
–   It entitled one societies secrets.

Problems of self-employment.
– Financial constraints
–   Inability to identify proper market for goods produced.
–   Lack of managerial skills
–   Fearless competition from similar firms
–   Extended family commitments
–   Theft and fine risks
–   High income tax charges
Any other relevant point
Consequences of separation in the family.

– It robs the couple the opportunity to live together, develop closeness, etc and builds a meaningful

relationship.
–    Marriage ceases to serve the purpose
–    It was intended for companionship and partnership
–    It stretches man’s resources
–    It can also cause sexual strain and unfaithfulness which may lead to concubinage.
–    Physical strain eg house work duties for man and woman forced to do duties of a man.
–    Separating damages children who need to grow up seeing both parents.

Symbols used to express unity of believer in the New Testament.
– The people of God
–     The body of Christ
–     The vine and the branches
–     The church/assembly of God
–     The bride.
Forms of modern leisure.
– Worship on Sunday for normal Christians
–     Drinking
–     Going to films, theatre videos, dances
–     Playing music and games
–     Reading for leisure – story book, magazines
–     Arts, painting, knitting, curving, weaving
–     Touring, travelling and visiting places

Obstacles to complete church unity in Kenya.
– Discrimination eg tribalism/racism
–    Leadership differences ; greed for power
–     Competition among denomination
–     Interference from outside the church e.g politics being brought to the churches by politicians.

Factors to be considered by a Christian when seeking a vocation.
– Ability and talent
–     Attraction to certain kinds of work
–     The available opportunity
–     The need of the churches and the society
–     Incompatibility with his/her Christian faith.

Reasons why some people in the society abstain from marriage.
– Discouragement from failing families in the community.
–     Religious reasons ; set aside to work for God; nuns, priests.
–     Some careers do not allow people to marry eg. military women corps, etc
–     Infertility
–     Due to burdens/responsibilities at home.
–     Early pregnancies among young girls can lead to single parenthood.

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDU. V

PART II

(a) Explain the teachings of prophets Hosea and Isaiah on idolatry. (10mks)
(b) Identify and explain any five forms of idolatry that threatens Christianity today. (15mks)
(a) Discuss the contribution of the catechists in the expansion of Christianity in Kenya.        (10mks)
(b)   Why were the catechists successful in their work.                                                      (10mks)
(c)    Show how the missionaries and the government have improved education in Kenya.           (5mks)
(a) How does baptism qualify to be a covenant.                                                               (4mks)
(b)   Describe the teaching of prophet Jeremiah on the new covenant.                               (9mks)
(c)    How was the new covenant foreseen by Jeremiah, different from the Sinaic Covenant.        (12mks)
State the circumstances that allowed:-
(a) Divorce in African Traditional Society.                                                                      (12mks)
(b)   What are the consequences of divorce in modern society.                                           (8mks)
(c)    What five problems hinder family planning practices in Kenya.                                  (5mks)
(a) What lessons can a Christian learn from the feeding of the five thousand. (9mks)
(b) With reference to four incidences in the life and works of Jesus, show how Jesus tried to change

the traditional Jewish attitudes towards the poor and the despised. (8mks)

(a) Explain five purposes of law in society.                                                                     (5mks)
(b)   Explain how law and order is maintained in Kenya today.                                          (14mks)
(c)    What are the forms of punishment in Kenya today.                                                   (6mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION V

PART II

MARKING SCHEME

Teaching of prophets Hosea and Isaiah on Idolatry.
HOSEA
– Hosea condemned idolatry comparing it to prostitution/harlotry.
– He accused the Israelites for assuming that their prosperity had come from the worship of Baals.

(Hosea 2:2-13)
– Hosea’s broken relationship symbolised God’s relationship with unfaithful Israel in Idolatry.

(Hosea 1 –2)
– Hosea emphasised that the covenant law forbade yet Israel had assumed/ignored the prohibitions.
– Hosea condemned Baal worship in bull/calf forms and pronounced judgement, punishment on idol

worshippers.
– Hosea prophesised that just as Gomer was to wait to resume her marriage relationship with her

husband, Israel must be punished before she is restored to favour. (any 5 x 1 = 10mks)

(b) ISAIAH
– He held that idols are not gods, but were works of human hands, thus powerless.
– He challenged the nations to prove that their gods had been able to announce plan in history and

carry it through.
–    Isaiah ridicules idol worshippers by making fun of the idol making industry.
–     Isaiah proved that idols are powerless to save people.
–    By contrast Isaiah emphasised that there is one God alone creator of all things (Isaiah 43:10)                                                                     (Any 5 x 1 = 5mks)

(b) Modern forms of idolatry that threaten Christianity today.
–    Desire for power
–    Status
–    Desire for material things
–    Love for money
–    Love of pleasure/sex
                              ( For identification 5 x 1 = 5mks

(for explanation =5 x 1 = 10mks)

Contribution of the Catechists in the expansion of Christianity.
– Preaching in open air places
–    Had to visit houses
–    Taught Catechism
–    Travelled long distances to preach
–    Helped in church services
–    Administered sacraments
–    Acted as intermediaries between missionaries and the people.
–    Converted relatives to Christianity.
–    They acted as God fathers/mothers.
–    Administered Christian rituals.
–    Played role models for Christian lives.
–    Helped translate the Bible/helped missionaries in translating what was preached to the

congregation.
– Taught formal education to the people.
(Any 10 x 1 = 10mks)

(b) Reasons why Catechists succeeded.
– They had the initiative to lead others
– They used the African language, own language as a medium of expression
– They were well equipped with the knowledge/message
– They understood the Bible better than the other local people in their areas.
– They were aware of local customs of the people /found it easier to preach/move.
– They were strong and steadfast in their faith.
(Any 5 x 2 = 10mks)

(c) Ways in which the missionaries and government have improved Education in Kenya.
– Supervision of schools/Education
– Training of teachers
– Provincial personnel to Education trustees
– Give grants to schools/aid schools
– Setting up Education commission/review the role of education in the country.
– Setting standards e.g. uniform
– Raising the level of education by building institutes of higher learning.
– Missionaries started technical training.
(any5 x 1 = 5mks)

(a) How baptism qualify to be a covenant.
– Promises are made during baptism
– There are witnesses e.g. sponsors/congregation/clergy.
– The ritual of pouring water/immersion/sprinkling
– There are signs e.g. baptismal certificate/lit candles/wrapping in white garment/new name is given (any 4 x 1 = 4mks)

(b) Teachings of prophet Jeremiah on the new covenant.
–    The new covenant fulfilled the original play/intention of Sinaic covenant.
Gods law would be written in peoples hearts not on stones.
–    Everyone would know God in his own personal knowledge/experience.
–    It would involve all mankind(universal) covenant.
–    It would include spontaneous forgiveness of sin.
–     There will be individual responsibility and retribution.
–    The new covenant would be through the promised messiah.
–    The new covenant would be sealed by the blood of Jesus.
_    A marriage relationship between God and Israel.
(Any 9 @1mk= 9mks)

(c) How the new covenant differs from the Sinaic covenant.
New Old
– Meant for new Israel

–     Meant for old Israel
–    Given through Jesus                                                     – Given through Moses
–    Everlasting                                                                   – Was broken
–    Written in hearts                                                          – Written on stones
–    Individually punished                                                   – Communal/collective punishment
–    Sealed by the blood of Jesus

Sealed by the blood of sacrificial animal
(Any 4 well compared points 3mks = 12mks)

(a) Circumstances that allowed divorce in ATS.
– A case of a witch/wizard in one partner.
– Extreme cases of selfishness/cruelty/greed.
– Failure to pay/complete dowry.
– A case of a thief in a family of non- Thieves
– Habitual adultery/unfaithfulness.
– Incase of blood relationship.
– Where a girl had broken virginity.
– Deliberate/repeated acts of disrespect to the in-laws.

( 6 x 2 = 12mks)

(b) Consequences of divorce in modern society.
– Mental suffering to the couple/parents/children
– Hatred between the family to family/couple/children.
– Divorcees are exposed to the greater sexual temptation leading to prostitution
– Feelings of insecurity
– Poverty/economic constraints.
– Poor upbringing of children (Any 4 x 2 = 8mks)

(c) Five problems that hinder family planning practices in Kenya.
– Disagreement as the number of children a family should have.
– Those on contraceptives might resort to extra – marital relations.
– Fear of side effects that go with contraceptive.
– Poverty and ignorance of family planning methods.
– Traditional beliefs e.g. taboos against taking medicine
– Partners disagree on the methods to adopt for family planning.
(Any 5 x 1 = 5mks)

(a) Lessons Christians learn from the feeding of the 5000.
– Recall of the Old Testament prophecies about the Messianic Banquet.
–    The Messianic age had dawned/the Messiah has come/ is among them.
–    Not to be anxious about material and physical needs.
–    God cares for man physically, mentally and spiritually.
–     Christians should show concern for the needs of others
–    Jesus has power over nature
–    Jesus is the bread of life
–    Man should be willing to share what he has with others.
–    Christians should seek the imperishable food i.e. the word of God.
–    With prayer everything is possible                                 (Any 9 x 1 = 9mks)

(b) Four incidences in the life and work of Jesus in which he tried to change traditional

Jewish attitudes towards the poor and the despised.
– Associating with the poor and the despised e.g calling the fishermen and tax collectors to be his

apostles.
–    He commended the widows contribution in the Temple
–    He ate with sinners e.g. Zachaus, Simon the Pharisee, Sinful woman, and ate in Levi’s house.
–    He associated with the Gentiles
–    Use of parables in favour of the poor and despised e.g. the good Samaritan.
–    He touched and healed the lepers, blind, etc.
– Giving women prominent positions e.g. Mary and Martha.
(Any 6 x 1 = 6mks)

(c)        Importance of Jesus miracles
– His miracles revealed his divine power over diseases and nature
–   Miracles showed Jesus love/compassion/pity
–   They depicted Jesus as caring shepherd
– They revealed Jesus understanding of human weakness.
– They proved Jesus was the son of God.
–   They manifested that the kingdom of God was present in Jesus
–   They showed that Jesus had power over evil work e.g cure of the demoniac.
(Any 5 x 2 = 10mks)

(a) Purposes of law in Society.
– Meant to direct/guide human behaviour
– Regulate people’s regulations/limits for those in power
–     Meant to maintain order and harmony in society.
–     Law protects individuals property/lives
–     Assist persons to have right attitudes towards God/fellowman i.e Ten commandments.
(Any other relevant point 5 x 1 = 5mks)

     (b)   How Law and order is maintained in Kenya.
–      Courts administer justice to protect the offended.
–      Fear of God (supreme) makes people orderly
–      Customary/Islamic laws govern issues related to marriages/Land inheritance, etc.
–      The youth are instructed on the social norms.
–      Offenders are punished to teach them respect for the law.
–      People today still fear curses/wrath of ancestors.
–      Rites of passages/kinship system is still upheld hence regulate human behaviour.
–      Oaths are still administered to unveil prove unknown truth to maintain justice.
(Any other relevant point 7 x 2 = 14mks)
(c)   Forms of punishment.
–      Fines
–      Punishment e.g exile
–      Mob Justice/beatings
–      Detention
–      Imprisonment
–      Canning/strokes                                                            (Any 6 x 1 = 6mks)

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION VI

PART I

Give five characteristics which are important in making a covenant. 5mks
Give five reasons why Hebrews left Egypt 5mks
List five aims of Evangelical revival 5mks
State any five reasons why Mutesa persecuted Christians 5mks
Outline any five factors which led to the rise of independent churches 5mks
State five major divisions of the Old Testament Books 5mks
State five attributes of God as shown in the traditional African community 5mks
What lessons can Christians learn from the parable of the Good Samaritan 5mks
Mention five characteristics of God in the prophecy of Micah 5mks
Mention five causes of death in African Traditional society 5mks
Mention five things Christians can learn from God from the call of prophet Isaiah 5mks
State five areas of conflict between the youth and the church 5mks
Mention any five common ideas in African creation myths 5mks
Mention any five causes of disunity in the church today 5mks
Outline five ways through which Jesus showed responsibility for others 5mks

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION VI

PART II

a) Outline the meaning of the visions of prophet Amos in relation to his message to the people of

Israel. 10mks

b) Explain why prophet Jeremiah is regarded as a suffering prophet 5mks
c) Show how John the Baptist served as a link between the Old Testament and the New Testament.

5mks

d) Identify the titles used by prophet Isaiah to describe the Messiah 5mks
a) Explain five sources of conflict in the Corinthian church 10mks
b) What was Paul’s suggestion towards solving the Corinthian conflicts in the church 15mks
a) Describe how God punished people in the Traditional African community 5mks
b) What were the reasons for those punishments 5mks
c) What are the causes of war today 7mks
d) How can a Christian leader prevent war today 8mks
a) What type of people were prophets sent to in Israel 5mks
b) What sins had they committed 2mks
c) Explain the similarities between the Jewish and traditional African prophets 8mks
a) Explain the holy spirit’s contribution in the growth of Christianity during the apostolic age 7mks
b) What part did the Africans play in the growth of the church in Kenya 8mks
c) In what ways does the church continue God’s saving work today 10mks

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION VI

PART I

MARKING SCHEME.

1.Characteristics in making a covenant.

Promise / responsibilities / obligations
Ritual / ceremony
Signs / symbols
Shedding of blood from animals/ self
Exchange of property (any other relevant point. any 5pts x 1 = 5mks)

Reasons why Hebrews left Egypt.

The new pharaoh did not know the good deeds of Joseph
The Hebrews grew powerful/ influential / threatened Egyptians
Increased number of Hebrews posed a threat to Egypt
Egyptian subjected Hebrews to forced labour / enslaved them/ killed their baby boys
Increased oppression of the Hebrews by the Egyptians
God heard Hebrew prayers / cry for help
God sent Moses to rescue them from bondage
God had promised it to Abraham their ancestor

Any 5pts x 1 = 5mks

Five aims of evangelical revival

Spreading the gospel / word of God / the Kingdom of God
Spiritual renewal of the Christians church
Concern for abolition of slavery / help stop slavery
To spread western culture
Concern for the suffering poor / poverty.

Any 5pts x 1 = 5mks

Five reasons why Mutesa persecuted Christians.

Suspicion of Europeans / their followers
Problems with pages/ insubordination / refusal to obey him
Influence of traditionalists in his court
Fear of foreign interference
Misadvise by different religious leaders
Christians refused to comply with his demand
Christians critiscised his evil ways
Christianity increased popularity threatened him

Any 5pts x 1 = 5mks

Factors that led to the rise of independent churches.

Need to incorporate African beliefs and practices
The Africans rebelled against the missionary feelings that Africans were children who needed guidance.
Desire for church leadership
African dissatisfaction with use of funds collected for the church
Disagreement over use and interpretation of the Bible
Some of the churches had political motivation

Any 5pts x 1 = 5mks

Five major divisions of the Old Testament books

Law Books
Lamentations
Songs and Hymns
Historical books
Prophecy and Prophets

Any 5pts x 1 = 5mks

Five Bible versions used in Kenya today.

New English version
American version
Revised standard version
King James version
International English version.

Five characteristics of God in the prophecy of Micah.

God of judgement
God is righteous
God is just
God is faithful
God is loving
God is forgiving. Any 5 x 1 = 5mks

Causes of death in African traditional society.

Neglect of a person by relatives
Curse
Poisoned food
Breach of taboos
Neglect of ancestors
Disrespect of elders and parent customs / neglect of communal responsibilities.
Lack of reverence of God
Failure to respect communal shrines
Witchcraft / sorcery / magic
Old age. Any 5 x 1 = 5mks

What Christians learn from the call of prophet Isaiah.

That God is powerful / able God
That God is holy / require holiness
God is just
God is considerate / concerned / merciful / loving
God is divine / pure
God condemns pride / social injustices / oppression/ corruption from religious leaders
That mans life depends on God

Any 5 x 1 = 5mks

Areas of conflict between the youth and the church

Modern education gives the youth values which conflict with those of the church e.g man and universe
Different interpretations of the use of leisure e.g dancing, watching movies
The churches pre-occupation with the other worldliness at the expense of youths immediate needs
The youth is quick in accepting new ideas
Questioning of the church’s authority by the youth

Any other relevant point.any 5 x 1 = 5mks

Common ideas in African creation myths.

God is the creator of the universe
God is the creator of man
Man was created in order to complete God’s plan
Man was created with a mate
The creation of man came after most things had been made
Creation did not stop completely in the distant past but continues.

Any other relevant point 5 x 2 = 5mks

Causes of disunity in the church today.

Moral degeneration within the church
Lack of charity among Christians
Love of money and dishonest use of church collections / greed / unfaithfulness.

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Grade 9 Latest Term 1 CBC Schemes of Work

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Download unlimited Free Grade 9 Latest Term 1 CBC Schemes of Work here:

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Grade 7 Computer Sciences Free CBC Schemes of Work {Updated Version)

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2023 GRADE 7 LONGHORN COMPUTER SCIENCESCHEMES OF WORK TERM 3

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Grade 7 Computer science Curriculum Design

Longhorn Computer Science Grade 7 (Teachers Guide and Learners Book)

NAME OF THE TEACHER SCHOOL YEAR TERM III

Wk	LSN	strand	Sub-strand	Specific Learning Outcomes	Key Inquiry Question(s)	Learning Experiences	Learning Resources	Assessment Methods	Ref
1	1	COMPUTER NETWORKS	Internet concepts Internet as a resource that runs on a global network of computers	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. describe the internet as a resource that runs on a global network of computers b. explain benefits of internet in the immediate environment Skill c. use IT devices to access the internet Attitude d. appreciate the use of internet as a computer network resource.	1. Why do you use internet? 2. How do you connect to internet?	The learner is guided to: • search for the meaning of the term internet and present to peers, • debate on the benefits and challenges of the internet,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 183-187 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 141-143	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Challenges of the internet	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. explain challenges of internet in the immediate environment b. explore ways of overcoming challenges of internet in the immediate environment. Skill c. assess the internet connectivity in a nearby locality or school. Attitude d. appreciate the use of internet as a computer network resource.	1. Why do you use internet? 2. How do you connect to internet?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, discuss ways of overcoming challenges of the internet in the immediate environment,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 187-189 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 144-147	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Basic requirements for internet connectivity	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. identify basic requirements for internet connectivity Skill b. observe pictures of the basic requirements for connecting to the internet. Attitude c. appreciate the use of internet as a computer network resource.	1. Why do you use internet? 2. How do you connect to internet?	The learner is guided to: • discuss the basic requirements for internet connectivity (Internet *Service Provider (ISP)*, Internet software, communication media, communication device),	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 189 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 148-149	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
2	1		Connecting to the internet and using it	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. identify the basic requirements for internet connectivity. Skill b. connect to the internet to search for a topical issue. Attitude c. appreciate the use of internet as a computer network resource.	1. Why do you use internet? 2. How do you connect to internet?	The learner is guided to: • share experiences on interaction with the internet and list the services available, • in turns select service available in the internet and use it to search for a relevant topical issue, • use the internet to search for a topical issue.	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 190-191 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 150	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		World Wide Web (WWW) Importance of World wide web	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. explain the importance of WWW as used in computer networks Skill b. make posters on WWW. Attitude c. appreciate the use of WWW as a repository of information.	1. How do you access internet resources? 2. Why do you use a web browser?	The learner is guided to: • use available learning resources to search for the meaning of the terms World Wide Web (WWW), web browsers, uniform resource locator (URL), • in turns discuss examples of web browsers (explorer, Firefox, Chrome, Netscape, Opera, Safari)	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 192-195 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 151	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Features of a web browser	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. identify the features of a web browser Skill b. Using IT devices locate the features of a web browser on the screen. Attitude c. appreciate the use of WWW as a repository of information.	1. How do you access internet resources? 2. Why do you use a web browser?	The learner is guided to: • launch and navigate a web browser to identify its features,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 195-196 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 152-153	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
3	1		Components of Uniform Resource Locator	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. name the components of a URL Skill b. describe the components of a uniform resource locator (URL) used to access resources in the internet. Attitude c. appreciate the use of WWW as a repository of information.	1. How do you access internet resources? 2. Why do you use a web browser?	The learner is guided to: • take turns to write URL format: protocol://hostname/other information • participate in giving examples of URL • type a web resource Uniform Resource Locator (URL), and discuss its components,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 196-197 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 154-155	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Components of Uniform Resource Locator	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. name the components of a URL Skill b. describe the components of a uniform resource locator (URL) used to access resources in the internet. Attitude c. appreciate the use of WWW as a repository of information.	1. How do you access internet resources? 2. Why do you use a web browser?	The learner is guided to: • take turns to write URL format: protocol://hostname/other information • participate in giving examples of URL • type a web resource Uniform Resource Locator (URL), and discuss its components,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 196-197 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 154-155	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Locating resources in the WWW using a web browser	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. list the different types of web browsers. Skill b. use a web browser to locate resources in the WWW Attitude c. appreciate the use of WWW as a repository of information.	1. How do you access internet resources? 2. Why do you use a web browser?	The learner is guided to: • take turns to demonstrate how web browsers work, • practice using a web browser to locate relevant internet resources.	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 197-198 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 156	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
4	1	COMPUTER PROGRAMMING	Computer programming concepts Meaning of program and computer programming	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. define the terms program and computer programming b. explain the importance of programming as used in computing Skill c. using IT devices locate a computer program Attitude d. appreciate using computer programs in performing daily life activities.	1. Why do computers have programs? 2. How do you use computer programs?	The learner is guided to: • use available learning resources to search for the meaning of the term programming and programs, • in groups discuss the importance of computer programs,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 199-202 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 157-159	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Application areas of computer programs	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. identify areas where computer programs are used in daily life. Skill b. Group computer applications according to functions. Attitude c. appreciate using computer programs in performing daily life activities.		The learner is guided to: • take turns to discuss areas where computer programs are used in daily life and list them, • share ideas on the use of programming in daily life activities,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 203 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 160-161	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Launching and interacting with computer programs	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. list the different types of computer programmes. Skill b. launch and interact with a computer program for awareness. Attitude c. appreciate using computer programs in performing daily life activities.		The learner is guided to: • share experience on performing daily life activities (playing computer games, listening to music, performing mathematical operations, drawing objects, type text) using available computer programs accessories. • in groups, start and interact with a computer program accessory such as, a computer game, calculator, paint, snipping tool, media player and note notepad, accessories.	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 204-206 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 162-164	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
5	1		Visual programming concepts Types of visual programming applications	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. identify types of visual programming applications for use Skill b. demonstrate knowledge in visual programming. Attitude c. appreciate navigating a visual programming application interface.	1. Why do you use visual? programming applications? 2. How do you launch visual programming application?	The learner is guided to: • use available resources to search for the meaning of the term visual programming, • discuss and list examples of visual programming applications used in computer programming, • in groups discuss the procedure of launching a visual programming application,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 207-210 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 165	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Launching a visual programming application	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. explain the procedure of launching a visual programming application Skill b. launch a visual programming application in a computer. Attitude c. appreciate navigating a visual programming application interface.	1. Why do you use visual? programming applications? 2. How do you launch visual programming application?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, launch a visual programming application such as Microsoft Make Code, Scratch, Code.org, Sprite box, • share experiences on navigating the visual programming application interface with peers. • consult a computer resource person to demonstrate how to launch visual programming applications used in computer programming,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 210-211 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 166-167	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Launching a visual programming application	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. explain the procedure of launching a visual programming application Skill b. launch a visual programming application in a computer. Attitude c. appreciate navigating a visual programming application interface.	1. Why do you use visual? programming applications? 2. How do you launch visual programming application?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, launch a visual programming application such as Microsoft Make Code, Scratch, Code.org, Sprite box, • share experiences on navigating the visual programming application interface with peers. • consult a computer resource person to demonstrate how to launch visual programming applications used in computer programming,	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 210-211 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 166-167	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
6	1		Visual programming features Features of scratch	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. explore features of a visual programming application. Skill b. match the functions of the features of visual programming application to their functions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in groups discuss the features of a visual programming application • match the functions of the features of a visual programming application to their functions	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 212-215 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 168	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Features of scratch	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. explore features of a visual programming application. Skill b. match the functions of the features of visual programming application to their functions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in groups discuss the features of a visual programming application • match the functions of the features of a visual programming application to their functions	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 212-215 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 168	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Functions of the features of scratch	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. relate the features of a visual programming application to their function Skill b. match the functions of the features of visual programming application to their functions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • discuss the functions of the features of a visual programming application	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 215 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 169	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
7	1		Functions of the features of scratch	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. relate the features of a visual programming application to their function Skill b. match the functions of the features of visual programming application to their functions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • discuss the functions of the features of a visual programming application	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 215 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 169	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Terminologies used in visual programming applications	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. describe terminologies used in a visual programming application Skill b. demonstrate the use of Visual programming terms. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in turns discuss and demonstrate the use of visual programming terms (reserved words, syntax, variables, input output statements, control structures, variable declarations).	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 216 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 172-175	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Using scratch to create a sequence of instructions	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. name the features of the scratch program. Skill b. use the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, create a sequence of actions using the features of a visual programming application (animations, sound) • share experience on the use of the features of a visual programming application	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 218-220 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 176-179	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
8	1		Using scratch to create a sequence of instructions	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. name the features of the scratch program. Skill b. use the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, create a sequence of actions using the features of a visual programming application (animations, sound) • share experience on the use of the features of a visual programming application	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 218-220 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 176-179	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	2		Using scratch to create a sequence of instructions	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. name the features of the scratch program. Skill b. use the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, create a sequence of actions using the features of a visual programming application (animations, sound) • share experience on the use of the features of a visual programming application	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 218-220 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 176-179	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
	3		Using scratch to create a sequence of instructions	By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: Knowledge a. name the features of the scratch program. Skill b. use the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions. Attitude c. appreciate the application of the features of a visual programming application to create a sequence of instructions	1. Why is visual programming popular in introducing computer programming?2. How do you use visual programming application features?	The learner is guided to: • in groups, create a sequence of actions using the features of a visual programming application (animations, sound) • share experience on the use of the features of a visual programming application	Digital devices, reference materials, productivity tools, compute software (OS, Utility software and Application programs), computer hardware, manila papers, Internet, video, audio clips Longhorn Comp. Scie T.G Pg. 218-220 Longhorn Comp. Scie P.B Pg. 176-179	Rating scales, rubrics, questionnaires, projects, journals, portfolios, oral questions, aural questions
9	END YEAR ASSESSMENT/CLOSING

Teachers' Resources

FORM COMPUTER STUDIES END TERM EXAMS

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

COMPUTER STUDIES MARKING SCHEME

END TERM FORM TWO

SECTION A

Name three major components of a computer system. (3 marks)

Computer Hardware
Computer Software
Computer Liveware

John saw the following symbols at the back of his system unit. What do the symbols represent?

A Universal Serial Bus Port
B PS/2 Mouse port

List down any four advantages of using computers as tools of problem solving. (2 marks)

Computers are accurate
Computers are fast in processing information
Computers can store a lot of data and information
Computers do not get tired or bored even when required to repeat a task over and over again.

Since the invention of the first generation of digital computers, much advancement has been realized in the sector of information and technology. Explain two characteristics which have been improved from the first generation to the modern computers. (4 marks)

Size: Computers are becoming smaller and smaller since they involve Very Large Scale Integration of electronic components leading to the introduction of very small computers like palmtops, notebooks and laptops.
Speed: Computers are becoming faster in processing of data due invention of very high speed processors.
Storage Capacity: This has been increased. Initial devices could only store several kilobytes and they took long to store and retrieve data.
Energy consumption and heat emission: The modern computers consume little energy and emit little heat.

(a) Name two ways of classifying computer software.

According to purpose.
According to method of acquisition. (2×1 marks)

(b) Outline any two functions of operating system software.

Resource control
Memory management
Job scheduling & sequencing
Interrupt handling
Input/Output handling
Error handling
Communication control and management (2×1 marks)

Give two ways of classifying operating systems. (2 Marks)

By their Interface
By the number of tasks they can handle at the same time
By the number of users

a)What are toggle keys (1 mark)

These are keys that are used to turn a function on and off or switch between two functions.

b) Give two examples of toggle keys. (1 mark)

Caps Lock key
Number lock key
Scroll lock key
Insert key

a) What is a computer virus? (1 Mark)

A malicious program designed to cause malfunctioning in a computer system

b) Give two names of common computer viruses. (2 Marks)

Worms
Boot sector viruses
Trojans
Back doors
File viruses

c) State two security measures which should be observed to safeguard data against computer viruses. (2 Marks)

Scanning all removable storage devices before using them using antivirus programs
Scanning all internet downloads using antivirus programs
Not accepting foreign removable storage media in an organization

Name two special purpose memories found either found inside or outside the microprocessor hence explain what each of them does.. (2 marks)

Cache Memory: Cache Memory is a special group of fast memory chips located inside or close to the CPU chip to speed up processing.
Buffers: Temporary holding places built in some input and output devices so as to relieve the CPU some burden of storing all the data during processing.
Registers: Temporary holding locations within the CPU that are used to store instructions and pieces of data being processed by the CPU

Describe three facilities or ways of ensuring proper ventilation in a computer laboratory. (3 Marks)

Large & enough windows and doors
Installing fans
Installing air conditioning system
Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room

Computers can store data using three ways namely electronically, magnetically and optically. Give two examples of storage devices in each method: (3 marks)

(i) Electronically

Flash drives – memory cards – memory sticks

(ii) Magnetically

Floppy diskette, hard disk, magnetic tapes, magnetic stripe cards

(iii) Optically

Digital Versatile Disks, Compact Disks, Optical tapes

(a) Define the term firmware. (1 mark)

Refers to a class of system software programs that are permanently stored (burnt into) in Read Only Memories (ROMs) of various devices.

(b) Describe any two examples of utility programs. (2 marks)

Diagnostic Programs: which deal primarily with diagnosing and repairing disk-related problems, such as recovering damaged or erased files, repairing damaged directories, and recovering from a disk crash.
Backup Utilities: Programs designed to back up the contents of a hard drive, commonly into a removable storage device.
Uninstall Utilities: Used to remove programs that are no longer needed from the hard drive.
Disk Defragmentation Programs: Also called disk optimizers –rearrange data and programs on the hard drive so that they can be accessed faster.
File Compression Programs: Which enable files to be stored in a smaller amount of storage space.
Antivirus Programs: Protect your system from virus attack.
Performance Monitors: Tell you how efficiently your computer system is performing its work.

List down two uses of UPSs in a computer laboratory. (2 marks)

Regulating voltage entering into computing devices
Storing energy for use by devices in case of power failure
Notify the user in case of power failure.

Describe the two methods of computer booting. (2 marks)

Hard Booting/Cold Booting: This is the process of starting of the computer which was initially off.
Soft Booting/Warm Booting: This is the process of restarting a computer which was initially on.

Explain the difference between a hibernating and a sleeping computer. (2 marks)

Hibernating computer: This is a computer which has been shut down whereby the final previous state is stored so that it is recalled when the computer is booted in another session.
Sleeping computer: This is a computer which is on but is in its stand-by mode/a computer which is on but has entered into its power-saving mode

Thesaurus – used to find synonyms, autonyms or related word

Spelling –checking for such common typing mistake as repeated words, irregular capitalization, sentence structure such as very long sentence.

Drop caps
italicizing

bolding

columns

(a) Describe five features available in most word processing applications. (5 marks)

They allow the user to create a file, save it, and retrieve (recover/open) it when required for reuse, printing, editing or formatting.
Has Text- editing features, such as: –
Copy & Paste, which allows a marked block of text to be moved to another part of the document.
Find, which allows the user to search for words or phrases within the document.
Search & Replace, which allows replacement of every occurrence of a certain combination of characters with another set of characters.

Undo, which allows actions that have been performed to be reversed, such that if some text was accidentally deleted, then the action can be undone.
Contains Text and Page formatting features such as: –
Justification of text, which could be Left, Right, Centre, or Full.
Indents and use of Tabs for text alignment.
Page Numbering.
Insert of page Headers and Footers.
Has different Fonts (lettering/typescripts), Character sizes & Styles such as Bold, Italic, Underline, etc.
Enables Printing of documents: single or multiple copies, full or part of a document.
Enables creation of Tables, which can be used to perform certain calculations & sorting on a given text.
Has an inbuilt dictionary.
Contains Tools such as Spelling and grammar checkers, Bookmarks & Thesaurus (which provides alternative words – synonyms).
Typing errors can be corrected and the text modified before printing the final version.
Enables the use of document templates, which can be used to quickly create the most frequently used documents once the format has been set.
Allows Mail merging, which makes it possible to combine several letters.
This is very useful when similar letters has to be sent to several people. The names and addresses of each person can be merged with one single standard document and printed out.
Enables creation of Newspaper layouts, which can be used for manipulation of Column text.
Has the ability to add graphics within documents.
Allows creation of Footnotes and Endnotes.
Provides file protection using Passwords.
Contain Macros, which can be used to automate the most frequent & repetitive tasks.
Have the ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs.
All Word processors have similar document windows with the following features:
They are designed to look like a piece of paper with a few electronic improvements.
The screen is blank before typing of text.
There is a Cursor, which blinks at the position where you can begin entering text.
There is a Status bar that provides the user with information about current status such as saving operation, the name of the file in use, the current page, and column cursor position.
Word wrap: A facility/feature that automatically moves a word or cursor to the beginning of the next line if there is insufficient room at the end of the current line.
Scrolling: This is the vertical movement of text document on the screen, either using the Up or Down arrow keys, Page Up or Page Down keys, or using the Mouse in Windows based word processors.
Help: Contains instructions, tips, pointers, explanations and guidance on how to use an application.
Editing modes: Word processors have two editing modes; Insert mode and Type over mode.
In Insert mode, every character typed between words, lines or characters is placed at the cursor position. This pushes all the text in front of the cursor away without deleting it.
In Type over mode, every character typed deletes what was there before and replaces it with new text at the cursor position.

(b) Explain the following terms as used in word processing: (3 marks)

(i) Word wrap

This is the automatic movement of the cursor/typing bar to the beginning of the next line when the boundary on the right side is reached/if the text cannot fit on the current line.

(ii) insert mode

A mode which allows the user to insert missing text in a document while the other text after the cursor is pushed away so as to create space.

(iii) Type over mode

A mode which allows the user to replace existing characters with the newly typed characters.

This is a combination of characters which form a code to prevent other users from opening one’s document.

(d) Outline five formats that can be applied to a paragraph in a word processing document. (5mks)

Text alignment: This refers to text positioning within a text area/text margins. It includes, Left alignment, Right alignment, Centre alignment and Justified text.
Indentation: This refers to moving text away from text margins. It includes: First line indent, hanging indent, full indent and right indent.
Setting tabs or tab stops: These are marks which one can set on the document when organizing text in columnar format. Tab stops include: Left tab, Centre tab, Decimal tab, Right tab, and bar tab.
Drop Cap: This refers to a large initial character of a paragraph which appears lowered a number of lines in the paragraph. Drop caps include: Dropped and In Margin drop caps.
Line spacing: This refers to the spaces left between the lines of a paragraph e.g. Double, Single, Multiple etc.
Space before and after a paragraph: Space before paragraph refers to an empty space which can be set above a paragraph. Space after paragraph refers to an empty space which can be set below a paragraph.
Bullets and numbering: Bullets refer to symbols which one can apply to enumerate paragraphs in form of points using symbols at the beginning of each point (e.g. ●, ♦, ♥, ♣). Numbering refer to numbers used to enumerate paragraph inform of points. Numbers can be Numeric, Roman numbers and Alphabetical letters

e) State the function of the following keyboard short cut keys (3Marks)
CTRL+S…………………………………………………………………………………………….. SAVE
CTRL+V………………………………………………………………………………………….. PASTE

CTRL+X……………………………………………………………………………………………… CUT

CTRL+F……………………………………..……………………………………………………… FIND
ALT+F4……………………………………………………………………………………………. EXIT
CTRL+H…………………………………………………………………………………….. REPLACE
a) i) Give one advantage of using GUI over command Line Interface(1 mark)

It supports picture, sound and motion pictures
It is easier to use because one does not necessarily need to learn and remember the command

ii) Some computer systems still use command line interfaces. State TWO advantages of command line interface. (2 marks)

If the user knows the correct commands, then the interface is much faster than any other interface.
This type of interface needs much less memory (RAM) compared to other interfaces
This type of interface does not use much CPU processing time as others
A low resolution, cheaper monitor can be used with this type of interface
A CLI does not require widows to run

b) i) List four devices that are needed in order to listen to music from a computer system. (2 marks)

Sound card
Audio video player programme
Speakers
DVD/CD drive
VGA monitor

ii) What is LED in reference to softcopy output devices? (2 marks)

A Light Emitting Diodes is a small low powered device that is programmed to emit light when a current flows through it.

c) i) Outline THREE precautions one should take when assembling a computer. (3 marks)

Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work with them
Do not work on any peripheral devices without the guidance of a teacher
Never work alone because you may need help in case of an emergency
Discharge any static electricity that might have built upon the hand by touching an earthed metallic object and then wearing an anti-static wrist member. This is because human beings can hold as much as 200 volts of static charge that can damage sensitive components on the motherboard.

ii) Give the THREE components of a good warranty (3 marks)

Scope of cover e.g. six months, one year e.t.c.
Callout response and liability agreement. For example how long should the supplier take to repair a fault or to replace the product and if he delays who bears the cost.
Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service, at intervals etc.

d) Distinguish between serial and parallel communication ports of a computer. (2 marks)

Serial ports transmit information one bit at a time while parallel transmit information simultaneously.

a) Mr. Matano is a teacher at Kamangu High School and wishes to use MS-Excel to process the marks obtained by his students during the term. The table below shows the details entered in the Ms-Excel worksheet.

i) Write a logical function that display PASSED when the total marks is greater than 70% marks otherwise display FAIL. (3mks)

=IF (G2>70,”PASSED”,”FAIL”)

ii) Write a function that RANKs the students according to their total performance. (5mks)

=RANK (G2, $G$2: $G$7, 0)

iii) Write a function that displays the GRADE in column H based on total performance, using the following grading system: (5mks)

80..100 – A

60..79 – B

40..59 – C

0..39 – E

=IF(G2>=80,”A”, IF(G2>=60,”A”, IF(G2>=40,”A”,”E”)))

iv) The formula =COUNTIF (F2:F7,”>=50”) was entered at cell F9. Write down the value that was (2mks)

v) Write down the formula that would be entered at cell C9 to sum the values in column C whose values are greater or equal to 10. (3mks)

=SUMIF (C2:C7,”>=10”)

Teachers' Resources

Biology Paper 1 Exams and Marking Schemes Kassu Jet Exams

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Name………………………………………………… adm no. ……………class…….

School …………………………………………………

231/1

BIOLOGY

PAPER 1

Time: 2 HOURS

KASSU JET EXAMINATION

231/1

BIOLOGY PAPER 1

Time: 2 HOURS

Sept 2021

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

Answer ALL the questions.
Answers must be written in the spaces provided in the question paper.
Additional pages must not be inserted.
The paper consists of 14 printed pages.

FOR EXAMINERS USE ONLY

Question	Maximum score	Candidate’s score
1-29	80

This paper consists of 13 printed pages. Candidates should check the question paper to ascertain that all the pages are printed as indicated and no questions are missing

How does growth as a characteristic of living organisms differ in plants and animals?

(2marks

In plants growth occurs at meristematic tissues only ;while in animals growth occurs all over the body ;

a) State the role of active transport in animal nutrition (1mark)

Reabsorbtion of sugars and some salts in the kidney

Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal into the blood stream.

Excretion of waste products from body cells.

b) Cyanide lowers the rate of active transport. Explain? (2marks)

cyanide is an enzyme inhibitor, it affects the rate of active transport

The figure below is a diagram of a vertical section of a mammalian tooth.

(i) Name the part labelled A and B. (2 marks)

A Enamel

B Gum

(ii) State two ways in which structure D is adapted to its functions. (2 marks)

– Contains blood vessels which supplies food nutrients and oxygen and remove carbon IV oxide and nitrogenous waste products;

– Contains nerve endings for sensitivity;

(iii) List two ways of preventing gingivitis. (2 marks)

– Regular brushing of teeth;

-Proper exercise of the teeth by eating tough fibrous food;

-Eating foods that are rich in vitamin C

The figure below shows % saturation of oxygen in blood in fish as water passes along the gill plate.

(a) (i) Name the type of blood flow shown in the gill plate. (1mark)

Counter current flow

(ii) Explain the advantage of the type of flow named in a (i) above (2marks)

Creates a steep diffusion gradient; that enhances the rate of gaseous exchange across the gill filaments/ increases rate of gaseous exchange; through diffusion (Rej increases rate of gaseous exchange/enhances gaseous exchange alone

(b) State two organs in humans which display the type of flow named in a (i) above Kidney; Placenta; Ileum (2marks)

– Stomata found only on upper epidermis to allow efficient gaseous exchange;

– Presence of large air-spaces/aerechyma tissue to enable floating and storage of air;

– Lack cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange;

The equation below shows an oxidation reaction of food substances.

C₅₁H₉₈O₆ + 145O2 ——- X CO2 + 98 H2O + energy

a) What do you understand by the term respiratory quotient? (1mark)

Volumetric relationship between Carbon (IV) oxide produced and oxygen consumed

b) Determine respiratory quotient of the oxidation of food substance. (2marks)

R.Q = CO₂ produced

O₂ used up

R.Q = ¹⁰²/₁₄₅

R.Q = 0.7

c) Identify the food substances. (1mark)

Fat/ Lipid

When any one of the growth parameters such as growth in size or weight, increase in number of cells are plotted in a graph against time like below, a clear curve is obtained

State its name sigmoid curve (1mark)

The graph below represents the growth in a certain phylum.

How does this differ from growth in humans? (1mark)

In humans it’s continuous from time of birth to maturity when it slightly tails off while for

this phylum it’s discontinuous /in intervals with shedding of exoskeleton

The embryo of a dry, fully developed seed usually passes through a period of rest after ripening period and it cannot germinate even when provided with all favorable conditions. State the significance of this. (2marks)

Provides the seeds with enough time for dispersal so that they can germinate in suitable environment

Enables seeds to survive during adverse seeds to survive during adverse environmental conditions

The embryo has time to develop until favourable conditions are available

a) Cowpeas seeds were place in a vacuum flask and left for five days. What is the expected change in composition of gases in the flask on the sixth day? (1mark)

Decrease in oxygen and increase in carbon(1V)oxide

b) Give a reason for your answer in (a) above (1mark)

Germinating seeds respire using oxygen and release carbon(IV)oxide

Biotechnologist works day a night to curb food insecurity using the knowledge of polyploidy in genetics. Explain the economic importance of such practice? (2marks)

Increases yields in plants

Cause early maturity in plants

Enhance resistance to pest, disease and drought

b) Define a backcross? (1 mark)

A cross between an offspring with one of its parents

The structure below was obtained from an animal cell
What is the name of the hair like processes and state its function? (2marks)

Name

Cilia

Function

Propel mucus or a fertilised ovum

From which parts of the mammalian body are these structures found? (1mark)

Trachea and oviduct

State the effect of cigarette smoking to the structure? (1mark)

Cigarettes contain tar which impairs/inhibit the action of cilia in the respiratory tract leading to cancer.

A student was found to have blood group B+
a) What type of antibody is present in his plasma? (1mark)

b) Which antigens are present in this blood group? (1mark)

B and Rhesus antigens

Plants relatively have less waste to excrete than animals. Give two reasons to explain this observation (2marks)

Plants reuse some of their waste products;

Plants produce their waste products slowly compared to animals that produce slowly ;

State two methods by which plants get rid of their waste products (2marks)

Diffusion

Transpiration

Guttation

Exudation

Deposition ( any two)

To estimate the population size of mosquitoes in Banji village that covers an area of 25km², visiting researchers caught 400 mosquitoes which they marked and released. After 24 hours, 200 mosquitoes were caught out of which 120 had not been marked.

(a) Suggest the sampling method described above. (1 mark)

Capture recapture method

(b) What are the disadvantages of this method? (2 marks)

–Some organism may die during the study period;

-The mark may come the out during the study period;owtt

The table below shows stomatal distribution on leaves A and B and their surface area. Use the information to answer the questions.

	Leaf surface	A	B
Number of stomata	Upper leaf surface	20	5
Number of stomata	Lower leaf surface	0	15
Surface area		25 cm²	18cm²

Identify with reasons the habitats of the plant from which the leaves were obtained.

Leaf A: Habitat Fresh water; (1 mark)

Reason; Maximum number of stomata on the upper leaf surface for quick loss of excess water by transpiration; (1 mark)

Leaf B: Habitat: Savannah/ Rain forest; (1 mark)

Reason : More stomata on loer surface than on the upper to reduce the surface area exposed to excessive loss of water by transpiration

(1 mark)

Name the causative agent of the following diseases (2 marks)

(i) Trichomoniasis.

Trichomonas vaginalis

(ii) Gonorrhea

Neisseria gonorrhoea

The diagram below shows a pollen tube as it develops down the style. Use it to answer the questions that follows;

(i) Name the part labelled G. (1 mark)

Pollen tube;

(ii) State two functions of structure labelled E. (2 marks)

-Fuse with the egg cell nucleus to form zygote

–Fuse with polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm nucleus;

(a) Define parthenogenesis? (1 mark)

A type of asexual reproduction in insects where eggs produced without being fertilized are able to hatch into adult insects;

(b) Name the plant hormone that induces fruit ripening. (1 mark) Ethylene;

A group of Form Three students collected a certain specimen for study as shown below. Study it carefully and use it to answer the questions that follow.

(i) Name the type of metamorphosis in the above specimen. (1 mark)

Complete metarmophosis;

(ii) Give any two advantages of the above metamorphosis. (2 marks)

Each stage occupies a different ecological niche; hence there’s no competition for resources e.g food;

(i) Give two structural features in a leaf that adapts it to absorb Carbon (IV) Oxide. Broad lamina;

– Many stomata

(ii) Name the cell organelle in which Carbon (IV) oxide combines with water to form a complex organic compound takes place (1 mark)

Chloroplast

In an experiment to investigate a factor affecting photosynthesis; leaf of a potted plant, which had been kept in the dark overnight was covered with an aluminum foil as shown in the diagram below. The set up was kept in the sunlight for three hours after which a food test was carried out on the leaf.

(a) Which factor was being investigated in the experiment? (1 mark)

Light;

(b) Which food test was carried out? (1 mark)

Starch test;

Starch absent/Iodine retains its brown colour/starch test negative;

Explain how the following plant adaptations minimizes rate of transpiration (2marks)
a) Sunken stomata

Water vapour accumulates in the pits reducing water vapour diffusion gradient hence reduced transpiration rate;

b) Thick cuticle

Reduces permeability of the leaf to water thus reducing water loss;

Explain how drooping of leaves on a hot sunny day is advantageous to a plant (2marks)

The leaves expose a smaller surface area to the sun thus reducing excessive water;

Name two tissues in plants which are thickened with lignin (2marks)

Parenchyma cells;

Xylem vessels;

The diagram below shows the front view of a male reproductive system.

Give the functions of the structures labelled X and V (2marks)
Provide an alkaline fluid which contains nutrients for the spermatozoa;
Seminiferous tubules which provides a large surface area for production of sperms;
What is the role of Follicle Stimulating Hormone in male reproduction? (1mark)

Stimulates the synthesis and maturation of sperms;

27. Explain why the concentration of insecticides in fish eating birds may be hundreds of times greater than its concentration in the water where the fish live (3marks)

Aquatic plants in water absorb the pesticides that drain into water bodies and so accumulate ,fish consume small quantities every time the ingest the water this also accumulates in the fish with time, as the birds continue feeding the contaminated fish they pesticides increase in levels

The diagram below shows a stage in meiosis

State the biological significance of the stage represented on the diagram above (1mark)

The exchange of DNA hence increases genetic variation;

How do the following factors hinder self-pollination in flowering plants? (3marks)
a) Self-sterility

It is a condition where pollen grains from the anthers cannot grow on the stigma of the same flower of plant/ are incompatible to stigma of the same plant/flower;

b) Heterostyly

Is a condition of having different arrangements of style and stigma i.e. shorter stamen than pistil;

c)Protogyny

it’s a condition where the female matures an its ready to receive the pollen grains before the male parts mature;

Teachers' Resources

Form 4 KCSE Revision Exams, Predictions for all subjects plus answers

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Form 4 KCSE Revision Exams, Predictions for all subjects plus answers

PHYSICS KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MARKING SCHEME.docx
PHYSICS PAPER 3.docx
Physics F4 PP2 FINAL.docx
PHYSICS F4 M.S PP2 FINAL.docx
PHYSICS CONFIDENTIAL.docx
PHY PP1 QN.docx
PHY PP1 MS.docx

MATHEMATICS KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

MATHS MS P1.docx
MATHS P1.doc
MATH P2.docx
MATH MS P2.docx

KISWAHILI KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

KISW PP3 QN.docx
KISWA P2 MS.docx
KISW PP3 MS.docx
KIS P2 Q.docx
Kis p1 Q.docx
Kis p1 ms.docx

HOME SCIENCE KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

HOMESCIENCE P2 MS.docx
HOMESCIENCE P1 Q.docx
HOMESCIENCE P1 MS.docx
HOMESCIENCE P3 MS.docx
HOME SCIENCE P3 Q.docx
HOME SCIENCE P2 Q.docx
HOME SCIENCE P2 – CONFIDENTIAL.docx

HISTORY KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

HIST P1.doc
HIST P2.docx
HIST P2 – MS.doc
HIST P2 – MS.doc
HIST P1.doc
HIST P1 – MS.doc
HIST P1 – MS.doc

GEOGRAPHY KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

GEO PP1.docx
GEO PP2.docx
GEO PP2.docx
GEO PP2 MS.docx
GEO PP2 MS.docx
GEO PP1.docx
GEO PP1 MS.docx

ENGLISH KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

F4 PP2 ENG QN.docx
F4 MARKING ENG PP2.docx
F4 MARKING ENG PP2.docx
F4 ENG PP1 MARKING SCHEME.docx
F4 ENG PP1 MARKING SCHEME.docx
F4 PP2 ENG QN.docx
F4 PAPER1 ENG QN.docx
ENGLISH P3 QUIZ.docx
ENGLISH P3 MS.docx

CRE KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

CRE P1.doc
CRE P2.docx
CRE P2 – MS.docx
CRE P1 – MS.docx

COMPUTER STUDIES KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

COMPUTER STUDIES P1 QUIZ.docx
COMPUTER STUDIES P2 QUIZ.docx
COMPUTER STUDIES P2 MS.docx
COMPUTER STUDIES P1 MS.docx

CHEMISTRY KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

CHM PP1 ET1 MSC.docx
CHM PP2 ET1 QNS.docx
CHM PP2 ET1 MSC.docx
CHM PP1 ET1 QNS.docx
CHEM PP3 QN.docx
CHEM PP3 CONF.doc
CHEM F4 P3 MS.docx

BUSINESS STUDIES KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

BUSI P1.docx
BUSINESS P2 QP.docx
BUSINESS P2 MS.docx
BUSI MS P1.docx

BIOLOGY KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

BIO P2 MS.docx
BIOLOGY-FORM-4-PP3-CONFIDENTIAL.docx
BIOLOGY PP3.docx
BIO PP2.docx
BIO PP1.docx
BIO P3 MS.docx
BIO P1 MS.docx

AGRICULTURE KCSE EXAM PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

AGRI F4 PP1.docx
AGRI F4 PP2.docx
AGRI F4 MSC PP2.docx
AGRI F4 MSC PP1.docx

KCSE REVISION EXAMS FOR ALL SUBJECTS PLUS MARKING SCHEMES.

ENGLISH
PHYSICS
MATHS
kiswahili
HOME SCIENCE
HISTORY
GEOGRAPHY
CRE
COMPUTER
CHEMISTRY
BUSINES
BIOLOGY
AGRICULTURE

Teachers' Resources

2012 KCSE CRE PAPER 2 MARKING SCHEME

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

PAPER 2

MARKING SCHEMEME-2012

a) Micahs prophecies about Messiah.
i) The Messiah will be born in Bethlehem
ii) He will rule over Israel

iii) His origin is from the old/ancient days.

iv) He will be born of a woman.
v) He will feed his flock.
vi) He will rule in the majesty/power of God.

vii) In his time, Israel will be secure.

viii) He shall be great to the ends of the earth

ix) Israel will have victory over her enemy/ there will be peace in Israel.

(7×1=7marks)

b) The message of Angel Gabriel about John the Baptist;
i) John the baptist was to be a son
ii) His name was to be John

iii) He would bring joy/ gladness to his parents/ many will rejoice at his birth.

iv) He will be great before God.
v) He was to drink no wine/strong drink
vi) He was to be filled with the Holy spirit from his mother’s womb

vii) He would turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God

viii) He was to go before the Lord in the spirit/power of Elijah.

ix) He will turn the hearts of the fathers to the children/ the disobedient to the wisdom of the
x) He was to make ready for the Lord a people prepared.

(7×1=7marks)

c) Lessons Christians learn from Jesus when was dedicated.
i) Christians should be righteous before God in order to experience Him in their lives.
ii) Christians should thank God for blessing them.

iii) They should trust/have faith in God.

iv) Christians should reach out to all people/preach salvation to them.
v) Christians should show compassion to the needy in society.
vi) Christians should be devoted in their worship of God regardless of the challenges they

vii) Christians should dedicate their children to God/fulfil the church obligations.

(3×2 = 6marks)

a) The incident when Jesus was baptised in river Jordan by John the Baptist.
i) John the Baptist baptised all the people
ii) Jesus was also baptised

iii) Jesus was praying

iv) The heavens opened.
v) The Holy spirit descended upon Jesus.
vi) A voice came from heaven.

vii) Jesus was described as the beloved son of God with whom He was pleased.

b) Reasons why Christians undergo baptism today.
i) Baptism enables them to become children of God.
ii) It enables one to become a member of a Christian community/Christian denomination.

iii) It enables them to receive the power of the Holy Spirit.

iv) It enables them to identify themselves with Christ/ all that he stands for.
v) It symbolises that one has died and resurrected with Christ, leaving the old sinful nature/ acquisition of a new life in Jesus
vi) Through baptism, one receives complete forgiveness of sins.

vii) It prepares Christians for the kingdom of God.

viii) It unites Christains as members of the body of Christ which is the Church.

ix) It symbolises obedience to Jesus’ teaching.
x) It acts as an outward sign of their inner faith as it is done publicly.
xi) It is a sign of a new covenant with God.

c) Importance of the transfiguration of Jesus to Christian today;
i) It took place when Jesus and three of his disciples were praying. Christians should therefore take time off their duties to pray.
ii) Jesus and his disciples had retreated to a private place/ mountain to pray Christians therefore should have retreats/ go to a private place for prayer.

iii) Resurrection is a reality since Moses who died appeared in the transfiguration. Christians therefore should have hope for life after death.

iv)Moses and Elijah appeared to encourage Jesus about the suffering he was about to face. Christians therefore learn that they should accept/endure suffering as a way to salvation.

v) Jesus came to do the will of his Father/fulfill the law/prophecies. Christians are assured of salvation/should believe in the word of God.
vi) The disciples heard the voice of God which commanded them to listen to Jesus. Christians learn that God speaks to them/they should listen to Gods voice/Jesus the word of God.

vii) The cloud symbolized God’s presence with Jesus. Christians therefore learn that God is always with them/ they should call upon Him for help/desire to be in the presence of God.

(4×2 = 8marks)

a) The healing of the ten lepers.
i) Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem
ii) He met ten lepers/men who were suffering from leprosy.

iii) The men stood at a distance/shouted at Jesus to have mercy on them.

iv) Jesus told them to go and show themselves to the priests.
v) As they went, they were healed/cleansed.
vi) One of them, a Samaritan came one’s praising God/thanked Jesus

vii) Jesus asked where the other nine were.

viii) Jesus wondered at the fact that only a foreigner returned to give praise to God.

ix) Jesus asked him to rise/go his way for his faith had made him well.

(7×1=7marks)

b) Jesus teaching on the power of faith;
i) Faith gives believers strength to overcome temptations/sin.
ii) It enables them to forgive each other constantly

iii) It makes even the weakest strong.

iv) Enables believers to perform their duties without expecting material rewards.
v) Faith enables believers to work tirelessly because there is a lot of work to be done.
vi) Faith leads to physical healing.

vii) Faith enables believers to show gratitude to God for his blessings/benefits they have received from Him.

viii) It enables them to experience the kingdom to God in their hearts.

ix) It enables believers to enter the kingdom of God/receive eternal life.

(4×2=8marks)

c) Lessons Christian learn from the parable of the ten pounds.
i) Christians should use the abilities that God has given them for the benefit of others.
ii) Christians will be rewarded according to their performances.

iii) Christians have been given different gifts/abilities by God.

iv) Christians will give an account of how they used their abilities.
v) Christians need to be obedient/honest.
vi) God expects Christians to use opportunities provided for His glory.

vii) Christians will lose their abilities if not put to use/punished.

(5×1=5marks)

a) How the unity of believers is expressed in the body of Christ.
i) St. Paul describes the believers as the body of Christ
ii) Christ is the head of the church

iii) The believers form parts of the body.

iv) The body has different organs. In the same way the Church has different members
v) They all need to work together for the well being of the church.
vi) Every part of body is needed to make it whole all parts are interdependence/ one part cannot be without the other.

vii) The different church members are given different spiritual gifts by the Holy Spirit to carry out God’s work.

viii) Believers are united through baptism in the Holy Spirit.

b) Reasons why the use of the gifts of the Holy Spirit brought disunity in the Church at Corinth;
i) There was competition in speaking in tongues
ii) There was disorder/confusion in worship as people with different gifts tried to outdo one another

iii) People did not use their gifts for the benefit of the Church/one another.

iv) Some gifts such as prophecy/teaching were looked down upon/there was pride/boasting.
v) There was no interpretation of tongues when the gift of speaking in tongues was in use, hence messages were not understood.
vi) People did not show love for one another.

vii) Those with the gift of speaking in tongues despised those who did not have/some members thought they were too spiritual.

c) Ways in which the Christians in Kenya demonstrate the New testament teaching on unity.
i) Christians meet for prayers/fellowship together.
ii) They observe a day of worship to honour God.

iii) They share the Holy communion/meals.

iv) They help those who are poor/needy
v) They solve problems affecting the Church members
vi) They hold joint crusades/rallies

vii)They also cooperate by providing Christian programmes in the mass media/ resource materials.

viii) They speak in one voice to condemn evil in society

a) Sources of Christian ethics.
i) Human reason/experience
ii) The bible

iii) Traditions from Christian community

iv) Natural law.
v) Situation ethics.

b) Reasons why Christian condemn homosexuality;
i) Homosexuality is a form of sexual immorality
ii) It is against God’s/ Biblical teaching it is a sin

iii) It is an abuse to the sacredness of sex

iv) It is contrary to the natural order of things.
v) Homosexuality does not enable procreation to take place
vi) It lowers the dignity of human beings who are created in the image of God

vii) It can lead to diseases like Hiv/AIDs leading to human suffering.

viii) It leads to rejection/being an outcast.

(7×1=7marks)

c) How responsible parenthood is demonstrated by Christians in Kenya today.
i) Christian parents provide physical /basic needs for the family

ii)They provides spiritual guidance to their children

iii) They teach their children to live in harmony with others/moral values

iv) They provide their children with education in order to acquire necessary knowledge/skills to realize their full potential
v) They act as role models for their children
vi) They discipline/correct the children whenever they deviate from the norms

vii) They provide protection/security to their children which enables the children to deal with situations in life.

viii) They teach their children how to grow physically/socially/psychologicaly so as for them to understand changes in their bodies as they develop.

(4×2=8marks)

a) The traditional African concept of wealth.
i) Wealth is a blessing from God.
ii) It is part and parcel of human existence

iii) It is measured in the amount of property/wives/children one has

iv) It can be individually/communally owned.
v) Wealth is acquired through hardworking/inheritance/gift
vi) Wealth determines ones social status.

vii) Wealth should be used to help the needy in society

viii) There are rules governing how it is distributed.

ix) Wealth is used to worship God/appease ancestors

b) Reasons why corruption is widespread in Kenya today
i) Unemployment cases which makes an individual desperate to secure an employment chance by engaging in corrupt activities.
ii) Desire for instant services/ make some people become corrupt.

iii) Some people feel that they have not been adequently paid for work done hence engage in corrupt acts to compensate themselves

iv) Fear of arrest/punishment make law breakers to engage in corrupt deals.
v) Some people engage in corrupt deals in order to be served due to ignorance of their rights.
vi) Lack of moral integrity by some people.

vii) Greed makes some people to engage in corruption

viii) Due to tribal/ethnic affiliations.

ix) There is no efficient machinery to curb corrupt practice.

(x) The Judiciary is not able to deal with injustice cases take too long to be determined.

(xi) Some government agents abuse the power bestowed upon them.

(xii) The belief of the common person that the government is a master and therefore has

to be corrupted before receiving services.

(8 x 1 = 8 marks)

c) Ways the Church is using to eradicate poverty in Kenya.

(i) The Church preaches/teaches/encourages hard work among the citizens which enables them to fight poverty.

(ii) The Church speaks against vices like oppression/exploitation of the poor by the rich in the society which are promoting poverty.

(iii) The Church takes care of the poor by providing them with material possession

(iv) The Church has established projects that offer employment to members of the society this enables them to take care of their needs.

(v) The Church gives out bursaries to the needy children enabling them undertake education and get employment.

(vi) The Church is offering subsidized medical services which enhances the economic output/ productivity of the people.

(vii) The Church is working together with the government to create a peaceful society which promotes economic/social development.

(viii) The Church prays for God’s intervention in the lives of the poor which gives them hope in life.

(ix) It offers guidance and counselling to the poverty stricken thus enabling them to open up to realities of life.

(6×1=6 marks)

Teachers' Resources

HOME SCIENCE REVISION BOOKLET (QUESTIONS & ANSWERS)

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

HOME SCIENCE I

How can you ensure that a sitting room is well ventilated? (3mks)
What two precautionary measures should be taken when using paraffin as a fuel? (2mks).
State two reasons for using white ceramic tiles in the kitchen? (2mks).
State three qualities of good lighting. (3mks).
State two advantages and two disadvantages of steaming as a method of cooking?
Care should be taken to ensure that left over foods remain fresh. How can this be

done? (2mks)

State two qualities of fruit for jam making? (2mks).
Give three reasons for coating food before deep frying? (3mks).
State three ways of preparing clothes before washing? (3mks)
Two methods which can be used to sterilize baby’s feeding equipment? (1mrk)
What two was you use to disinfect kitchen clothes. (1mrk)
Give two ways of using a crossway strip in garment construction. (1mrk)
Give the following I-T -C – L – C ( International Textile Care Labeling Code). (1¹/₂mks).

(a)

(b)

Give the two reasons of airing clothes after ironing. (1mrk).
Two stitches that may be used to neaten an overlaid seam. (1mrk).
Two ways of finishing the neckline of a night dress. (1mrk).
17. Two qualities of a thimble. (1mrk).
What causes suffocation? (1¹/₂mrks)
Two things to prevent in first treatment of a cut. (1mrk).
Using the diagram below, name the most suitable seam for joining the pieces labeled A and B, the suitable side seam and the piece labeled A of a child’s dress. (3mks).

Seam joining A and B ……………. Side seam …………

Piece labeled A………

What points should you look for when buying a zip? Give two. (2mks)
Use the pattern piece below to answer the question that follow.

Pattern pieces. (1¹/₂mrk)

A………. B ……….

C……….

Pattern symbol. (1 ¹/₂mrk)

X ………. Y ……….

Z ……….

SECTION B.

(a) After completing your cookery practical lesson you found that your white cotton

apron has the following stains

(i) Grease (ii) Coffee

State clearly how the stain can be removed. (5mks)

(b) What factors should be considered when choosing brooms and brushes? (6mks)

(d) What factors should be considered when choosing floor covering? (5mks)

French seam is commonly worked on children’s clothes.

(a) i. What are the advantages of the seam? (2mks)

With aid of clear diagrams show the working of the seam. (6mks)

(b) What are the advantages of combing wool with Nylon. (4mks)

maximum service. (4mks)

(d) Of what use is pattern drafting to tailor ? (4mks)

(a) Explain four rules to be observed when preparing left over foods. (4mks)

(b) Discuss the advantages of food preservation. (4mks)

(d) (i) Explain points to be considered when serving invalids. (4mks)

(ii) A sauce is served with lumps in it, what possible mistakes are likely to have been

done? (4mks)

HOME SCIENCE I

MARKING SCHEME

SECTION A.

– Doors should be large enough.

Windows should be large enough.
Room should be spacious.
Furniture should not be congested.
Artificial ventilation e.g. fans should be provided.
Rooms should be well cleaned daily.

– Do not store in sodas bottles.

– Lids should be tight fitting.

Store away from foodstuffs.
Keep away from children’s reach.

– Easy to clean.

Easily show dirt.
Protect wall from dampness.
Last long as they easy to maintain.

– Should not contrast with background to avoid straining the eyes.

Light should be well distributed to avoid shadows on working areas.
Work should be done efficiently without straining.
It should minimise accidents and ease in movement.
It should enhance interior decoration.
It should be without a glare.

Advantages.

– Easy to digest no fats are added or direct heating.

– Saves time and fuel when food is cooked over a pot of boiling water in which other

foods are cooked.

Nutrients are retained as no liquid media is used.

Disadvantages.

– A slow method of cooking

– Expensive method if done a lone.

Steamed food tends to lack flavour.

– Put food in clean containers which are covered to prevent contamination by dust and

flies.

Food should be cooled quickly and stored in the fridge clean cool place.

– Should be firm or hard.

– Should not be over ripe or unripe.

Should be unbruised.
Should not be withered.

– To prevent it from breaking into pieces.

– To prevent it from overcooking.

To improve it’s appearance.
To prevent food from getting too greasy.

– Mending

Soaking
Removing stains.

Commercial sterilizers e.g. Milton.

Commercial disinfectant e.g. Dettol.

– To neaten raw edges.

For decoration.
To strengthen out edges.
To make rouleu loops.

– Drip dry.

b.- Do not bleach.

c.- Use warm iron.

– To get rid of excess dampness.

– To remove any smells or odours.

– Loop stitches.

– Button hole.

– Overcasting.

– Bias binding / cross way strip.

Collar
Double yoke.

– Should be strong to last long

Should not rust
Should fit the figure.

– Breathing poisonous gases.

Blocked windpipe
Wearing objects over there

– To control too much bleeding which can lead to death

– Prevent entry of germs.

– Overlaid seam.

– French seam.

– Yoke.

– Choose a good brand.

– Test to see that zip glides smoothly and easily.

– Length of zip should suit length of poening.

– Colour of zip tape must match colour of fabric.

A – Front Bodice.

B – Back Bodice.

C – Front facing.

X – Dart.

Y – Starting grain.

Z – Place to Fold.

SECTION B.

23.(a) (i) – Wash in very hot water with a little washing soda in it.

– Carbon tetrachloride may be used on the stubborn stain.

(ii) – Rub salt on the stain and pour boiling water through the stain.

Rub salt and lemon juice and pour boiling water through if stain is a bit stubborn.
Use wood ash or Borax in same way as salt if stain is very stubborn.

(b) – Bristles should be firmly and closely set on the head.

Handle should be of comfortable length.
Head should be smooth and slightly curved to reduce damage on furniture.
Should be selected for the correct purpose and use.
Material should be of good quality so that they last long.

The material is expensive.
Solution may cause damage on the fabric.
Solutions are inflammable.
Solution are poisonous.

(d) – Should relate to the colour scheme of the room ( Harmonize with rest of the

colour)

Design of the upholstered furniture.
Texture of the fabric or material used.
Size of the room.
Cleaning and care required.
Amount of money available.

– The purpose of the covering e.g soft carpet for sitting room, bed rooms and

corridors and hard carpet for kitchen and bathroom.

(a) (i) Narrow and strong with two lines of machining.

(ii) Neat seam as edges are concealed.

(iii) Easy to launder.

Easy to work.

Tack and stitch 6mm from, the edge outside the fitting line.
Remove tacking press open the seam and trim to 4mm.
Fold a long the stitching line with Right sides together.
Tack 6mm from the edge enclosing the raw edges completely.
Stitch below the tacking line i.e on the fitting line remove tacking.

(b) – The fibre produce is much more stronger and hence long lasting.

The fibre is warmer than Nylon.
The fibre is easier to launder.
The fibre is cheaper to buy.

Replace broken parts immediately.
Have the machine checked by mechanic regularly.
Oil the machine regularly.

(d) – Development of skills.

Money saving as patterns are made at home.
Less time wasted as shopping for patterns is not done.
Using of individual person’s measurements.
No adjustment required and correction is easy to do.

(a) – Food be re heated and not re-cooked.

Large pieces should be cut into small ones.
Additional moisture should be added in form of gravy or stoch may be added to replace what was lost during cooking.
Food may be coated with batter to prevent it from over heating.
Food should be well garnished to enhance appearance.
Avoid repeated re- heating by preparing just enough.
Serve food in anew form to avoid monotony.

(b) – Food in season can be preserved to be used when out of season.

Preserved food can be transported to reach places of storage.
Preservation slows down food decay.
May be done where there is surplus.

Store in well ventilated rooms.
Preserve grains before storage.
Place storage containers on racks.
Do not keep toxic chemical in the grain store.
Rock grain store and check frequently.
Use old stock before the one.

(d) (i)

Meals should be balanced.
Serve meals punctually.
Prepare, cook and serve hygienically.
Food should be palatable and appetizing.
Serve attractively.
Give small amounts at a time.
Give hot foods hot and cold foods cold.
Food should be soft and easy to digest.
Avoid strong flavourings and smells in food.
Follow doctors orders.

(ii)

Flour is added to very hot fat.
Using too much heat during cooking.
Adding liquid too fast without adequate stirring.
Inadequate stirring during cooking.
Roux not well cooked.
Blending of flour not adequately done.

HOMESCIENCE II

Give two reasons for folding in flour in creamed cake mixtures (2mks)
Explain the following terms used in cookery (3mks )

– Dextrinisation

– Gelatinization

– Caramelization

Give two reasons for airing clothes before storage (2 mks)
Differentiate between a split level house and a storeyed house (2mks)
Explain three ways in which blending viscose with polyester would modify the characteristics of the viscous (3mks)
State two advantages of dry cleaning clothes (2mks )
Give two causes of a black ring in hard boiled egg (2mks)
List down four nutrients found in eggs (2mks)
Give three reasons why soaking is necessary for cotton and not for woolen fabrics (3mks)
State three qualities of fabric for underwear (3mks)
Explain two points on care of the Kitchen sink (2mks)
State three factors to consider when selecting flowers for flower arrangement (3mks)
Give three pre-caution to take when cleaning plain wooden surfaces (3mks)
Explain the advantage of a refrigerator with two doors as opposed to one door (1mk)
Give two ways of saving time and energy when performing house hold duties

( 3mks)

State two effective means of communication when passing information to children

(2 mks)

Give two important points to bear in mind when choosing fastenings (2mks )

SECTION B

(a) State and explain five points to consider when planning meals (5mks)

Give two reasons for the following faults in baking
Cracked Swiss roll (2mks )
Creamed cake sunken at the middle (2mks)

c). Explain three causes of malnutritional disorders and in each case give an

example (6 mks)

Minerals perform varied and inter-related Discuss (4mks)

19 .(a) Discuss properties of cotton which make it important for hospital linen.

(8mks)

Describe how to make an open seam at the side of a popline blouse (6mks)
Your niece who is short and plump wishes to make a two piece outfit for a special occasion. Advice (4mks)
Give two advantages of smoking on a child’s outfit (2mks )

(a) Explain clearly how to remove a grease stain on cotton Apron (5mks )

State four points to observe when laundering non fast coloured articles

(4mks)

Your brother living in Kisumu is considering buying a plot to build a house . Suggest five points he should consider (5mks)
State four factors which determine the cleaning frequency of a room (4mks)
State two remedies for static fabrics in wear ` (2mks )

(a) Discuss four points on use and care of brooms (4mks)

Discuss five points one should consider when choosing a method of fullness disposal on a garment. (5mks)
Give four qualities of aluminium which make it popular for household utensils (4mks )
Suggest factors which influence consumer choice (5mks )
Give two uses of salt in laundry work . (2mks )

HOMESCIENCE II

Reasons for folding in flour

To incorporate air
To retain the already incorporated air

( 2×1 = 2 marks )

Meaning of terms

Dextrination – When starch is exposed to dry heat it changes to form a sugar known as dextrin . the process is known as dextrinisation ( 1mk)
Gelatinization – Starch when exposed to moist heat – absorbs water swells and burst (1mk )
Caramelisation – Sugars exposed to heat melts to form a caramel hence caramelisation (1mk )

Reasons for airing clothes

– To get rid of dampness

– To remove bad smells

( 2×1 = 2 marks )

Split level in a house is where rooms are placed at individual levels of the ground . A storeyed house has rooms on top of others .

– Reduces creasing

Reduces shrinkage
Makes it lighter

Advantages of dry cleaning

Fibres not affected
Colour is maintained
Texture is maintained

( 2×1= 2marks)

Black ring in eggs

Overboiling
Stale eggs
Not cooling in cold water .

( 2×1 = 2 marks )

Nutrient in eggs

Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Iron
Protein
Fats
Phosphorous

( ½ x 4 = 2 marks)

Soaking necessary for cotton and not for wool

Wool is weak when wet
Wool felts and shrinks
Soften cotton for dirt
Dirt does not adhere to woolen fabrics as much as any other

(any other relevant answer 3×1 = 3 marks )

– Not bulky

Soft to the skin
Non static
Not irritating
Absorbent
Colour fast

( any other 3×1= 3 marks)

Care of the kitchen sink

Pour hot water occasionally
Do not allow big particles down the sink

( 2×1 = 2 marks )

– Selecting flowers

Fresh
Not strong scented
Do not pick when full bloom
Clean foliage

– Plain wooden surfaces

Scrub along the grain
Avoid harsh abrasives
Avoid use of hot water -it discolors
Do not expose to direct sunlight – it warps
Avoid sharp things.

– A two door refrigerator allows the frozen food to stay undisturbed unlike one

door where frequent opening affects the freezer compartment

– Use of correct and efficient tools

Use correct posture
Use labour saving devices
Make use of trays and trolleys ( 2×1 = 2 marks)

– Bold posters

– Real objects any other ( 2×1 = 2 marks )

– Choice of fastening

Position of the garment
The weaver
Type of fabric
Type of garment

( any other relevant point 2×1 = 2 mks )

SECTION B

(a) Planning meals

Cooks capability
Amount of money
Clients
Equipment available
Time available

( any other 5 x1 = 5 marks )

– Cracked Swiss roll

– Not rolled immediately

– Too high temperature

– A lot of baking time

– Creamed cake sunk in the middle
Too soft mixture
Not cooked
A lot of sugar used

c ) Causes of malnutrition

Excessive intake of nutrient – Obesity
Lack of nutrients – Anaemia, Kwarshiokor
Inability of body to absorb nutrients – Anaemia, Rickets

d) General functions of minerals

Protects body from diseases
Helps in the formation of body cells
Regulate body processes
Helps maintain water composition in the body

( 3×1 = 3 marks )

19 (a) Properties of cotton

Absorbent
Warm to the body
Soft to the skin
Withstands frequent washing / strong
Easy to launder
Not affected by alkalis and acids hence can be bleached effectively

( 4 x 2 = well explained points )

b) Making open seam .

Place two pieces (½) pieces together S (½) Facing
Pin (½) Tack (½) and machine stitch (½) along the fitting line (½) on w. s (½ )
Remove tacking (½) press (½) seam open (½)
Trim (½) raw edges and neaten (½) by machine fold (½) , binding , blanket stitch t.c.

c) Advice on two piece outfit

Matching colour .
Dark and dainty fabric
Good draping quality
Not clinging to the body
Choose fabric with vertical lines

d) Advantages of smoking

Style features
Can let down for added width

20 (a) Removal of grease stain

Scrape (1) as much as possible
Place blotting (1) paper on stain
Iron using hot iron (1) from outside (1) towards center .
Wash (1) article in hot water (5marks)

Laundering non fast coloured articles
Do not
Wash quickly
Dry undershade
Use warm iron
Iron s only (4×1 = 4marks)

Points on plot buying

Type of soils
Social amenities
Neighbourhood
Security
Slope of land
Nearness to place of work

( any other relevant point 5 x1 = 5 marks )

d) Cleaning frequency

Condition of room
User of the room ( occupants )
Time available for cleaning
Cleaning equip and material available
Use of the room
Location of the room

e) Remedies of clinging fabric

– Use fabric softener in last rinse

– Wear with cotton underwear’s

(a) Use and care of brooms

Remove fluffs
Clean in heavily built soapy water
Store with the head between two nails
Dry Facing down – with no pressure on the bristles

b) Choice of method of fullness of

Position on garment
Type of fabric ( weight )
Age of wearer
Type of garment
Fabric texture

c) Qualities of aluminium

Shinny appearance
Light in weight
Does not rust
Good conductor of heat

d) Factors which influence consumer choice

Location
Money available
Fashion
Other consumers
Time available

e). Use of salt in Laundry

Fix color of loose colored garments
Cut mucus

HOMESCIENCE III

SECTION A

What causes mildew stain (1mk)
Give two methods of lengthening a skirt that has become too short (2mks)
You have a polyester dress that clings to the body. Suggest two remedies for this problem

(3mks)

State two factors to consider when planning meals for invalids (2mks)
Give two methods of aerating flour mixtures and in each case give an example of a raising agent used. (2mks)
(a) Give three uses of fats in cookery (3mks)
(b) Describe stewing as a method of cooking (1mk)
Give two disadvantages of advertising to the consumer (2mks)
State four ways of preventing skin diseases. (2mks)
Give two disadvantages of concealed drainage system (2mks)
Give two reasons why batter is allowed to rest after making before use. (2mks)
State two disadvantages of soaking clothes for more than 24 hours (1 ½ mks)
List four factors to consider when selecting fabric for children’s garment (2mks)
What four factors contribute to efficiency when performing household tasks (2mks)
The size of a patch pocket depends on several factors . Give four. (2mks)
List any four preparations an expectant mother should make for home confinement

(2mks)

State one way of protecting the baby against each of the following
(i) Prickly heat (1mk)
(ii) Nappy rash (1mk)
List four differences between brooms and brushes (2mks)
State three factors which determine method of controlling fullness (1 ½ mks)
State four ways of conserving energy when lighting (4mks)

SECTION B.

(a) State and explain four factors to consider when planning meals (4mks)
(b) Give four general rules to bear in mind when preparing pastries                 (4mks)
(c) Give four points to consider when entertaining                                            (4mks)
(d) Discuss three reasons for preserving food.                                                   (6mks)
(e) Give two reasons for blanching vegetables before freezing                         (2mks)

(a) Give four precautionary measures to take when laundering woolen articles (5mks)
(b) Explain how to make boiling water starch (5mks)
(c) Explain four importance of good ventilation in a house                               (4mks)
(d) Give four reasons why disposal of sewage in rivers and streams is prohibited   (4mks)
(e) State four factors to consider in choice of wall finishes                               (2mks)

(a) Explain how to attach a zip fastener using edge to edge method (1mk)
(b) State three qualities of a well made hem (3mks)
(c) Discuss 4 qualities suitable for underwear fabrics (8mks)

(a) Explain how to work French seam at the side of a child’s petticoat (9mks)
(b) Explain the functions of the following machine parts
(i) Feed dog                                                                                                     (2mks)
(ii) Presser foot                                                                                               (2mks)
(iii) Stop motion screw                                                                                   (2mks)
(c) Give three qualities of a well made dart                                                       (3mks)
(d) Name two methods of graining a fabric before cutting out.                         (2mks)

HOMESCIENCE III

MARKING SCHEME

– Caused by folding and storing damp clothes (1 x 1 = 1mk)
Ways of lengthening a skirt
– Adding a frill
– Let down the hem
– Put a false hem (2 x 1 = 2mks)

Remedies for static electricity
– Wear dress with cotton petticoat
– Put fabric softener in the last rinsing water (2 x 1 = 2mks)

Planning meals for invalids
–Easily digested
– Fresh foods
–Adhere to doctor’s instructions
– Not greasy (2 x 1 = 2mks)

Chemical – Baking powder
– Biological – Yeast
– Mechanical – Air ( 2 x 1 = 2mks)

(a) Uses of fats
– Cut short gluten strands
– Soften mixtures
– Add flavour and colour
– Increase self life (3 x 1 = 3mks)

(b) Long slow moist method of cooking food. Food is not allowed to boil. Done in

casserole in oven or on top of a stove (1 x 1 = 1mk)

Disadvantages of advertising to the consumer
– Increases cost of goods
– Gives false information
– Confuses consumer due to many brands advertised (2 x 1 = 2mks)

Preventing skin diseases
– Avoid sharing personal items
– Sterilise shared items
– Bath regularly
– Eat food rich in vitamins (4 x ½ = 2mks)

– Can only be used where there is piped water
– Expensive to install
– Careless use may make maintenance difficult

Reasons for resting batter
– So that starch grains can absorb liquid
– So that air bubbles can escape ( 2 x 1 = 2mks)

– fibres are weakened
– Water becomes slimy
– Bad smells develop (3 x ½ = 1 ½ mks)

– Shrink resistance
– Strong
– Light
– Absorbent
– Non – Irritating
– Inflammable (4 x ½ = 2mks)

– Correct equipment and material
– Having a time plan
– Good speed
– Correct tools
– Correct methods of working

– Purpose
–   Position
–   Purpose of garment
–   Age of wearer
–   Size of garment                                             (4 x ½ = 2mks)

– Inform midwives
– Prepare clean and sterile room
– Make transport available
– Clean razor blade and string (4 x ½ = 2mks)

(i) Prickly heat – avoid overdressing (1mk)
(ii) Nappy rash – change napkins when used

– Rinse napkins thoroughly (1mk)

– Brooms have long handle while brushes have short handle
– Brooms sweep large areas – while brushes small areas
– Brooms have soft bristle while brushes have stiff bristles
– Brooms remove loose dirt while brushes remove fixed dirt (4 x ½ = mks)

– Type of garment
– Position on garment
– Figure type
– Weight, texture and washability of fabric (3 x ½ = 1 ½ mks)

– Use daylight as much as possible
– Lighting designed to suit purpose
– Avoid bulbs of higher wattage than required
– Ensure all light fittings are clean
– Turn off lights when not in use ( 4 x 1 = 4mks)

SECTION B.

(a) – Balanced – Protein, carbohydrate, vitamins
– Individual requirements
– Time available
– Occasion
– Colour variety
– Food in season
– Any other (4 x 1 = 4mks)

(b) Weigh ingredients accurately
– Use mixture of lard and margarine
– Use cool equipment and work in a cool place

(c)- Entertaining
– Number and type of guests
– Type and style of service
– Cutlery and crockery available
– Number of dishes to be served
– Time of the day and weather (4 x 1 = 4mks)

(d) Discuss three reasons for preserving foods
– Ease transportation for foods like vegetables and fruits
– Preserve so as to be used when out of season
– No food will keep indefinitely so food is preserved for future use
(well discussed points) (3 x 2 = 6mks)

(e) Two reasons for blanching vegetables before freezing
– To help retain colours
– Reduce bulk
– Retain nutrients

Precautions to take when laundering woolen articles
– Do not soak as they are weak when wet
– Use water of same temperature throughout
– Dry flat
– Press do not iron to avoid stretching

(any other) (5 x 1= 5mks)

(b) Boiling water starch
– Measure 1 tablespoon (1) Starch. 2 tablespoons cold water(1) Make smooth paste

(½) Add ½ litre (1) boiling water (½) Stir and boil for a short while (½) Dilute as

required (½) (5mks)

(c) Importance of Good ventilation
– Get rid of surplus heat from people and machinery
– Get rid of bad ordours
– Allow circulation of fresh air
– Avoid drowsiness (4 x 1 = 4mks)

(d) Reasons for not disposing waste in rivers
– Causes water to smell foul
– Poses, health problems to animals and human beings
– Affects plants and destroys aquatic life
– Carrier of water borne diseases

Choice of wall finishes
– Size of wall
– Money available
– Care required
– Availability of the material

(4 x ½ = 2mks)

(a) Method of attaching zip
– Tack ½ the seam and neaten ½ the edges
– Open and press it open
– Work form R.S. and the zip closed ½ and the tag level with the fitting line ½ pin one

side of the opening to the zip length ½
– Pin the other side so that the folds meet (½)

– Tack firmly down on the side and up (½) of the other closing at the base of the zip

teeth (½)
– Hold the folds together (½) with 1cm tacking stitches (½) from the end to end.
– Working on the R.S (½) machine down (½) one side and up the other 6mm ½ from

the fold ( ½ ) according to the width of the zip teeth
(Diagrams can be used to make explanation clear) (9mks)

(b) Qualities of well made hem
– Flat
– Well eased
– Hemming stitches evenly distributed
– Equal in depth (3 x 1 = 3mks)

Three qualities of fabric for underwear
– Should be absorbent since they are worn next to skin
– Easily laundered – cleanliness is absolutely essential due to accumulation of body

waste
– Should not be bulky, should not be seen over outer garment
– Non – clinging for outer garment to slide over easily
– Good quality – Cheap materials will not survive constant wear and washing

(4 x 2 = 8mks)

(a) How to work a french seam at the side of a child’s petticoat
– With w.s. of the fabric together and edges even pin tack ½ along the fitting line ( ½ )
– Machine ½ along the tacking (½) remove all the tacking and trim ( ½ ) the seam

turning to about 5mm (½)
– With the right side (½) of the fabric facing (½) fold over along the seamline, pin, tack

along the fitting line ½ about 6mm below the seam (½)
– Machine or backstitch ( ½ ) along the fitting line
– Remove tacking and press ½ the seam towards the back of the garment (½) (9mks)

(b) Feeddog – Regulate amount of fabric passing through when needle is stitching
Presser foot – Holds fabric in place and presses it to the feed dog
Stop motion screw – Stops the needle from moving up and down. ( 3 x 2 = 6mks)

(c) Three qualities of a well made dart
– Tapers gradually to a point
– Straight line of stitching
– Firmly secured at the point
– Correct length and width
– Pressed to the right side

Graining fabric
– Pulling diagonally
– Pulling a thread across the fabric and cut through

(2 x 1 = 2mks)

HOMESCIENCE IV

SECTION A:

Give four precautions a mother should take to ensure that an active toddler does not accidentally suffer from burns and scalds. (2 mks)
State two causes of anaemia other than nutritional deficiency. (2 mks)
State three factors to consider when planning lighting for various rooms in the house.

(1½ mks)

Explain why laundry blue is in minimal use today for laundry work. (1 mk)
Explain four qualities for making lingerie. (4 mks)
Giving a reason in each case name two nutrients which should be emphasized in school

children diet. (2 mks)

State two reasons why clothes should be dried thoroughly before storage. (2 mks)
State two general rules to observe when setting a table for a meal. (2 mks)
Heavy close texture is a common fault in sponge cake. Give two causes. (2 mks)
Give two reasons why vitreous enamel finish is used on cookers. (2 mks)
List four methods of finishing a plain seam on the side of a denim skirt. (2 mks)
The following is a poorly planned menu for a family which includes a three year old child.

Ugali, Sweet potatoes, Sukuma wiki fried with tomatoes.

(a) (i) give two reasons why it is a poor menu. (2 mks)

(ii) suggest one dish to improve the meal. (1 mk)

State three qualities to look for when buying a tape measure. (1 ½ mks)
Explain two qualities that make crossway strips useful in dressmaking. (2 mks)
Give four factors to consider when buying wooden utensils. (2 mks)
State two qualities of a well-made hem. (2 mks)
Give two reasons why weaning should be a gradual process. (2 mks)
Good eyesight is essential at all times. Give three points on care of eyes. (3 mks)
Give three reasons for cooking and decorating cakes. (2 mks)

SECTION B:

(a) Silk is a common fabric for making evening wear. Give three factors that make it

popular for the above occasion. (3 mks)

(b) Give four steps to ensure that a sewing machine gives good stitches when stitching.

(4 mks)

Describe how to work a machine fell seam at the yoke of a poplin shirt. (8 mks)
Give four factors that determine the method of disposing fullness in a garment.

(2 mks)

(a) Giving reasons in each case state four basic rules in the use and care of a refrigerator.

(8 mks)

(b) Give four points you would advice your aunt on in choice of curtains for her new

house. (4 mks)

above statement. (4 mks)

(d) Suggest four reasons why a family should prepare for a baby’s arrival. (4 mks)

(a) Explain the meaning of the following terms used in cookery. (4 mks)

Bake blind.

Batter.

Braising.

Creaming.

(b) What advice would you give to a friend who is going to get married about planning family meals? Assume that as a career girl she has very little experience. (5 mks)

Breast milk is the perfect food for a baby. Give four advantages of breastfeeding.

(5 mks)

(d) Give four points of personal hygiene that are essential to a food handler. (4 mks)

(e) What are the reasons for folding in flour in creamed cake mixtures? (2 mks)

(a) (i) Give four points to consider when buying commercial paper patterns. (4 mks)

(ii) Explain three points to consider when choosing a zip fastener. (3 mks)

(b) A wise shopper is a wise consumer. Give five points a consumer should look for

before buying an item. (5 mks)

(d) Give four reasons for budgeting family income. (4 mks)

HOMESCIENCE IV

MARKING SCHEME

Four precautions a mother should take to ensure an active toddler does not suffer from burns and scalds. ( ½ x 4 = 2 mks)

– Keep metal boxes out of reach of children.

– Have fire guards round open fires.

– Do not place hot liquids where children can reach them.

– Children should not be locked in houses alone.

– Handles of pans and pots should be turned away from path ways.

Causes of anaemia other than nutritional deficiency. (1 x 2 = 2 mks)

– Genetic (sickle cell).

– Excessive loss of blood.

– Sickness e.g. malaria, leukemia.

– Parasites e.g. hookworm.

Factors to consider when planning lighting for various rooms. ( ½ x 3 = 1½ mks)

– Purpose of the room.

– Size of the room.

– The existing colour scheme.

Explain why laundry blue is in minimal use today: (1×1 = 1 mk)

– This is because most of the soapless detergents made these days have flourescent whitener which have the same function as laundry blue.

Qualities of fabric for making lingerie.

– Soft not to irritate skill.

– Not bulky not to be seen over the outer garment.

– Absorbent to absorb sweat.

– Strong to withstand frequent washing.

– Should not generate static electricity not to cling to the body.

Nutrients to be emphasized in a school child’s diet: (2×1 = 2 mks)

– Carbohydrate/fat because they are active.

– Protein because they are growing.

– Vitamins for protection.

– Minerals for strong bones.

Reasons why clothes should be rinsed thoroughly:

– Remove smells of soap.

– Freshens.

– Avoid skin irritation from detergents.

– Prevent damage to fibres by detergent.

– Mention original colour.

8. General rules to observe when setting a table: (2×1 = 2mks)

– Table should be clean.

– The tablecloth should be clean and well pressed.

– Allow space eof about 60 cm per person.

– Place clean cutlery 2.5 cm from the edge of the table.

Causes of heavy texture in sponge cakes: (2×1 = 2 mks)

– Too hot oven.

– Insufficient whisking.

– Poor folding in.

– Too rapid addition of flour.

– Too much flour.

Why vitreous enamel finish is used on cookers: (2×1 = 2 mks)

– Attractive.

– Easy to clean and maintain.

Four methods of finishing a plain seam on the side of a denim skirt:(½ x4 = 2 mks)

– Edge stitching.

– Zig zagging.

– Overcasting.

– Pinking.

– Loop stitching.

(i) Reasons why it is a poor menu: (2×1 = 2 mks)

– Contains a lot of carbohydrates.

– The meal has no protein.

(ii) A protein dish e.g. meat stew, chicken, currry, ndengu (1 mk)

Qualities of a good tape measure: ( ½ x 3 = 1 ½ mks

– Clearly marked.

– Not stretchable.

– Reinforced ends.

– Should not fray at sides.

– Markings should not fade off.

Qualities that make crossway strip useful in dress making stretches therefore can be manipulated round curves and corners: (2×1 = 2mks)

Forms a contrast in grain or print therefore decorative.

Factors to consider when buying wooden utensils:

– No scratches. – Well grained.

– Ordourless. – Non toxic.

– Durable. – Smooth.

Qualities of a well-made hem: (1×2 = 2mks)

– Same width.

– Correct for fabric and style.

– Not puckered.

– Seams matched.

– Well pressed.

Reasons why weaning should be gradual: (1×2 = 2 mks)

– Allow baby to get accustomed to the new food.

– Allow mother time to observe the baby for any allergic reactions.

Good eye sight is essential. Points on care: (1×3 = 3 mks)

– Eat a diet rich in vitamin A and C.

– Work in well lit area but avoid very bright unprotected light.

– Clean your face every morning paying attention to areas around the eyes.

– Any evidence of bad eyesight or soreness should be reported to the doctor.

Two reasons for decorating cakes: (1×2 = 2 mks)

– To make the cake attractive.

– Prevent cake from drying.

– Encourages creativity.

SECTION B:

(a) Factors which make silk popular for evening wear: (1×4 = 4mks)

– Lustre – the nature shine makes it suitable for fancy wear.

– Has good draping quality.

– Warm – gives warmth on cold nights.

– Sheds creases easily.

(b) Steps to ensure a sewing machine gives good stitches: (1×4 = 4mks)

– Correct tension.

– Thread machine correctly.

– Firm and accurate tacking.

– Correct size of needle for fabric.

– Thread should match fabric in thickness.

– Interfacing is used on small areas while interlining is used on large areas.

– Interfacing is used on the facing while interlining is used between the lining and the garment.

– Interfacing is used to give crispness (stiffening) while interlining gives warmth and body to garment.

(d) How to work a machine fell seam: (8 mks)

– Place two pieces of material together edges matching.

– Pin , tack, on the fitting line.

– Machine on the fitting line.

– Trim one side to less than 0.5 cm.

– Trim the other side to 1.2 cm.

– Press, open.

– Fold over the wider turning to the shorter one and tack.

– Machine close to the fold.

Remove tacking and press.

(e) Factors which determine methods of controlling fullness: (½ x 4 = 2mks)

– Type of garment.

– Position of fullness.

– Type of fabric.

– Age of wearer.

(a) Basic rules in use and care of refrigeration: (2×4 = 8 mks)

– Do not keep hot food in the fridge as it lowers the temperature causing spoilage of other foods.

– Do not use sharp instruments to scrap of ice from the fridge. It scratches and causes marks on the fridge.

– Store food in polythene papers to prevent drying.

– Do not overload – to allow free circulation of air.

– Place fridge in the coolest part of the kitchen to avoid heat interference.

(state 1mk reason 1mk)

(b) Choice of curtains: (1×4 = 4 mks)

– Colour fast not to fade.

– Durable fabric.

– Easy to launder.

– Colour within the colour scheme of the room.

– Non inflammable fabric.

– Shrink resistance.

(c) Importance of goods drainage:

– Frees house from dampness.

– Avoid bad smells.

– Makes places attractive.

– Minimizes risk of getting diseases.

– Precludes breeding places for pests.

(d) Reasons why a family should prepare for baby’s arrival: (1 x 4 = 4 mks)

– Help a family to manage their finances better.

– Avoid last minute rush and anxiety after baby is born.

– Challenges the family to look for room and bed for baby.

– Allows mother to get the best for the baby.

– Gives parents time to prepare younger children to accept the new baby.

(a) Meaning of following terms: (1 x 4 = 4 mks)

– Bake blind – baking of pastry without a filling.

– Balter – mixture of flour and water usually with an egg.

– Braising – cooking of food usually of meat on a bed of fried root vegetables known as a mirepoix creaming. Beating fat or fat and sugar until it is creamy in both texture and colour.

(b) Points to consider in meal planning: (1×5 = 5 mks)

– Family meals should be nutritionally balanced.

– Make use of food in season as its cheaper.

– Money available – food budget within the finances means of the family.

– Plan meals to be prepared with equipment available.

– Should vary colour of dishes.

– Should consider individual taste. (Any other relevant answers)

– More nutritious and easily digested.

– Always at the right temperatures.

– Does not need preparation.

– Contains antibodies.

– Has no harmful micro-organisms.

(d) Points of hygiene to a food handler: (4×1 = 4 mks)

– Wash hands before touching food.

– Do not handle cooked food with bare hands.

– Health carriers of infectious diseases should not b e allowed to handle food.

– Wear kitchen clothes when handling food e.g. apron or overall.

(e) Reasons for folding in flour in creamed cake mixture: (2×1 = 2 mks)

– To incorporate more air.

– Prevent the already incorporated air from escaping.

(a) (i) Points to consider when buying commercial patterns: (1×4 = 4 mks)

– Measurements should correspond with one’s body measurements.

– Style should fit the figure.

– Fashion should be current.

– Choose one with several styles.

– Beginner should choose simple patterns.

(ii) Choice of zip fastener: (1×3 = 3 mks)

– Length – buy correct length for the garment being made.

– Colour – should match the garment as nearly as possible.

– Weight – buy correct weight for purpose. Heavy zips cause sagging.

(b) Points a consumer should look for before buying an item: (1×5 = 5 mks)

– Should do window shopping to compare prices in different shops.

– Should ship for quality – a good quality product will last long. Reputation on item is good guide to quality.

– Should look for features of a product. Buy one with useful features.

– Should examine tag and label on an item to get information on use and care.

– Should find out about quarantee. The more expensive an item is the more the coverage on quarantee one needs.

– Find information on installation, delivery, servicing etc.

– The occupants of the house e.g. young children or adult.

– Amount of dirt or dust getting into the house.

– Conditions of the house e.g. cracked floors.

– Available time for cleaning.

– Cleaning equipment and material available.

(d) Four reasons for budgeting family income: (1 x 4 = 4 mks)

– Helps a family to live within their income.

– It promotes organized living and planning.

– The family knows how the money is being spent and they are able to evaluate their financial situation.

– Budgeting encourages sensible control of various expenses.

– Budgeting helps a family to look at their income sources realistically.

HOMESCIENCE V

You have brought a denim material to make a pair of shorts for your brother. What seam

would you choose and why? (2mks)

The temperature of water is important in stain removal processes. Explain the effect of

hot water in the following stains. (2mks)

Blood

Grease

Mention two hazards caused by water pollution. (2 mks)
List four materials used for interfacing. (2mks)
Explain the importance of using acidic substances in cooking bony beef meat. (2mks)
State four points to consider when buying fish (4mks)
State three reasons why a knot should not be used to start stitches. (3mks)
Explain two reasons why it is important to transfer pattern marking from paper pattern to

fabric before cutting out. (2mks)

Give two advantages of flourescent lighting over filament bulb. (2mks)

(a) what is advertising (2mks)

(b) give three disadvantages of advertising (3 mks)

State two disadvantages of using a knitted articles (2mks)
Give three points on choice, use and care of pegs (4 mks)
State three points on care of brooms and brushes (3 mks)
Give two functions of fats in cake making. (2 mks
Three causes of sewing machine not feeding the fabric properly (2mks)

SECTION B.

(a) Oil paints are commonly used as wall finish. Give three advantages of oil paints.

(3mks)
(b) Sufficient ventilation is important in a house. Give four points in support of the above

statement.                                                                                                       (4mks)
(c) Suggest five steps to take to ensure that shoes last long                               (5mks)
(d) Give four differences between soap and soapless detergents                       (4mks)
(e) Explain how to dry clean a scarf.                                                                   (4mks)

(a) Give three points in each case to consider when drawing up diets for
(i) Aged (3mks)
(ii) Vegetarians (3mks)

(b) What causes the following faults in pastry making
(i) Shrunken pastry                                                                                       (3mks)
(ii) Too short and crumbly pastry                                                                (2mks)
(c) Give four basic rules in use and care of a refrigerator                               (4mks)
(d) Discuss two factors which determine an individual’s nutrient requirements.

(a) State four factors to consider when choosing an opening for a garment. (4mks)
(b) Give two advantages and two disadvantages of man made fibres. (4mks)
(c) Describe how to work an overlaid seam on the yoke of a silk blouse. (9mks)
(d) What advice would you give to your friend who has narrow hips about choice of

attire? (3mks)

(a)(i) Give four reasons as to why interlining is used in garment construction. (4mks)
(ii) List four areas on an article where interlining is done (2mks)
(b) Define the following cookery terms
(i) Bake blind (2mks)

(ii) Chopping (2mks)

(iii) Glazing (2mks)

Discuss three advantages of table setting (3mks)
What is meant by the term raising agent? (1mks)

HOMESCIENCE V

MARKING SCHEME

Suitable seam for a pair of shorts
– Double stitched seam (1mk)
Reason
– Strong due to double stitching
– Flat hence comfortable
– Easy to launder (1mk)

Effects of hot water on the following stains
– Blood – hot water fixes the stain (1mk)
– Grease – Hot water emulsifies it (1mk)

Hazards of water pollution
– Kills marine life
– May cause poisoning
– Kill sea plants (2x 1mrk)

Interfacing materials
– Villene
– Organdie
– Staflex
– Calico
– Canvas
Use of acidic substance in cooking meat
– Acid changes collagen to gelatin thus softening the meat. (2×1=2mks)

Factors to consider when buying fish
– No unpleasant smell
– Red gills
– Bright and prominent eyes
– For shell fish the shell should be tightly closed (4×1=4mks)

Why a knot should not be used to start stitches
– Can tear fabric
– Can undo and the stitch is destroyed
– Causes tiny lumps when fabric is pressed (3×1=3mks)

Reasons for transferring pattern marks
– Ensure right parts are joined together
– Ensure good fit/size i.e. stitching line is followed (2×1=2mks)

Advantages of fluorescent lighting
– Fluorescent is long lasting
– gives bright light
– consumes less energy (3×1=3mks)
Meaning of advertising
– Simple way of informing the public about goods and services available in the market.
b. Disadvantages
– Appeals to emotions hence influences consumer psychologically
– The manufacturer will bear the cost of advertising
– can cause product of low quality to be preferred to that of high quality (3×1=3mks)

Disadvantages of knitted Articles
– Ladders Very Easily
– Bulges At Knees And Elbow
– Easily Pulls out of shape

Points on choice use and care of pegs
– Should be made of good quality material – plastic or wood
– Ensure they are clean and dry before use
– Keep pegs in a clean container or bag. (4×1=4mks)
– Should be strong and well designed to hold clothes firmly on the line

Care of brooms and brushes
–Store With Head Between Two Nails
– Remove Fluffs After Use
– Shake Off And Dust Before Storage (3×1=3mks)

Functions of fats in cake making
– Shortens The Mixture
– Improves The Keeping Quality
– Helps In Aeration
– Improves Colour (2×1=2mks)
Causes of a sewing machine not feeding fabric properly
– Fabric Held Too Tightly
– Feed Dog May Be Covered
– Insufficient Pressure On The Pressure Foot
– Length Too Short

SECTION B.

(a) Advantages of oil paints
– Water repellent hence easily cleaned
– Surface is smooth therefore dust does not settle on it.
– Oil paint is durable (3×1=3mks)

(b) Prevent humidity
– Get Rid Of Surplus Heat From People And Machinery
– Remove Any Ordours
– Increase Free Circulation of air (4×1=4mks)

(c) – Polish to preserve
– Repair Immediately When Torn
– Store On Shoe Rack
– Dry in a cool place
– Wear With socks to absorb perspiration (5×1=5mks)

(d) Soapless detergents do not foam fast with hard water while soap does
– soaps are made from animal\vegetable fat while soapless are from chemicals
– soapless come in different strengths
– soapless forms lather in both warm and cold water (4×1=4mks)

(e) Dry-cleaning a scarf
– Shake dust
– Put solvent in a container and immerse garment in it squeezing gently
– squeeze out and hang in open air
– leave solvent to settle and drain then store. (4mks)

Factors to consider in drawing a diet for
(i) Aged
– Balanced
– Easy to digest
– Less energy giving foods
– Food rich in minerals and vitamins
– Serve in small amounts (3×1=3mks)

(ii) Vegetarians
– Balanced
– Well flavored
– Varied to avoid monotony
– use vegetable fats and oils for preparing (3×1=3mks)

(b) Shrunken pastry
– Insufficient relaxing
– Stretching during shaping
– stretching during rolling (3×1=3mks)

(ii) Short and crumbly pastry
– too much fat
– too little water (2×1=2mks)

Basic rule in use and care of a refrigerator.
– Do not store hot food in the refrigerator, it lowers the temperatures
– Store food in covered containers or polythene papers to prevent dehydration
– Do not overload to allow free circulation of air
– Store meal size portions
– Place fridge in the coolest part of the kitchen
– Do not use sharp instruments to remove ice to prevent scratching the surface.
Three classes of beverages and give an example of each
– Stimulants – Tea or coffee
– Nourishing – milk
– Refreshing – Fruit juices

(e) Two factors which determine an individual’s nutrient requirement (2×1=2marks)
– Age – young children require more protein
– Climate – cold areas – more energy foods
– Body size
– State of health – invalids and convalescents
(stating ½mrk, explaining ½mrk)

(a) Factors to consider in choice of an opening (4×1=4mks)
– Position of opening
– Type of fabric
– Type of fastening
– Age of wearer
– Purpose of opening

(b) Advantages of man made fibers (2×1=2mks)
– Durable
– Resistant to sunlight
– Thermoplastic (can be pleated)
– Smooth, Soft. Slippery

Disadvantages (2×1=2mks)
– Yarn spillage is common
– Poor absorbency
– Not resistant to abrasion
– Holds and generates static electricity

(c) How to work overlaid seam, (11mks)
– Turn seam allowance ½ on the F.L. ½ of the overlay ½ to the wrong side ½ .
– Press and hold with tacking
– Place the overlay ½ over the underlay ½ with folding ½ of overlay lying on the F.L.

½ of the overlay.
– Pin , tack ½ and machine ½ close ½ to the fold on R.S. ½ . Remove tacking ½
– Turn to the W.S. trim ½ the raw edges to within hem ½ of the fitting line.
– Neaten ½ raw edges using loop stitches ½ . Press ½ the completed seam

(d) 3 pieces of advice you would give to your friend who has narrow hips on choice of clothes (3×1=3mks)
– She should wear pleated skirts
– Wear over blouses
– Bulky fabrics are suitable
– to avoid tight fitting skirts

(i) Reasons for using interlining (4×1=4mks)
– Gives added crease resistance
– Increases life to garment
– Adds warmth
– Adds firmness to a complete silhouette

(ii) – Areas ( ½ x 4mks)
– Pockets
– Collar
– Hems
– Cuffs
– Waistband

(b) Cookery terms
(i) Bake blind – refers to the baking of pastry without a filling (2mks)
(ii) Chopping – cutting finely especially of vegetables (2mks)
(iii) Glazing – applying of egg white on an item before baking to give a good

appearance (2mks)

(c) Steps in making a budget (4×1=4mks)
– Establish family financial goal both present and future
– Estimate income from all sources
– List committed, fixed and unchangeable expenses
– Total plan for expenditure and compare with estimated income

(d) Advantages of table setting (3×1=3mks)
– Makes the act of eating easier
– It increases the diners’ appetite as items are smartly presented
– It gives order during meal times

(e) Raising agent is any substance which when added to a flour mixture provides a gas which expands upon heating, raising the mixture. (1mrk)

HOMESCIENCE VI

SECTION A

State three points on choice, use and care of a charcoal iron (3 mks)
List three disadvantages of using hard water in the home (3mks)
(a) Define the term accessories (1 mk)
List two examples of accessories that are both functional and decorative (1 mk)
State four uses of milk in cookery (2 mks)
Give four points to consider when buying fabric for soft furnishing (4 mks)
Write four points to consider when planning meals for the family (4 mks)
State three reasons for using interlining on garments (3 mks)

(a) Define glare (1 mk)

(b) Give three attributes of good artificial light (3 mks)

State four factors to consider when buying a house (2 mks)
Heavy close texture is a common fault in creamed cakes. State three causes for the above (3 mks)
Give three qualities of a good dust bin (1½ mks)
State three rules of sewing on buttons (1½ mks)
Give three advantages of sponging in laundry work (3 mks)
Give two causes of fabric puckering during sewing (2 mks)
Suggest three reasons for using fullness in garment construction (1½ mks)
State three points to bear in mind when choosing flowers for flower arrangement

(3 mks)

State three changes that occur in meat during roasting (3mks)
State the importance of play in the life of a young child (3 mks)
Budgeting for one’s income is very important. List three factors to consider when

making a budget (1½ mks)

SECTION B.

(i) Explain briefly why the following processes are done in laundry work

(ii) Starching (2 mks)

(iii) Boiling (2 mks)

(iv) Dampening (2 mks)

(v) State four advantages of using carpets as floor covering materials (4 mks)

(vi) Discuss five factors to consider in choice of a washing machine (10mks)

(a) Osteomalacia is a common disorder among women of child-bearing age. Give four

symptoms of the above disorder (4 mks)

(b). Discuss five uses of fruits in cookery (4 mks)

(c). Discuss five points to consider when preparing meals for children (5 mks)

22 (a) Mention five properties which make synthetic fabrics suitable for household articles (5mks)

(b) Give clear instructions on how to work darts (7 mks)

23.(a)French seam is a popular seam in children articles. Explain clearly how to work the

seam (8 mks)

(b). State and explain four general rules to observe when removing stains (4 mks)

(d). Define the following terms used in cookery

(a) Raising agent (2 mks)

(b) Braising (2 mks)

HOMESCIENCE VI

MARKING SCHEME

Three points on choice, use and care of charcoal iron

– Firmly fixed screws

– Comfortable handle and sufficient pressure

– Close iron well and clean sole before using

– Empty after use

– Store in cool, dry place

(1 X 3 = 3 mks)

– Wastes soap during washing

– Forms scum with soap when rinsing hence discolours clothes

– Can cause blockage in pities

– Discolours kettles and boilers

(1 X 3 = 3 mks)

a) – Assessories are small things worn or carried as part of ones dressing (1 mk)

(b) Ring, watches, hair clips

(½ X 1 = 1 mk)

– Sauces e.g. custard sauce

– Bulters

– Beverages – tea, milkshake

– Puddings

– For enriching e.g. mashed potatoes

(½ X 4 = 2 mks)

– Colour must be fast

– Fabric should be shrink resistant

– Should be crease resistant

– Colour blends well with rest of décor

– Easy to launder

– Durable (1 X 4 = 4 mks)

– Should be balanced

– Individual requirements

– Food in season

– Money available

– Climate

– Time available

– Fuel

– Facilities available

(1 X 4 = 4 mks)

– Give added crease resistance

– Prevent stretching or sagging

– Increase life of garment

– Add warmth

– Add firmness to a complete suhoule

(1 X 3 = 3 mks)

8.(a)- Glare is any brightness within the field of vision which causes the eye to strain

(1 mk)

(b) – Does not cast shadows

– Not cause glare

– Not waver or fricker

– Does not discharge impurities in the air

(1 X 3 = 3 mks)

– Buying a house

– Cost. Should be within

– Value of house. Seek professional advice to determine worth

– Location of house

– Construction

– Orientation

– Reliability of seller

– Family requirements

(½ X 4 = 2 mks)

– Insufficient creaming

– Too much liquid

– Too slow an oven

– Too hot oven

– Insufficient cooking

(1 x 3 = 3 mks)

– Made of strong leak proof material

– Well fitting lid

– Large enough

(½ x 3 = 1½ mks)

– All flat buttons must be sewn leaving a shank

– Buttons should be sewn on double fabric

– Buttons with a stem do not need a shank

– Should be firmly fixed

– Accurately positioned

– Place right side upright

(½ x 3 = 1½ Mks)

– Solutions are simple to make at home

– Saves money and time since it reduces on commercial dry cleaning

– Reduces risk of colour loss or shape

(1 x 3 = 3 mks)

– Needle too coarse for fabric

– Stitches too long incase of fine fabric

(1 x 2 = 2 mks)

– Using fullness

– Provide fashion feature

– Shape the garment

– Give a good fit

(1 x 3 = 3 mks)

– Make sure follage is clean

– Choose fresh flowers

– Use a mixture of flat and pointed flowers

– Avoid using strong scented flowers

Avoid cutting too many flowers in full bloom as they wither quickly

(1 x 3 = 3 mks)

– The fat melts

– Colour changes from red to brown

– Soluble proteins coagulated resulting in meat being firmer

– Elasting contracts causing meat to shrink

(1 x 3 = 3 mks)

– Play helps a child to develop mentally e.g. building blocks

– Helps a child to socialize with the others

– Help in physical development e.g. climbing, running

(1 x 3 = 3 mks)

– Amount of money available

– Needs of the individual family members

– Needs should be ranked in order of priority

– Fixed expense should be listed down

– Saving should be done

(½ x 3 = 1½ Mks)

SECTION B.

20.i. (a) Starching

– Give articles a glossy appearance

– Give a smooth surface which dirt does not adhere to

– Stiffens (gives body)

– Whitens articles (2 mks)

(ii) Boiling

– Whiten articles

– Kills germs

– Removes stubborn stains (2 mks)

(iii) Dampening

– Sprinkle warm water – it spreads better

– Helps in removal of creases (2 mks)

Advantages of carpet

– They are warm

– Deaden sound

– Comfortable to the feet

– Add to the colour scheme of the room

(1 x 4 = 4 mks)

v. Five points in choice of a washing machine

– Size of family or establishment to determine size to be bought

– Space available for storage

– Cost and maintenance

– Consider control of the machine

– Buy from reputable dealer

– Should have instruction manual

– Consider serviceability of the machine

(2 x 5 = 10 mks)

21.(a) Symptoms of osteomalacia

– Bone tenderness

– Patients walk with legs wide apart appearing to waddle

– Twitching of muscles

– Spontaneous fracture may occur

(1 x 4 = 4 mks)

(b) Uses of fruits

– In jam making – plum, pineapple

– As a dessert – fruit salad

– For garnishing – cakes

– Making sauces – apples

– Making jelly

– As a filling for a dessert pineapple upside down

– Fruits in jelly

(1 x 4 = 4 mks)

Factors to consider in preparing meals for children

– Well balanced

– Easy to digest foods

– Serve their food punctually

– Present their food attractively

– Breast milk is best for baby

– Contains nutrients in their right amounts

– Is at the right temperature for the baby

– Contains antibodies

– Free from contamination

– Helps develop bond between mother and child

(Well discussed 2 x 3 = 6 mks)

22.(a) Five properties which make synthetic popular

– Smooth and have a luxurious appearance

– They are resilient, creases hang out easily

– Light in weight even if given bulk treatment hence suitable for air travel

– Resistant to sunlight except for nylon

– Not attacked by moth

– Not absorbent hence dry quickly

– Thermoplastic – can be permanently pleated

(1 x 5 = 5 mks)

(b) Working dart

Fold (½) fabric right sides (½) together matching stitching (½) line pins (½) and tack

(½)

Starting from broad end (½) stitch (½) along the fitting line (½) until dart tapers to

nothing in the fold (½)

– Leave long threads (½) fasten by weaving or back stitch (½)

– Remove tacking (½) press (½) dart towards correct direction (½)

– Five general rules for making seams

– Always stitch along the grain for good hang

– Match all balance marks and fitting lines before stitching

– Tack firmly along fitting line

– Stitch exactly on the fitting line

– Conceal all raw edges or strengthened by protective stitching

– All seams must be inconspicuous as possible

– Should be fine

Sharp

Stainless

Eye should be smoothly finished

Easy to thread

Assorted (1 x 3 = 3 mks)

23.(a) Working French seam

– Place two pieces of material W.S (½) together with notches and fitting line matching

(½)

– Pin (½) and tack (½) on the F.L line (½ ) machine ¼”(½) above the fitting line

– Remove tacking (½) trim turning (½) to less than the finished width of the seam press

(½) open (½)

– Turn so that the R.S. (½) of material is inside and crease along the stitching line pin

(½) tack (½) machine (½) on the F.L

– Remove tacking (½) press the seam (½) to one side of garment (8 mks)

(b) General rules on stain removal

– Remove when fresh as they become fixed with time

– Use less harmful method first for unknown stains

– Use correct agents for stains clearly identified

– Stains removing agents must be in solution when used on coloured fabrics

– Wash garment thoroughly after stain removal

– If agent is suspected to be too strong for fabric try it first on hidden parts of the garment

– Study the general appearance of the stain first

(Any other 1 X4 = 4 mks)

(c) Advantages of advertising

– Informs consumers about goods and services

– Consumers can choose what they want

– Advertising increases demand for a product

– Competition among manufacturers is increased leading to quality goods

(1 x 2 = 2 mks)

Disadvantages

– Gives false information to the consumers

– Increases cost of goods

– Can make goods of low quality to be preferred to those of low quality

(1 x 2 = 2 mks)

(d). (a) Raising Agent

– Any agent which when added to flour mixtures produces a gas which expands upon

heating raising the mixture (2 mks)

(b) Braising

– Methods of cooking food especially meat and poultry on a bed of fried root vegetables

known as the mire poix (2 mks)

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Business Studies Best Two One Notes Free

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

TOPIC 1: FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS

TOPIC OBJECTIVES

BUSINESS UNITS

A business unit is an organization formed by one or more people with a view of engaging in a profitable activity.

Business units are generally classified into private or public sector business units’ i.e

Note: Private sector comprises of business organizations owned by private individuals while the public sector comprises business organizations owned by the government.

SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP

This is a business enterprise owned by one person who is called a sole trader or a sole proprietor. It is the most common form of business unit and usually found in retail trade e.g. in small shops, kiosks, agriculture e.t.c and for direct services e.g. cobblers saloons e.t.c

Characteristics/Features

The business is owned by one person
The capital is contributed by the owner and is usually small. The main source is from his savings and other sources can be from friends, bank or getting an inheritance
The owner enjoys all the profits alone and also suffers the losses alone
The owner is personally responsible for the management of the business and sometimes he is assisted by members of his family or a few employees. He remains responsible for the success or failure of his/her business.
The sole proprietor has unlimited liability meaning that incase of failure to meet debts, his creditor can claim his personal property
There are very few legal requirements to start the business unit.
Sole proprietorship is flexible; it is very easy to change the location or the nature of business.

Formation

The formation of a sole proprietorship is very simple. Few legal formalities are required i.e. to start a sole proprietorship, one need only to raise the capital required and then apply for a trading license to operate the business small fee is paid and the trade license issued.

Sources of capital

The amount of capital required to start a sole proprietorship is small compared to other forms of business organizations. The main source of capital is the Owners savings. Additional capital may however be raised from the following;

Borrowing from friends, banks and other money lending institutions such as industries and commercial Development corporation(ICDC)and Kenya industrial estates
Inheritance
Personal savings
Getting goods on credit
Getting goods on hire purchase
Leasing or renting out one’s properties
Donations from friends and relatives
Ploughing back profit.

Management

The management of this kind of a business is under one person. The owner may however employ other people or get assistance from family members to run the business.

Some sole proprietorship may be big business organizations with several departments and quite a number of employees. However, the sole proprietor remains solely responsible for the success of failure of the business

Advantages of sole proprietorship

The capital required to start the business is small hence anybody who can spare small amounts of money can start one.
Few formal/legal procedures are required to set up this business
Decision making and implementation is fast because the proprietor does not have to consult anybody
The trader has close and personal contact with customers. This helps them in knowing exactly what the customers need and hence satisfying those needs
A sole proprietor is able to assess the credit-worthiness of his or her customers because of close personal relationship. Extending credit to a few carefully selected customers reduce the probability of bad debts.
The trader is accountable to him/herself
A sole trader is able to keep the top secrets of the business operations
He/she enjoys all the profit
A sole proprietorship is flexible. One can change the nature or even the location of business as need arises.

Disadvantages of sole proprietorship

Has unlimited liability. This means that if the assets available in the business are not enough to pay all the business debts the personal property of the owner such as house will be sold to meet the debts
There is insufficient capital for expansion because of scarce resources and lack of access to other sources
He/she is overworked and has no time for recreation.
There is lack of continuity in the sole proprietorship i.e the business is affected by sickness or death of the owner.
A sole proprietorship may not benefit from advantages realized by large scale enterprises (economies of large scale) such as access to loan facilities and large trade discounts.
Lack of specialization in the running of the business may lead to poor performance. This is because one person cannot manage all aspects of the business effectively. One maybe a good salesman for examples but a poor accountant.
Due to the size of the business, sole proprietorships do not attract and retain highly qualified and trained personnel.

Dissolution of sole proprietorships

Dissolution refers to the termination of the legal life of a business. The following circumstances may lead to the dissolution of a sole proprietorship:

Death or insanity of the owner.
Transfer of the business to another person- this transfers the rights and obligations of the business to the new owner.
Bankruptcy of the owner- this means that the owner lacks the financial capability to run the business.
The owner voluntarily decides to dissolve the business e.g due to continued loss making.
Passing of a law which renders the activities of the business illegal.
The expiry of the period during which the business was meant to operate

PARTNERSHIP:

This is a relationship between persons who engage in a business with an aim of making profits/ an association of two or more persons who run a business as co-owners. The owners are called Partners.

It is owned by a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 20 except for partnership who provide professional services e.g medicine and law which have a maximum of 50 persons.

Characteristics of partnership

Capital is contributed by the partners themselves.
Partnership has limited life that is it may end anytime because of the death, bankruptcy or withdrawal of partners.
Each partner acts as an agent of the firm with authority to enter into contracts.
Partners are co owners of a business, having an interest or claim in the business.
Responsibility, profit and losses are shared on an agreed basis.
All partners have equal right to participate in the management of the business. This right arises from the interest or claim of the partner as a co owner of the business.

Types of partnership

Partnerships can be classified/ categorized in either of the following ways:

According to the type/liability of partners
According to the period of operation
According to their activities.

According to the type or liability of partners

Under this classification, partnerships can either be;

General/ordinary partnership- Here all members have unlimited liability which means in case a partnership is unable to pay its debts, the personal properties of the partner will be sold off to pay the debts.
Limited partnerships- In limited partnership members have limited liabilities where liability or responsibility is restricted to the capital contributed.

This means that incase the partnership cannot pay its debts; the partners only lose the amount of capital each has contributed to the business and not their personal property. However, there must be one partner whose liabilities are unlimited.

According to the period/duration of operation

When partnerships are classified according to duration of operation, they can either be;

Temporary partnership-These are partnerships that are formed to carry out a specific task for a specific time after which the business automatically dissolves.
Permanent partnerships- These are partnerships formed to operate indefinitely. They are also called a partnership at will.
According to their Activity- Under this mode of classification, partnerships can either be:
Trading partnerships

This is a partnership whose main activity is processing, manufacturing, construction or purchase and sale of goods.

Non – trading partnerships

This is a partnership whose main activity is to offer services such as legal, medical or accounting services to members of the public.

Types of partners

Partners may be classified according to;

Role played by the partners

Active partner; He is also known as acting partner as he plays an active part in the day-to-day running of the business.
Sleeping/dormant partner; He does not participate in the management of the partnership business. Although he invests his capital in the partnership, his profit is lower as he is not active. He is also referred to as passive or silent partner.

Liabilities of the partners for the business debts;

General partner; He/she has unlimited liabilities.
Limited partner; He/she has limited liabilities

Ages of partners

Major partner; This is a partner who is 18 years and above. He is responsible for all debts of the business.
Minor partner; This is a partner who has not attained the age of 18 years but has been admitted with the consent of other partners. Once he reaches 18 years, he then decides if he wants to be a partner or not. Before he attains the age of 18, he takes part in the sharing of profits but does not take part in the management of the business.

iv) Capital contribution

Nominal/Quasi partner; He does not contribute capital but allows the business to use his/ her name as a partner; for the purpose of influencing customers or for prestige.

-He/she can also be a person who was once a partner and has retired in form of a loan. This loan carries interest at an agreed rate.

-The quasi partner shares the profit of the business as a reward for using his/her name.

b) Real partner; He/she is one who contributes capital to the business.

-Other types of partners include secret partners, retiring partners and incoming partners

i) A secret partner; is one who actively participates in the management of the firm but is not disclosed to the public. In most cases secret partners are also limited partners.
ii) A retiring partner; Also known as outgoing partner is one who is leaving a partnership

-He may retire with the consent of all the other partners or according to a previous agreement.

iii) Incoming partner; Is one who is admitted to an existing partnership.

Formation

-People who want to form a partnership must come together and agree on how the proposed business will be run to avoid future misunderstanding.

-The agreement can either be oral (by use of mouth) or within down. A written agreement is called a partnership deed.

-The contents of the partnership deed vary from one partnership to another depending on the nature of the business, but generally it contains;

Name, location and address of the business
Name, address and occupation of the partners
The purpose of the business
Capital to be contributed by cash partner
Rate of interest on capital
Drawings by partners and rate of interest on drawings
Salaries and commissions to partners
Rate of interests on loans from partners to the business
Procedures of dissolving the partnership
Profit and loss sharing ratio
How to admit a new partner
What to do when a partner retires dies or is expelled
The rights to inspect books of accounts
Who has the authority to act on behalf of other partners.

Once the partnership deed is ready, the business may be registered with the registrar of firms on payment of a registration fee.

In case a partnership deed is not drawn, the provisions of partnership act of 1963 (Kenya) applies. The act contains the following rights and duties of a partner;

All partners are entitled to equal contribution of capital
No salary is to be allowed to any partner
No interest is to be allowed on capital
No interest is to be charged on drawings
All profits and losses are to be shared equally
Every partner has the right to inspect the books of accounts
Every partner has the right to take part in decision making
Interest is to paid on any loans borrowed by partners (The % rate varies from one country to another)
During dissolution the debts from outside people are paid first then loans from partners and lastly partners capital.
No partner should carry out a competing business
Any change in business such as admission of new partners must be through the agreement of all existing partners.
Compensation must be given to a partner who incurs any loss when executing the duties of the business.

Sources of capital

Partners contribution
Loans from banks and other financial institutions
Getting items on hire purchase
Trade credit
Ploughing back profit
Leasing and renting.

Advantages of partnership

Unlike sole proprietorship, partnership can raise more capital.
Work is distributed among the partners. This reduces the workload for each partner
Varied professional/skilled labour; various partners are professionals in various different areas leading to specialization
They can undertake any form of business agreed upon by all the partners
There are few legal requirements in the formation of a partnership compared to a limited liability company.
Losses and liabilities are shared among partners
Continuity of business is not affected by death or absence of a partner as would be in the case of a sole proprietorship
Members of partnership enjoy more free days and are flexible than owners of a company
A Partnership just like sole proprietorship is exempted from payment of certain taxes paid by large business organizations.

Disadvantages of partnership

A mistake made by one of the partners may result in losses which are shared by all the partners
Continued disagreement among the partners can lead to termination of the partnership
Decision-making is slow since all the partners must agree
A partnership that relies heavily on one partner may be adversely affected on retirement or death of the partner
A hard working partner may not be rewarded in proportion to his/her effort because the profits are shared among all the partners
There is sharing of profits by the partners hence less is received by each partner
Few sources of capital, due to uncertainty in the continuity of the business few financial institutions will be willing to give long-term loans to the firm.

Dissolution of partnership

A partnership may be dissolved under any of the following circumstances:

A mutual agreement by all the partners to dissolve the business
Death insanity or bankrupting of a partner
A temporary partnership on completion of the intended purpose or at the end of the agreed time.
A court order to dissolve the partnership
Written request for dissolution by a partner
If the business engages in unlawful practices
Retirement or admission of a new partner may lead to a permanent or temporary dissolution
Continued disagreements among the partners

INCORPORATED FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS

These are businesses that have separate legal entities from that of their owners. They include:

CO-OPERATIVES

-A co-operative society is a form of business organization that is owned by and run for the economic welfare of its members

-It is a body of persons who have joined together to do collectively what they were previously doing individually for mutual benefit.

Example

In Kenya the co-operative movement was started by white settlers in 1908 to market their agricultural produce. In this case, they knew that they could sell their produce better if they were as a group and not alone

Principles of co-operatives

Open and voluntary membership

Membership is open and voluntary to any person who has attained the age of 18 years. No one should be denied membership due to social, political, tribal or religious differences. A member is also free to leave the society at will

Democratic Administration

The principle is one man one vote. Each member of the co-operative has only one vote irrespective of the number of shares held by him or how much he buys or sells to the society

Dividend or repayment

-Any profit/surplus made at the end of every financial year should be distributed to the members in relations to their contribution.

-Part of the profit may be retained/reserved/put in to strengthen the financial position of the society.

Limited interest on share capital

-A little or no interest is paid on share capital contributed (co-operatives do not encourage financial investment habits but to enhance production, to encourage savings and serve the members)

Promotion of Education

Co-operative societies should endeavor to educate their members and staff on the ideas of the society in order to enhance/improve quality of decisions made by the concerned parties.

Education is conducted through seminars, study tours, open days

Co-operation with other co-operatives

C-operatives must learn from each others experience since they have a lot in common.

-Their co-operation should be extended to local national and international.

Features of co-operatives

Membership is open to all persons so long as they have a common interest. Members are also free to discontinue their membership when they desire so
Co-operative societies have a perpetual existence; death, bankruptcy or retirement of a member does not affect its operations
They are managed in a democratic manner. Every member has one vote when electing the managerial committee irrespective of the number of shares held.
The main aim is to serve the interest of the members where profit is not the over riding factor.
Co-operative societies have limited liabilities
There must be a minimum of 10 people with no maximum membership.
Co-operatives have a separate legal entity from the members who formed it i.e they can own property sue and be sued
Any profit made by the society is distributed to the members on the basis of the services rendered by each member but not according to the capital contributed.

Formation

-Co-operative societies can be formed by people who are over eighteen years regardless of their economic, political or social background.

-There must be a minimum of 10 persons and no maximum no.

-The members draft rules and regulations to govern the operations of the proposed society i.e. by-laws, which are then submitted to the commissioner of co-operatives for approval

-The registrar then approves the by-laws and issues a certificate of registration

-If the members are unable to draw up their own by-laws, the co-operative societies Act of 1966 can be adopted in part or whole

Management

-A co-perative society is composed/run by a committee usually of nine members elected by the members in a general meeting

-The management committee elects the chairman, secretary and treasurer as the executive committee members, who act on behalf of all the members and can enter into contracts borrow money institute and depend suits and other legal proceedings for the society

-The committee members can be voted out in an A.G.M if they don’t perform as expected.

TYPES OF CO-OPERATIVES SOCIETIES IN KENYA

May be grouped according to;

Nature of their activities

Producer co-operatives
Consumer co-operatives
Savings and credit co-operatives

Level of operations

Primary co-operatives
Secondary co-operatives

Producer co-operatives

This is an association of producers who have come together to improve the production and marketing of their products.

Functions

Obtaining better prices for their members products
Providing better storage facilities for their products
Providing better and reliable transport means for moving the products from the sources to the market and building feeder roads
Providing loans to members
Providing services of grading, packing and processing to the members
Providing farm inputs e.g. fertilizers, seeds, insecticides e.t.c on credit to members
Educating and advising members on better methods of farming through seminars, field trips, films and demonstration

-In this type of co-operative members are paid according to the quantity of the produce a member has delivered to the society.

Examples,

KCC-Kenya Co-operative Creameries

K.P.C.U-Kenya Planters Co-operatives Union

K.G.G.C.U-Kenya Grain Growers Co-operative Union

Consumer Co-operatives

-These are formed by a group of consumers to buy goods on wholesome and sell them to the members at existing market prices.

-Their aim is to eliminate the wholesalers and retailers and hence obtain goods more cheaply

-The co-operatives allow their members to buy goods on credit or in cash

-Members of the public are also allowed to buy from the society at normal prices thereby enabling the society to make more profits

-The profits realized is shared among the members in proportion to their purchases i.ethe more a member buys, the buyer his/her share of profit

Examples;-Nairobi consumer co-operative union, Bee-hive consumer co-operative society and City-chicken consumer co-operative society

Advantages

Sell goods of high quality
Sell goods to members at fair prices
Sell goods to other people at normal prices thereby making more profit
Buy goods directly from the producers thereby eliminating middlemen. They are therefore able to make more profit
Can give credit facilities to the members
Can pay interest on capital to the members
Sell a variety of goods to the members at a place where they can easily get them

Disadvantages

Consumer co-operatives are not popular in Kenya because of the following

They face stiff competition from large scale retailers such as supermarkets and multiple shops who buy goods directly from the producers and sell-them to consumers at low prices
Cannot offer to employ qualified staff
Majority of their members have low income, so raising off capital is a problem
Kenya, being an agricultural country, produces enough subsistence goods for itself. It therefore does not require consumer co-operatives
Reluctance of non-members to buy from the shops lowers the turn-over
Mismanagement of the shops is rampant

Savings and credit co-operatives societies (SACCO’S)

-They are usually formed by employed persons who save part of their monthly salary with their co-operative society, through check-off system

-Their money earns goods interest and when one has a significant amount saved, he/she become entitled to borrow money from the society for any personal project e.g. improving their farms, constructing houses, paying school fees e.t.c

-The SACCOS charge lower interest on loans given to members than ordinary banks and other financial institutions.

-The societies have few formalities or requirements to be completed before giving a loan. These are:

Membership
Members salary
Members saving
Guarantee from fellow members

-Profits earned by the SACCO’S maybe shared among the members inform of dividends.

-Most SACCO’S have insured their members savings and loans with co-operative insurance services (CIS).This means if a member dies his/her beneficiaries are not called upon to repay the loan and the members savings/shares is given to the beneficiaries.

-They are the main institutions that provide loans to most people who do not qualify for loans from commercial banks because they do not ask for securities such as title deeds required by the bank.

d) Primary co-operative societies

-These are co-operative societies composed of individuals who are either actual producers, consumers or people who join up together to save and obtain credit most conveniently

-Consumer co-operative societies and most SACCO’S are primary co-operative societies because they are composed of individuals.

-Most primary co-operative societies operate at the village level, others at district levels and a few at national levels.

e) Secondary co-operative societies

-They are usually referred to as unions

-They are generally composed of primary co-operative societies as their members

-They are either found at district levels or at national levels.

Advantages of co-operative societies;

Since the properties of co-operatives are owned collectively, they are able to serve the interest of the members affectively
They have limited liability
Membership is free and voluntary
Members share profits of a co-operative through dividend that are given
They have improved the standards of living of their members through increased income from their produce and through savings from incomes.
Co-operatives benefit their members through giving them credit facilities and financial loans which they could not have got from local banks
They are run on a democratic basis i.e. all members have an equal chance of being elected to the management committee.
Many co-operatives are large scale organizations hence able to get the benefits of large scale organizations e.g low production costs leading to low prices of products
Co-operative enjoy a lot of support from the government and when they are in financial and managerial problems, the government steps in to assist them

Disadvantages

Majority of the co-operatives are small in size and therefore cannot benefit from economies of scale.
Members have a right to withdraw from the society and when they do, co-operatives refunds the capital back which might create financial problems to the society.
Corruption and embezzlement of funds is a problem for many co-operatives.
Most co-operatives are not able to attract qualified managerial staff hence leading to mismanagement.
Many suffer from political interference. Sometimes; the election of the management committee is interceded with by some people with personal interest in certain candidates hence the best person may not be elected to run the affairs of the society. This leads to poor management and inefficiency.
Members may not take keen interest in the affairs of a co-operative society because their capital contribution is small.

Dissolution of co-operative societies

-A co-operative society may be dissolved under any of the following circumstances.

Order from commissioner of co-operatives
Voluntary dissolution by members
Withdrawal of members from the society leaving less than ten members
If the society is declared bankrupt

LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES (JOINT STOCK COMPANIES)

Defn: A company; Is an association of persons registered under the companies act who contribute capital in order to carry out business with a view of making a profit. The act of registering a company is referred to as incorporation. Incorporation creates an organization that is separate and distinct from the person forming it.

-A company is a legal entity that has the status of an ‘’artificial person”. It therefore has most of the rights and obligations of a human being. A company can therefore do the following;

Own property
Enter into contracts in its own name.
Borrow money.
Hire and fire employees.
Sue and be sued on its own right.
Form subordinate agencies, ie, agencies under its authority.
Disseminate or spread information.

–The owners (members) of a company are referred to as shareholders

FEATURES OF COMPANIES (LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES)

–A company in an artificial person and has the same rights as a natural person. It can therefore sue and be sued in a court of law, own property and enter into contracts in its own name.

–The members have limited liabilities.

–Companies have perpetual life which is independent of the lives of its owners. Death, insanity or bankruptcy of a member does not affect the existence of the company. (this is referred to as perpetual existence or perpetual succession)

– A company is created for a particular purpose or purposes.

Formation

-People who wish to form company are referred to as promoters

–The promoters submit the following documents to the registrar of companies:

Memorandum of Association

-This is a document that defines the relationship between the company and the outsiders. It contains the following:

a) Name of the company/Name clause; -The name of the company must be started and should end with the word “Limited” (Ltd).This indicates that the liability of the company is limited.

-Some companies end their names with “PLC” which stands for “Public limited company” which makes the public aware that although it is a limited liability company it is a public not private.

b) The objects of the company/objective clause;-This set out the activities that the company should engage in

-The activities listed in this clause serve as a warning to outsiders that the company is authorized in these activities only.

c) Situation clause;-Every company must have a registered office where official notices and other communication can be received and sent
d) Capital clause;-It also states that the amount of capital which the business can raise and the divisions of this capital into units of equal value called shares i.e. authorized share capital also called registered or nominal share capital.

-It also specifies the types of shares and the value of each share

e) Declaration clause:-This is a declaration signed by the promoters stating that they wish to form the company and undertake to buy shares in the proposed firm

-The declaration is signed by a minimum of seven promoters for public limited company and a minimum of two for private company.

-The memorandum of association also contains the names of the promoters

-The promoters signs against the memorandum showing details of their names, addresses, occupation and shares they intend to buy. Each signatory should agree to take at least one share.

Articles of Association

-This is a document that governs the internal operations of the company

-It also contains rules and regulations affecting the shareholders in relation to the company and in relation to the shareholders themselves.

-It contains the following;

Rights of each type of shareholder e.g. voting rights
Methods of calling meeting and procedures
Rules governing election of officials such as chairman of the company, directors and auditors
Rules regarding preparation and auditing of accounts
Powers, duties and rights of directors
Methods dealing with any alterations on the capital.

A list of directors with details of their names, addresses, occupations, shares subscribed and statements of agreement to serve as directors.
Declaration that registration requirements as laid down by law (by the companies act) have been met. The declaration must be signed by the secretary or a director or a lawyer.
A statement signed by the directors stating that they have agreed to act as directors.
A statement of share capital- this statement gives the amount of capital that the company wishes to raise and its subdivision into shares.

-Once the above documents are ready, they are submitted by the promoters to the registrar of companies. On approval by the Registrar and on payment of a registration fee, a certificate of incorporation (certificate of registration) is issued

-The certificate of incorporation gives the company a separate legal entity.

Sources of capital

Shares; The main source of capital for any company is the sale of shares.

-A share is a unit of capital in a company e.g. if a company states that its capital is ksh.100,000 divided into equal shares of ksh.10 each.

-Each shareholder is entitled to the company’s profit proportionate to the number of shares he/she holds in the company.

Types of shares;

Ordinary shares
Preference shares

Ordinary shares;-Ordinary shares have the following rights:

Have voting rights
Have no fixed rate of dividends. The dividends on them vary according to the amounts of profit made
They have a claim to dividends after the preference shares
If the company is being liquidated, they are paid last after the preference shares

Preference shares;-They have the following characteristics;

Have a fixed rate of sharing profits(dividends)
Have a prior claim to dividends over the ordinary shares
Have no voting rights
Can be redeemable or irredeemable. Redeemable shares are the ones that can be bought back by the company at a future date while irredeemable ones are ones that cannot be bought back
Can be cumulative or non-cumulative. Cumulative shares are the ones that are entitled to dividends whether the company makes profit or not. This means if the company makes a loss or a profit which is not enough for dividends in a certain year, the dividends to cumulative shares are carried forward to the next year(s) when enough profit are made

-Non- cumulative shares are the ones whose dividends are not carried forward to the following year(s)

Debentures

This refers to loans from the public to a company or an acknowledgement of a debt by a company

They carry fixed rate of interest which is payable whether profit are made or not.

They are issued to the public in the same way as shares.

They can be redeemable or irredeemable.

Redeemable debentures are usually secured against the company’s assets in which case they termed as secured debentures or mortgaged debentures.

NB: Where no security is given, the debentures are called unsecured /naked debentures.

Loans from bank and other financial institutions;-A company can borrow long term or short term loans from banks and other money lending institutions such as Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation [I.C.D.C]

These loans are repayable with interest of the agreed rates.

Profits ploughed back;-A company may decide to set aside part of the profit made to be used for specified or general purposes instead of sharing out all the profit as dividends. This money is referred to as a reserve.
Bank overdraft;-A customer to a bank may make arrangements with the bank to be allowed to withdraw more money than he/she has in the account.
Leasing and renting of property.
Goods brought on credit.
Acquiring property through hire purchase.

TYPES OF COMPANIES

PRIVATE LIMITED COMPANY

Private limited company has the following characteristics;

Can be formed by a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 50 shareholders, excluding the employees,
Does not advertise its shares to the public, but sells them privately to specific people
Restricts transfer of shares i.e. a shareholder cannot sell his/her shares freely without the consent of other shareholders.
Can be managed by one or two directors. A big private company may however, require a board of directors
Can start business immediately after receiving the certificate of incorporation without necessarily having to wait for a certificate of trading.
It does not have an authorized minimum share capital figure.
Has a separate legal entity and can own property, enter into contracts, sue or be sued.
Has limited liability.
Has a perpetual existence.

Formation

-It must have a memorandum of association, article of association list of directors, declaration signed by a director or lawyer and certificate of incorporation

Advantages of private limited company

Formation: The Company can be formed more easily than a public company. The cost of information is less than that of a public company
Legal personality: A private company is a separate legal entity from its owners. Like a person, it can own property, sue or be Sued and enter into contacts
Limited liability: Shareholders have limited liability meaning that they are not responsible for the company’s debts beyond the amount due on the shares
Capital: They have access to a large pool of capital than sole proprietorship or a partnership. They can borrow money more easily from financial institutions because it owns assets which can be pledge as security
Management: A private company has a larger pool of professional managers than a sole proprietorship or a partnership. These managers bring in professional skills in their own areas which are of great advantage to a private company
Assured continuity of the business: Death, bankrupty or withdrawal of a shareholder does not affect the continuity of the company
Trading: Unlike a public company a private company can commence trading immediately upon receiving a registration certificate.

Disadvantages of a private company

Returns: A private company, unlike sole proprietorship or a partnership, must submit annual returns on prescribed forms to the registrar of companies immediately after the annual general meeting
Capital: A private company cannot invite the public to subscribe to its shares like a public limited company. It therefore limited access to a wide source of capital.
Share transfer: The law restricts the transfer of shares to its members/shareholders are not free to transfer their shares

II) PUBLIC LIMITED COMPANY;- Public limited companies have the following characteristics:

Can be formed by a minimum of 7(seven) shareholders and no set maximum.
Cannot start business before it is issued with a certificate of trading. This is issued after the certificate of incorporation and after the company has raised a minimum amount of capital
It’s managed by a board of directors.
The shares and debentures are freely transferable from one person to another.
It advertises its shares to the public/ invites the public to subscribe for/buy its shares and debentures.
Must publish their end of year accounts and balance sheets.
Must have an authorized minimum share capital figure.
Has a separate legal entity and can own property, enter into contracts, sue or be sued.
Has limited liability.
Has a perpetual existence.

Advantages of public limited company

Wide range of sources of capital :It has access to wide range of sources of capital especially through the sale of shares and debentures

-They can also borrow money from financial institutions in large sums and have good security to offer to the lenders.

Limited liability: Like private companies, public limited company’s shareholders have limited liability i.e. the shareholders are not liable for the company’s debts beyond the shareholders capital contribution.
Specialized management: PLC’S are able to hire qualified and experienced professional staff.
Wide choice of business opportunities: Due to large amount of capital a public company may be suitable for any type of investment
Share transferability: Shares are freely transferable from one person to another and affects neither the company’s capital nor its continuity.
Continuity: PLC has a continuous life as it is not affected by the shareholders death, insanity, bankruptcy or transfer of shares
Economies of scale: Their large size enables them to enjoy economies of scale operations. This leads to reduced costs of production which raises the levels of profit
Employee’s motivation: They have schemes which enable employees to be part owners of the company which encourages them to work harder in anticipation of higher dividends and growth in the value of the company’s shares.
Share of loss: Large membership and the fact that capital is divided into different classes’ means that the risk of loss is shared and spread.
Shareholders are safe guarded; Publicity of company accounts safeguard against frauds.

Disadvantages of public limited companies

High costs of formation: The process of registering a public company is expensive and lengthy. Some of the costs of information are legal costs, registration fees and taxes
Legal restrictions: A public company must comply with many legal requirements making its operations inflexible and rigid
Alienation of owners: Shareholders non-participation in management is a disadvantage to them
Lack of secrecy: The public limited companies are required by law to submit annual returns and accounts to the registrar of companies denying the company the benefit of keeping its affairs secret. They are also required to publish their end of year accounts and balance sheets.
Conflicts of interests: Directors may have personal interests that may conflict with those of the company. This may lead to mismanagement.
Decision making; Important decision are made by the directors and shareholders. The directors and shareholders meet after long periods which make decision making slow/delayed and expensive.
Diseconomies of scale: The large size and nature of business operations of public limited companies may result in high running/operation costs and inefficiency
Double taxation: There is double taxation since the company is fixed and dividends distributed to the shareholders are also taxed
Inflexibility: Public limited companies cannot easily change its nature of business in response to the changing circumstances in the market. All shareholders must be consulted and agree.

DISSOLUTION OF A COMPANY

The following are the circumstances that may lead to the dissolution of a company:

Failure to commence business within one year- If a company does not commence business within one year from the date of registration, it may be wound up by a court order on application of a member of the company.
Insolvency – when a company is not able to pay its debts, it can be declared insolvent and wound up.
Ultra- vires – this means a company is acting contrary to what is in its objective clause. In such a case, it may be wound up by a court order.
Amalgamation – two or more companies may join up to form one large company completely different from the original ones.
Court order – the court of law can order a company to wind up especially following complaints from creditors.
Decision by shareholders – the shareholders may decide to dissolve a company in a general meeting.
Accomplishment of purpose or expiry of period of operation – a company may be dissolved on accomplishment of its objects, or on expiry of period fixed for its existence.

THE ROLE OF STOCK EXCHANGE AS A MARKET FOR SECURITIES

DEFINATIONS

Stock: a group of shares in a public limited company
Stocks are formed when all the authorized shares in a particular category have been issued and fully paid for.
Stock exchange market: is a market where stocks from Quoted companies are bought and sold
Stock exchange markets enable share holders in public companies to sell their shares to other people, usually members of the public interested in buying them.
A Quoted Company: is a company that has been registered (listed) as a member of the stock exchange market.
Companies that are not quoted cannot have their shares traded in the stock exchange market.
Securities: this could either refer shares or documents used in support of share ownership.
Initial Public Offer (I. P. O): refers to situations in which a company has floated new shares for public subscription ( Has advertised new shares and has invited members of the public to buy them.
Secondary market: The market that deals in second hand shares i.e. the transfer of shares from one person or organization to another.

There is only one stock exchange market in Kenya i.e. The Nairobi Stock Exchange.

A person wishing to acquire shares will do so either at an IPO or in the secondary market. However, an investor cannot buy or sell stocks directly in the stock exchange market. They can only do so through stock brokers.

ROLES OF THE STOCK EXCHANGE MARKET

Facilitates buying of shares- it provides a conducive environment to investors who want to buy shares in different companies.
Facilitates selling of shares- it creates a market for those who wish to sell their shares.
Safeguarding investors’ interests- it monitors the performance of the already quoted companies and those found not meeting expectations are struck off. Companies who want to be quoted must also attain a certain standard of performance.
Provides useful information- it provides timely, accurate and reliable information to investors which enable them to make decisions on the investments to make. The information is passed on through mass media and stock brokers.
Assist companies to raise capital- it assists companies to raise capital by creating an environment through which companies issue new shares to members of the public in an IPO.
Creation of employment- it creates employment for those who facilitate the buying and selling of shares eg stock brokers, stock agents etc.
Raising revenue for the government- the government earns revenue by collecting fees and other levies/ dues from activities carried out in the stock exchange market.
Availing a variety of securities- it avails a variety of securities from which an investor can choose from. The market therefore satisfies needs of various investors eg investors who wish to buy from different companies can do so in the market.
Fixing of prices- the stock exchange market is in a position to determine the true market value of the securities through the forces of demand and supply. This is of great importance to both the buyer and the seller.
Measures a country’s economic progress- the performance of securities in the stock exchange market may be an indicator of a country’s economic progress e.g a constant rise in prices and volumes of securities traded within a given period of time would indicate that the country’s economy is positively growing.
Promotes the culture of saving- it provides investors with opportunities to channel their excess funds. Such people act as role models to other members of the society who may emulate them thereby promoting a saving culture.

PUBLIC CORPORATIONS (STATE CORPORATIONS)

These are organizations formed by and/or controlled by the government (the government has a controlling interest). This means that the government owns more than 50% shares in the corporation. Where the government has full ownership, the organization is known as a parastatal

Public corporations are formed to perform certain/specific functions on behalf of the government.
They are formed to provide essential services that are generally in the public interest, and that may require heavy initial capital investment which few private investors can afford
They are formed by the act of parliament.

Examples

Kenya Railways corporation- provides railway transport
Telkom Kenya-provides telecommunication services
Postal corporation of Kenya
Industrial and commercial Development corporation (ICDC)- financial and management services
Mumias and Chemelil sugar companies.
Kenya air ways- provide air transport services. Etc

Characteristics/features of public corporations

They are formed by the government under the existing laws i.e formed by an act of parliament eg education act
Initial capital is provided by the government.
They are jointly owned by the government and members of public/private investors.
They are set up to perform certain specific functions on behalf of the government
They are managed by a board of directors appointed by the government or appointed by the government and the joint owners.
They have an entity of their own and can own property, enter contracts, sue and be sued
They have limited liability
Some operate without a profit motive while others have a profit motive

Formation

-Some are formed by an act of parliament while others are formed under the existing laws.

-When formed by an act of parliament, the Act defines its status obligations and areas of operation. The Act outlines the following;

Proposed name of the corporation
Aims and objectives
Goods or services to be produced and provided
Location(Area of operation)
The appointment of top executives
The powers of the Board of directors
The ministry under which it will operate

Management

-The public corporations are managed by a board of directors appointed by the president or the relevant minister.

-The chairman and the board of directors are responsible for the implementation of the aims and objectives of the corporations.

-The chairman of the board of directors reports to the government (president) through the relevant minister.

-The managing director who is usually the secretary of the board of directors in the chief executive officer of the corporation

Sources of capital

–The initial capital is usually provided by the government as a vote of expenditure for the ministry concerned

-Those corporations jointly owned by the government and the public raise capital through the sale of shares

-financial institutions in form of loans

-Retained profits/profits ploughed back.

-Hire purchase.

Advantages of public corporations

Initial capital is readily available because it is provided by the government
Can afford to provide goods and services at low prices which would otherwise be expensive if they were left to the private sector.
Most of them produce goods and services in large quantities thereby reaping the benefits of large scale production
Some are monopolies. They hence enjoy the benefits of being a monopoly e.g. they do not have to incur costs advertising since there is no competition
They can be bailed out/assisted by the government when in financial problems
They have limited liability
Money for research and development can be made readily available by the government
Through corporations the government is able to remove foreign domination in the country
They can afford to hire qualified personnel.

Disadvantages of public corporations

They are managed by political appointees who may not have the necessary managerial know how.
When they make losses, they are assisted by the government and this could lead to higher taxation of individuals
Lack of competition due to monopoly leads to inefficiency and insensitivity to customers feelings.
Political interference may hamper efficiency in the achievement of set goals and objectives.
Decision making is slow and difficult because the organizations are large.
They may lack close supervision because of their large sizes.
There is embezzlement of large sums of money leading to loss of public funds
The government is forced to provide goods and services to its citizens in all parts of the country where at times its uneconomical to provide them because the costs of providing them may surpass the returns
Public funds are wasted by keeping poorly managed public corporations.
Diseconomies of scale apply in these business units because they are usually very large scale organizations e.g. decision making may take long.

Dissolution of public corporations

They can only be dissolved by the government due to;

Persistent loss making
Bankruptcy- where the corporation cannot pay its debts.
Change in the act of parliament that formed the corporation.
Mismanagement, resulting in poor management of the corporation.

TRENDS IN FORMS OF BUSINESS UNITS

Globalizations;

This refers to the sharing of worlds resources among all regions i.e where there are no boundaries in business transactions

Some companies referred to as multinationals, have branches in many parts of the world e.g coca-cola company

Globalization has been made possible and effective through the development and improvement of information and technology organization i.e

World website (internet); one can acquire and order for goods through the internet. This is referred to as Electronic Commerce (E- Commerce) and E- Banking.
Mobile phones technology has revolutionized ways of life and business and even remote areas have been opened up.

Business Amalgamations/combinations

This occurs when two independent business enterprises combine to form one large organization

Levels of combinations

Vertical combination; This is when businesses engaged in different but successive levels of production combine e.g. primary(extractive) level combines with secondary(manufacturing)level or secondary level combining with tertiary level.

Example; A company producing cotton (raw materials) combining with a textile industry.

Horizontal combination; This is where business enterprises of the same level combine e.g. secondary and secondary levels e.t.c

Types of Amalgamation/combination

Amalgamations whether vertical or horizontal can be achieved in these ways;

Holding companies

-A holding company is one that acquires 51 percent or more shares in one or more other companies.

-The various companies entering into such a combination are brought under a single control.

-These companies are controlled by the holding company and are called Subsidiaries.

-The subsidiary companies are however allowed to retain their original names and status, but the holding company appoints some members to be on the board of directors of these subsidiaries, so as to control their activities.

-Holding companies are usually financial institutions because they are able to buy controlling shares in subsidiary companies

Absorptions (takeovers)

This refers to a business taking over another business by buying all the assets of the other business which then ceases to exist.

Example; Kenya Breweries took over the castle company in Kenya

Mergers( Amalgamation);

This is where two or more business organizations combine and form one new business organizations.

-The merging companies cease to exist altogether.

Cartels

This is a group of related firms/ companies that agree to work together in order to control output, prices and markets of their products – O. P. E. C (organization of petroleum exporting countries) is an example.

Privatization; this is the process of transferring / selling state owned corporations to public limited companies or private investors. This is done by the Government selling their shareholding to members of the public. The main aim is to:
Improve efficiency
Generate revenue for the government.
Reduce government control
To break monopolistic practices
To reduce government expenditure on corporations that relies on government subsidy.
Check off system– this is a method of remitting money especially to SACCOS where the employer deducts the contribution from the source and submits it to the SACCO on behalf of the employee who is a member of the SACCO.
Burial Benevolent Funds (B. B. F); some SACCOS have started systems/ funds to assist their members financially in burials through creation of BBF.
Front Office Savings Account (FOSA); SACCOS have expanded their services to members by introducing FOSA. The account enables members to convinientlydeposit and withdraws money. A member may also be provided with an ATM card which enables him/her to withdraw money at various pesa points/ ATM’s.
Franchising ; this is where one business grants another the rights to manufacture, distribute or produce its branded products using the name of the business that has granted the rights eg General motors’ has been granted franchise to deal in Toyota, Isuzu and Nissan vehicles.
Trusts; This is where a group of Companies work together to reduce competition. Trusts may also be formed where a company buys more than 50% of shares in a competing company so as to reduce competition.
Performance contracts; Employees in state corporations are expected to sign performance contracts in order to improve their efficiency. Other private institutions are also adopting the same practice.

TOPIC 2

GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS

BY THE END OF THE TOPIC, THE LEARNER SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Explain reasons for government involvement in business.
Explain how the government gets involved in business.
Discuss the merits and demerits of government involvement in business.
Discuss the importance of consumer protection.

INTRODUCTION

Government involvement in business activities is one of the commercial duties it owes its citizens. It is the one that provides the necessary environment for investments to be undertaken by itself, or by the local and foreign investors. This, the government may do in various ways, these include;

Producing goods and services
Distributing goods and services
Advising producers and traders
Promoting trade and economic development.
Protecting consumers against exploitation by producers and traders.
As a consumer of goods and services.

Reasons for Government involvement in business

The following are the major reasons for the government’s involvement and participation in business activities;

To prevent exploitation of the public by private business persons especially in the provision of essential goods and services such as sugar, transport, communication etc. the Kenya Bureau of standards (KEBS) regulates the quality of goods consumed in Kenya.
To provide essential goods and services in areas where private individuals and organizations are unwilling to venture because of low profits/ high risks involved.
To provide essential goods and services which private organizations and individuals are unable to provide due to the large amount of initial capital required b e.g. generation of electricity, establishment of airlines etc.
To attract foreign investment by initiating major business projects.
To stimulate economic development in the country e.g. by providing social services.
To provide goods and services which are too sensitive to be left in the hands of the private sector e.g. provision of firearms.
To create employment opportunities by initiating projects such as generation of electricity.
To prevent foreign dominance of the economy by investing in areas where the locals are not able to.
To redistribute wealth where returns are very high.
To prevent establishment of monopolies.

METHODS OF GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN BUSINESS

The government gets involved in business activities through the following methods:

Regulation

This refers to Rules and restrictions the government requires business units to follow in their business activities. Through this method, the government ensures high quality goods and services and puts in control measures to protect consumers from exploitation. The government regulation measures include;

Licensing

A license is a document that shows that a business has been permitted by the government to operate. It is usually issued upon payment of a small fee.

Licensing is the process of issuing licenses to businesses. Some of the reasons why the government issues licenses include;

Regulating the number of businesses in a given place at any given time to avoid unhealthy competition.
To control the type of goods entering and leaving the country.
To ensure there are no illegal businesses.
To ensure that traders engage only in trade activities that they have been licensed for.
To ensure that those who engage in professional activities meet the requirements of the profession.
To raise revenue for the government.
Ensuring standards/ enforcing standards; The government regulates business activities by setting standards that businesses should and ensuring that the standards are adhered to. To achieve this purpose, the government has established bodies such as;
Kenya bureau of standards (KEBS) whose main responsibility is to set standards especially for the manufactured goods and see to it that the set standards are adhered to/ met. Goods that meet such standards are given a diamond mark of quality, to show that they are of good quality.
The ministry of public health to ensure that businesses meet certain standards as concerning facilities before such businesses can be allowed to operate. Such standards may include clean toilets, clean water and well aerated buildings.

Legislation; The Government may come up with rules and regulations (laws) that regulate business activities e.g. banning hawking in certain areas, matatus required to carry certain number of passengers e.t.c.
Training

The government takes keen interest in training and advising people in business about business management strategies and better ways of producing goods and services. The government offers these services through seminars and courses. This is mainly done by the Kenya Business Training Institute (K.B.T.I).

Reasons for government training include;

To expose business persons to modern developments in management.
Introduce modern technology and skills in management
Educate the business people on efficient methods of operating a business e.g., effective methods of advertising and keeping books of accounts.
Expose business people to problems/ challenges facing them and their possible solutions for example, problems of raising capital and identifying investment opportunities.
Impart proper business ethics e.g. good customer relations and honesty.
Creating awareness of the available profitable business opportunities in their environment.
Expose business people to government policies regarding business activities in the country.
Educate business people on how to use available resources to minimize costs and maximize profits.
Expose people to other opportunities that exist in the import and export market.
Trade promotion

This is a government initiated and supported policy to encourage local business people to enter into business. This is aimed at increasing the volume and variety of goods and services traded in.

Trade promotion is classified as either external trade promotion or internal trade promotion.

External trade promotion
The purpose of external trade promotion is to encourage local business people to enter into the export market.
It also intended to attract foreign investors into the country.
In Kenya, external trade promotion is done through the department of external trade in the ministry of trade and industry.
External trade promotion may also be done by Commercial attaches.

Commercial attaches are officers sent by the country’s government to work with the embassies in foreign countries as support staff in the field of commerce. Their main duty is to look at the interests of their home countries’ exports eg cash crops and manufactured goods.

Duties of commercial attaches

Explore and identify new markets for more export opportunities.
Research and analyze markets for exports from their home countries.
Keep statistics of products such as volumes, packaging size and method of manufacturing.
Attend meetings, seminars and workshops on trade patterns of the countries and keep data for new markets of exports.
Publish and advertise their country’s exports in business journals and magazines.
Select buyers, agents and distributors of the home country’s exports.
Inform traders in their home countries of the standards required for exports.
Assist sales missions from their home countries by organizing educational tours for them.
Organize visits to trade fairs and exhibitions for business people from their home country.
Make detailed reports on commercial activities that may help improve the exports of their countries.

To perform these duties, the commercial attaché needs to:

Keep information on prices paid for exports and terms of payments( conditions to be filled before the payment is made)
Be aware of the rules that govern payment in international trade.
Be aware of the working of the regional organizations that operate in developing countries such as the East African Community (E. A. C), Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (I.G.A.D), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic Commission for Africa (E.C.A) and African Growth Opportunity Act (A.G.O.A).
Internal trade promotion

This is done by the government through the ministry of trade. The ministry carries out various activities

CONSUMER PROTECTION

Definition:

These are measures by either, the government, NGOs or consumers to avoid exploitation of consumers by business people.
It is the deliberate attempt to safeguard consumer against exploitation or malpractices in business.

Need For Consumer Protection

To protect them against sale of poor quality goods and services.
To protect them against sale of goods and services under unhygienic conditions and environment.
Protect them against sale of harmful goods and services.
Protect them against breach of contract.
To protect them against overpricing of goods services.
To protect them against hoarding of goods and services this may create artificial shortages.
Protect them against cheating through misleading or false advertisements.
To protect them against sale of underweight goods and inadequate services.
Protect them against sale of socially unacceptable goods and services. For example, pornographic materials.
Protect them against dangers that arise due to contamination of the environment.
Protect them from dangers that may arise from the use of unsafe building.
Protect them against sale of illegal goods and services.

METHODS OF CONSUMER PROTECTION

Government initiated methods

Enactment of laws that safeguard interest of consumer such as:

Kenya Bureau Of Standards (KEBS) Act to ensure standards of goods are maintained
Trade Description Act to guard against false or misleading advertisement.
Food And Drug Act to ensure that products are not harmful
Public Health Act to ensure safety and health standards are met.
Trade Licensing Act.
Weight And Measures Act to ensure goods are of the right weight.
Hire-Purchase Act to guard against unfair repossession of goods.

Encourage formation of consumer organizations to cater for the interests of consumers.

Encouraging businesses to conduct their affairs in a way that is not detrimental to the interest of consumer.

Consumer initiated methods

These are methods by the consumers to protect themselves from exploitation by business people by forming consumer associations.

Functions of consumer associations

Deals with complaints on defective goods.
Ensure regular supply of goods: no hoarding
Ensure correct weight and measures of commodities.
Ensuring availability of goods and services.
Educating members on their rights as consumers.
Ensure health and safety regulation are followed.

Limitations of consumer initiated methods

Lack of government support
Lack of capital to finance the associations
Ignorance of consumers on their rights.
Lack of initiative from consumers in checking trader’s performance.
Reluctance of many consumers to join these associations so that they may voice their complaints as a group.

Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)

Involve in consumer protection by informing consumers on their rights e.g right to true advertisement.
Ensures standards are maintained by both producers and traders.

Emerging issues in business and government

Corruption – this has lowered profit in that most firms affected perform poorly.
Market liberalization – is the removal of protection policies and regulations so that the Kenyan market is open to all.
Privatization- is the conversion of public enterprises. Privatization has enhanced efficiency of enterprises to make profit.
Dumping – occurs when firms sell goods at lower prices overseas than in its home market. This affects local products by denying them market and capacity to survive and expand.
HIV/AIDS- the government is losing a lot of competent trained manpower through HIV/AIDS

T0PIC 4

COMMUNICATION

Meaning of communication

Communication is the transfer or conveyance of messages or information from one person to another.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving meaningful messages, information and ideas between two or more people located at different points in space.

Note: The space between the sender (s) and the receiver (s) maybe as narrow as when people are talking to each other or as wide as between the North Pole and the South Pole.

Effective communication is vital/important for business in that it serves the following purposes.

Importance of communication (purposes)

To give and obtain information

For an organization to run smoothly there should be proper flow of information within the business and also between the firm and outsiders e.g. the manager may inform members of staff about a planned meeting. Similarly the business may receive a letter of inquiry from a customer

To clarify issues and points

Through proper communication the organization is able to clarify confusing issues from within and without the firm for example in cases where there are many managers. It would be necessary to clarify the responsibilities of each manager.

To enhance public relations

Good/efficient communication enables the business to create a more positive image and a favorable reputation of itself to outsiders and overcome prejudices and negative attitudes that people may have against the business.

To start and influence Action

Proper communication enables the business to get new ideas make plans and ensure that they are implemented in the desired way.

Improving customer service; Good communication helps in reducing errors providing customers with desired feedback and assisting in handling inquiries more efficiently
Giving instructions; Through proper communication management is able to get work done by issuing instructions (procedures and orders)e.g. a supplier may be instructed when and where to deliver the goods ordered.
To give Reassurance; Information is needed to reassure people that their performance is good e.g. an employee may feel better is he/she is served with a “will done”memo or a “customer of the year” award.
Confirming arrangements; Through communication arrangements are confirmed for example confirmation of meetings conferences or details of transactions
Co-ordinating departments of the firm; Charges in one department are communicated to other departments that have a direct bearing to those changes e.g. when sales increase the sales department informs the production department so as to increase production proportionality
Modifying behavior of persons within or outside the organization; Through effective communication persons are trained and counseled and as a result their behavior knowledge and attitudes change

Communication process

Communication is a process that involves interchange of information and ideas between two or more people. Communication therefore is a circular process i.e communication may lead to some reaction which in turn may generate further communication

or feedback. This flow can be illustrated as below:

(2) Message

(3) Receiver

Message 3

Receivercdddd

Sender

Sender

(4) Feed back

Feedback

Sender –this is the person who writes, speaks or sends signs (symbols or signals) and is the source of the information.
Receiver – this is the person to whom the information or the message is sent.
Message – this is the information that is transmitted from the sender to the receiver. It may be spoken, written or in the form of symbols.
Feed back – this is the response to the sender’s message. A message is said to have been understood if the receiver provides the desired feedback.

Lines of communication

Communication can be classified according to either the levels of the communicating parties or according to the nature of the message.

According to levels-This can either be:

I) Vertical
ii) Horizontal

iii) Diagonal

Vertical communication

This is where messages are passed between a senior and her/his juniors in the same organizations

Vertical communication can be divided into two parts

–Downward communication

-Upward communication

-Downward communication-This is a communication process which starts from the top manager to her/his juniors. This can be informed of:

Training juniors
Evaluating performance
Delegating duties
Solving the problems facing workers
Inspiring and motivating the juniors(giving rewards)

-Upward communication-This is a communication process that starts from the juniors to the seniors and maybe in the form of:

Submitting reports
Giving suggestion
Submitting complaints a grievances
Making inquiries

ii) Horizontal communication (lateral communication)

This is communication between people of the same level (rank) in the same organization e.g. departmental heads in an organization may communicate to achieve the following:

Co-ordination and harmonization of different activities.
To create teamwork within the department.
To exchange ideas in order to develop human resources.
To reduce goal blindness among different departments.
To create a sense of belonging among department heads thus acting as a motivating factor.

One of the major characteristics of this type of communication is that there are less inhibitions. The people involved are more open and free with each other than in the case of people with different ranks.

iii) Diagonal communication

This is communication between people of different levels in different departments or different organizations e.g. an accounts clerk may communicate with a sales manager of the same organization or of different organizations. Diagonal communication enhances team work.

b) According to nature of message

This can either be;

i) Formal communication
ii) Informal communication

Formal communication

This is the passing of messages or information using the approved and recognized way in an organization such as official meetings, memos and letters. This means that messages are passed to the right people following the right channels and in the right form.

Formal communication is also known as official communication as it is the passing of information meant for office purposes.

Formal systems of communication are consciously and deliberately established.

Informal communication

This is communication without following either the right channels or in the right form i.e. takes place when information is passed unofficially. It is usually used when passing information between friends and relatives hence it lacks the formality.

Informal communication may also take the form of gossips and rumor-mongering.

Informal communication usually suppliments formal communication as is based on social relations within the organization.

Note: Both formal and informal communication is necessary for effective communication in an organization.

Essentials of Effective communication

For communication to be effective it must be originated produced transmitted received understood and acted upon. The following are the main essentials to effective communications.

i) The sender/communicator

This is the person from whom the message originates. He/she encodes the message i.e. puts the message in the communicative form.

ii) Message

This is the information to be sent. It is the subject matter of communication and may contain words, symbols, pictures or some other forms which will make the receiver understand the message

iii) Encoding; This is the process of expressing ones ideas in form of words, symbols, gestures and signs to convey a message

iv)Medium/channel; This refers to the means used in communicating. This could be in the form of letters, telephones and emails among others.

v)The receiver; This is the person for whom the message is intended. The receiver decodes the message for proper understanding.

vi)Decoding; This is the process of interpreting or translating the encoded message to derive the meaning from the message

vii) Feed-back; This refers to the reaction of the receiver of the message. This maybe a reply /response which the receiver sends back to the sender.

The above can be represented in a diagram as shown below;

Receiver (5)

Channel (4)

Encoding (3)

Message (2)

Decoding (6)

Sender (1)

Feedback (7)

FORMS AND MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Forms; These are channels or ways of passing on messages. The four main forms are;

i) Oral communication
ii) Written communication

iii )Audio –visual communication

iv) Visual communication

Means; This is the device used to pass on information e.g. messages, letters, telephones e.t.c

Oral communication

This is where information is conveyed by talking (word of mouth)

It is also known as verbal communication

Means of communication

i) Face-to-face conversation

This involves two or more people talking to each other. The parties are usually near each other as much as possible to ensure effective communication.

It is suitable where subject matter of discussion require convincing persuasion and immediate feed-back.

It may be used during meetings, interviews, seminars, private discussions, classrooms e.t.c

It is the most common means of oral communication

Advantages of face-to-face communication

Provides for immediate feedback
Has personal appeal
Body language can be easily expressed
One can persuade or convince another
It is the simplest communication to use
It is direct i.e. does not pass through intermediaries
Convenient for confidential messages.

Disadvantages of face-to-face communication

No record for future reference
Can be time consuming
Messages can be distracted
Not suitable when people are far apart
Unsuitable for the dumb and deaf

ii)Telephone

This form of communication is commonly used in offices and homes. It is useful in sending messages quickly over short and long distances.

It is however not suitable for sending;

Confidential messages
Long and detailed reports, charts and graphs
Messages that would require reference or evidence

In Kenya telephone services are mainly provided by Telkom Kenya Limited. The subscriber is required to purchase the telephone equipment from the post office or other authorized dealers before installation.

Installation is done on application by the subscriber (applicant).He/she pays the installation fee in addition; the subscriber is sent a monthly bill with the charges for all the calls made during the month.

The charges for calls depend on the time spent time of the day of the week and distance of the recipient from the caller e.g. it is cheaper to call at night than during the day. It is also cheap to make calls during public holidays and weekends than on weekdays.

There are also mobile phones which have no physical line connection to exchange and may be fixed to a vehicle or carried in pockets. In Kenya these services are provided by safaricom, Airtel, orange and Yu mobile communications.

Advantages of Telephones

Relatively fast
Has personal appeal
Provides for immediate feedback
One can persuade or convince another
Suitable for long distance communication

Disadvantages of Telephone

Can be expensive especially over long distances
No record for future reference
Lacks confidentiality
Not convenient for dumb and deaf
Can be time consuming

Reasons why mobile phones have become popular

They are portable and can be conveniently carried around.
It is not very expensive especially when making local calls.
Relatively cheap to acquire.
Some mobile phones can record conversations / calls thereby acting as evidence.
Can be used to send short text messages (sms)
Can be used anywhere since they are portable.

iii) Radio calls

This involves transmitting information by use of radio waves i.e. without connecting wires between the sender and the receiver

The device used is called a radio telephone. It is commonly used in remote areas where normal telephone services are lacking or where telephone services are available but cannot be conveniently used e.g. policemen on patrol in different parts of a town

Radio transmission is a one way communication system i.e. only one person can speak at a time. It is therefore necessary for the speaker to say’over’ to signal the recipient that the communication is through so that the recipient can start talking. To end the conversation, the speaker says ‘over and out’

The radio calls are commonly used by the police, game rangers, researchers, foresters, ship owners and hotels situated in remote areas. They are also used for sending urgent messages such as calling for an ambulance and fire brigade

Note; Radio calls are not confidential since they use sound frequencies that can be tapped by any radio equipment that is tuned to that frequency

Advantages of Radio calls

Relatively fast
Has immediate feedback
Has personal appeal
Provide room for one to persuade and convince another
Suitable for remote areas
Convenient for long distances

Disadvantages of Radio calls

No record for future reference
Lacks confidentiality
Messages are sent one way at a time
Can be expensive
Cannot be used by dumb and deaf
Can be time consuming.

iv) Paging

This is a means of communication used to locate staff or employers who are scattered in an organization or who are outside and need to be located urgently

When within the organization portable receivers, lighted signals, bells, loudspeakers etc are used

When outside the organization employees are contacted using portable receivers (pocket-size) used to send messages through sms (short message services)

The paying system can only be used within a certain radius. When using a portable receiver, the caller will contact the subscriber by calling the post office which will then activate the pager.

The subscriber is then informed to contact the originator of the message.

Paging is mostly used in emergency cases

v)Radio

Usually messages intended for a wide audience can be transmitted through a radio more quickly and economically than by using other forms of communication.;`

Radio is used for different reasons apart from advertising e.g for formal notices, and venue for activities

Advantages of oral/verbal communication

Very effective method of communication since the recipient can be persuaded/convinced
It is relatively faster method of communication
The sender can get immediate feedback
It indicates some sence of regard hence more appealing.

Disadvantages of oral/verbal communication

Has no records for future reference
Is an expensive method especially if the two parties are far apart
Is not good for confidential messages
It is not suitable for confidential messages
It may be time wasting especially where one needs to be convinced

Written Communication

This involves transmission of messages through writing. It is the most formal way of communication because the information is in recorded form and can be used for reference

Means of written communication

(i)Letters

Letters are the most commonly used means of communication.

There are two categories of letters;

a)Formal letters

b) Informal letters
a) Formal letters; These include business letters and official letters.

Business letters are written to pass messages and information from businessmen to customers and vice versa e.g. letters of inquiry and acknowledgement notes.

It can also be used between employees and employers in an organization e.g. a complimentary note.

Official letters are letters between people in authority and others that touch on the activities of the organization e.g. an application letter for an advertised vacancy in an organization.

Formal letters have a salutation clause which usually starts with “Dear Madam “or “Dear Sir”. It also bears the addresses of both the sender and the recipient, a subject heading and a complimentary clause ending with “Yours faithfully”.

b) Informal Letters; these are letters between friends and relatives

They are also known as Personal letters

ii) Telegrams

This is a means of communication provided by the post office. The sender obtains the telegram form fro the post office and fills the message on it in capital letters and hand it over to the post office employees at the counter. Alternatively the sender may use a telephone to read the message to the post office. The post office then transmits the message to the recipient post office.

The charges of a telegram are based on the number of words used, the more the words used the higher the charges. However there is a standing charge.

Telegrams are used for sending urgent messages.

Note; Due to changing technology telegrams have lost popularity. Short messages can now be sent by cell phones (mobile phones) using the short messages services (sms)

iii) Telex

This is a means of communication used to send short or detailed messages quickly by use of a teleprinter. The service is provided by the post office on application.

A message is sent by use of two teleprinters one on the senders end and another on the recipients end. When sending information through a teleprinter which is a form of electric typewriter producing different electric signals, its keys are pressed and automatically the message is printed at the recipient’s machine.

Telex saves time for both the sender and recipient as the messages are brief precise and received immediately. However it’s an expensive means of communication

iv) Facsimile (Fax)

This involves transmission of information through a fax machine. Both the sender and the receiver must have a fax machine. These machines are connected using telephone lines

Fax is used to transmit printed messages such as letters, maps, diagrams and photographs. To send the information, one dials a fax number of the required destination and then the document is fed into the sender’s machine. The receiving machine reproduces the document immediately. It is used for long distance photocopying service.

v) Memorandum (Memo)

This is printed information for internal messages within an organization. It is normally used to pass information between departments or offices in an organization.

Memoranda have no salutation or complimentary clause. They are suitable for informing the officers within an organization of matters related to the firm.

A memo is pinned on the notice board of an organization if it is meant for everybody otherwise passed to the relevant staff.

vi) Notice

This is a written communication used to inform a group or the public about past current or future events. It is usually brief and to the point. It can be placed on walls, in public places, on trees, in newspapers or on notice boards

viii) Reports

These are statements/within records of findings recommendations and conclusion of an investigation/research. A report is usually sent to someone who has asked for it for a specific purpose.

viii) Circulars

These are many copies of a single letter addressed to very many people when the message intended for each is the same.

ix) Agenda

This is an outline of the items to be discussed in a meeting. It is usually contained in a notice to a meeting sent in advance to all the participants of the meeting. The notice of the meeting contains;

The date of the meeting
The venue of the meeting
Time of the meeting
Items to be discussed

x) Minutes

These are records of the proceedings of a meeting. Keeping minutes of certain meetings is a legal requirements e.g companies

Keeping minutes for other meetings are for management purposes to ensure that decisions made at the meetings are implemented

Advantages of written communication

It can be retained for future reference
Some like letters are relatively cheap(can produce many copies)
It is suitable for confidential messages
Allows for inclusion of fine details
It is not prone to distortion of messages
Can be used as evidence
Can be addressed to many people.

Disadvantages of written communication

It lacks personal appeal
It takes time to prepare and reach the recipient
Suitable for the literate only
Immediate feedback may not be possible
Does not offer room for persuasion and convincing
It may be expensive because it involves a lot of paperwork and time.
Not suitable if the sender and the receiver do not share a common language.

3) Visual Communication

This is the process of passing information by use of diagrams, drawings pictures, signs, and gestures e.t.c

Photographs

A photograph is an image (visual representation of an object as it appeared at the time when the photograph was taken

Photographs are self-explanatory and may not be accompanied by any narration or explanation. The recipient is able to get the message at a glance.

b) Signs

Refer to marks, symbols, drawings or gestures whose purpose is to inform the public about such things as directions, distances, dangers and ideas.

Examples; road signs, traffic lights and danger signs on electricity poles

This means of communication can only be effective if the meaning of the sign used is understood.

Graphs; These are used to show and illustrate statistical information

Charts; These are diagrams which show or illustrate the flow of an idea e.g. an organization chart illustrates the whole organization structure indicating the chain of command

Advantages of visual communication

It can be used to pass confidential information

The information may be obtained at once

Disadvantages of visual communication

Can only be used by people who can see
The information may be wrongly interpreted
It may be an expensive method of communication
Cannot be used for long distances

4) Audio-Visual communication

This is a form of communication in which messages are sent through sounds and signs .

This form of communication ensures that the receiver gets the message instantly.

It is suitable where both the sender and the receiver know the meaning of specific sounds and signs

Means of Audio-visual communication

Television (TV); This is a device that transmits information inform of a series of images on a screen accompanied by sound. It is a very effective method of communication since it combines the advantages of image and sound

A television can be a very suitable means of sending urgent messages especially when it gives live coverage of events.

Siren; This is a device used to produce a loud shrill sound accompanied by a flashing light. It is commonly used by the police, ambulances, and the fire brigade and security firms to alert the public of the danger involved e.g. the ambulance siren conveys the message that somebody is seriously sick and therefore other motorists should give way.

Advantages of Audio-visual communication

It reaches many people
It is more appealing than other means of communication
Reinforces verbal communication
May have a lasting effect on the receiver
Suitable where receivers are illiterate.

Disadvantages of Audio-visual communication

It is suitable to those people who can interpret the messages correctly
It is not suitable for confidential messages
Preparation may take long.

5) Audio Communication

This is when the message is transmitted through sounds. Examples include

A whistle; This is a device which is blown to produce a sharp shrill sound to alert or warn the public or employees in an institution. It is normally used by security guards when there is danger. In some organization, a whistle is used to announce change in shifts
Horn; This is also an instrument that is used to produce sound which passes different information depending on the way it is blown.

Other methods of audio communication include drums, alarms, and bells among others

Advantages of Audio communication

Is a faster method of communication
It can reach several people at once
The message is received instantly

Disadvantages of Audio communication

The message may be interpreted wrongly
It can only be used within a certain radius at a time
It distracts people’s attention

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Speed; Speed is an important factor when the message is urgent. In such a case telex, fax, telephone, telegram or e-mail would be the most suitable means of communication. Otherwise ordinary mail would be used
Cost; The cost incurred in using a means of communication vary from one means to another e.g. it is cheaper to send messages by ordinary mail than by telegram or telex
Confidentiality; Some messages are quite confidential and are intended for certain person only. Where confidential messages are involved, appropriate means should be used e.g. registered mail or internal memo enclosed in an envelope
Distance; The geographical gap between the sender and recipient is very important in determining the means of communication to be used. Some means are suitable for long distances while others are not.Paging and sirens are suitable for short distances. For long distances, fax letters, telephone.g,e-mail may be appropriate
Evidence, Some means of communication do not provide record of the message communicated while others do. All means of written communication provide evidence of messages communicated.
Reliability; This is the assurance (certainty) that the message will reach the intended person at the right time in the right form. Face-to-face communication is more reliable than other forms of communication because one can ask for clearly and get answers immediately. For some written information, courier service may be preferred
Accuracy; This refers to the exactness of the message communicated as intended by the sender. Written messages are generally more accurate than other means of communication.
Desired impression; The impression created upon the recipient of a message is very important e.g. a telegram or speed post mail will carry some sence of urgency, registered mail will create an impression of confidentiality while use of colourful and attractive letterheads would convey a good image of the business.
Availability; One may want to telephone, for example, but the services are not there so the person would be forced to use alternative means e.g. letters or radio call.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is said to be complete only when the recipient gets the message the way the sender intends it to be. When information is not received the way it was intended then it has been distorted. Distortion of a message is brought about by some communication barriers which may exists in the path of the message between the sender and the recipient. Some of these barriers are;

Language used; the language used by the sender should be known (understood) by the recipient so that communication can take place
Poor Listening; the effectiveness of communication will depend on the willingness of the recipient to listen keenly .listening require careful attention and concentration. It may however be the task of the sender of the message to attempt to gain the attention of the listener. Through his/her choice of words and expression among others.
Negative Attitude; Attitude refers to the feelings of the communicating parties towards each other. It is important that there exists a mutual feeling of trust and respect between the parties concerned in order to avoid bias .If there is mistrust and prejudice then there may be deliberate or unintentional misunderstanding of the message involved.
Poor Timing ; poor timing leads to breakdown in communication , therefore for effective communication to take place the message must be sent and received at an appropriate time, eg a message sent when one is in a hurry may not be properly received or delivered
Wrong medium ; the medium used to communicate must be appropriate for the message being conveyed otherwise there may breakdown in communication eg one may not convey a confidential message over the telephone effectively
Prejudgment ; our understanding of the message is often conditional by our earlier experiences and knowledge this may make one individual draw premature conclusion eg a student who always fail in a subject and this time round has improve may be failed by the teacher because he has always failed in the past .
Ambiguities it occurs when the sender express in a manner which leads to wrong interpretation. When the rec eiver interprets the message differently it automatically leads to communication breakdown.
Emotional responses; emotional responses such as those resulting from hunger or excitement may lead to distortion of message.
Unclear System within the organization ; if the channel of passing information in an organization are not clear then the message will not get to the right people for whom the messages intended
Noise it refers to any disturbing sounds which interfere with concentration or listening ability of the recipient of the message the presence of noise may make it impossible for any message to be received in the right way.
Unfamiliar Non verbal signals; lack of understanding of non verbal sign may be a barrier to effective communication.

SERVICE THAT FACILITATE COMMUNICATION

Services that facilitate communication include;

Mailing services
Telephone services
Broadcasting services

Mailing services

This refers to handling of letters and parcels. They are offered by organizations such as postal corporation of Kenya (P.C.K) securicorl courier and Document handling Limited (D.H.L)

Some of the services offered by the postal corporation include;

Speed post; This is service offered by the post office to send correspondence and parcels to a destination in the shortest time possible. The post office uses the quickest means of transport available to deliver the mail.

The sender pays the normal postage fee plus a fee for special service. An example of such a service is Expedited Mail Service(EMS) speed post

Ordinary Mail

These include surface mail and air mail.

Surface Mail; These include letters and parcels delivered by road, rail, water and hand.

Air Mail; This consists of letters and light parcels delivered by air.

Express Mail;

An express mail is/must be presented at the post office counter by the sender and the envelope clearly addressed and a label with the word “express” affixed. Normal postage plus an extra fee (commission) is charged

The mail is delivered to the receivers nearest post office from where the post office makes arrangements to deliver the mail to the receiver within the shortest time possible.

NOTE: For speed post special arrangements to deliver the mail start at the sender’s post office whereas express mail, the arrangements start at the addressers post office.

Poste Restante;This is a service offered by the post office to travelers who may wish to receive correspondence right away from their post office box. The addressee has to inform those who may wish to correspond with him/her of the nearest post office he is likely to use at a particular time

Under this arrangement when addressing the letter, the words poste Restante must be written on the envelope clearly. The addressee must identify himself/herself when collecting the correspondence from the post office.

There is no additional charge made apart from normal postage charges. This service can only be offered for three months in the same town

Registered Mail;

This service is offered by the post office for sending articles of value for which security handling is required. A registration fee and a commission is paid. The commission depends on the weight of the article and the nature of registration. The sender is required to draw a horizontal and a vertical line across the faces of the envelope.

A certificate of registration is given to the sender. In case of loss,the sender may be paid compensation on production of the certificate of registration.

A green card is sent to the recipient. The card bears his name and the post office at which the mail was registered. The recipient will be required to identify himself before being allowed to posses the mail.

Items that may be registered include jewels, certificate, land title deeds e.t.c.

Business Reply Service; This is a service offered by the post office to business firms on request. The firm pays some amount to the post office and an account is then opened from which posted charges are deducted.

The service is useful/more common with firms which would like to encourage their customers to reply their letters. Customers are issued with reply card envelopes (or envelopes marked ‘postage paid’)

They can send letters to the business by using these envelopes/the card. The customers then place the card/envelope in the post box and the firms post office branch will deduct postage charges from the lump some amount.

Courier Services

These are services where a service provider receives transports and delivers parcels or important documents to destinations specified by customers in return for payment of fees or charges.

Examples; Akamba bus service, Securicor courier services e.t.c

ii)Telephone services

Landline/fixed line services
Cellular (mobile)phone services
Land(Fixed)line services

Telkom Kenya, through the post office, provides telephone services which offer direct contact between people who are far apart. It makes conversation between people at any distance possible, as long as there are transmission facilities between them. Urgent matters can be discussed and consultations can take place so that instant decision or actions are taken. The telephone assists organizations to establish a fast and convenient machinery for its internal and external communication network.

Cellular(mobile)phone services

These are hand held telephones with digital links that use radio waves. They are sometimes called cell-phones since they use power stored in a dry cell

In Kenya mobile phone services are provided by safaricom Ltd.(a subsidiary of Telkom Kenya)and Airtel communications Ltd(formally Kencel Communication Ltd)which is a joint venture between a French company and a Kenyan company, yu mobile services and Orange mobile services . This sector therefore greatly benefits from foreign investment to improve services.

The use of this service is popular. Apart from the provision of telecommunication service, cell phones have different attractive features or services such as short messages service (sms) whereby a caller can send a written message. Recent models of mobile phones enable the user to access the internet and send e-mail messages

Advantages

They are portable
Written messages can be transmitted easily and cheaply through the short message service(sms)
Enables both local and international communication.
The cost of acquiring the equipment is relatively affordable
Direct feedback is possible
Has memory for storing written messages
Has got e-mail capability

Disadvantages

Some kinds of mobile phones are expensive to buy
Maintenance expenses of a mobile phone are high. They are also susceptible to damage and repair can be very costly
Users are greatly inconvenienced in case there is no network coverage
A special facility where the callers identity is known(displayed on screen)can be abused where recipient does not wish to answer the call
Mobile phones are a security problem. They are easy targets for thieves
There is a danger of the radio active rays or emissions negatively affecting the users health, if such emissions are not adequately controlled

iii) Broadcasting services

Communication commission of Kenya is a regulatory body that receives applications and issues licences for radio and television broadcasting stations.

Radio stations

Radio broadcasting is a very important mode of giving news and information to people in the whole world.

The liberalization of the communications sector in Kenya in 1999, Kenya has witnessed a mushrooming of F.m Stations which are owned by private sector operators e.g. Kiss Radio, Easy fm,Classic fm,Family fm,Kameme e.t.c

They have helped to spread news and information countrywide. Before liberalization, Kenya Broadcasting corperation (KBC) radio was operating as a state owned monopoly.

Television Stations

Television broadcasting (telecasting) does not reach as wide an audience as radio broadcasting in Kenya. It however serves the same purpose of relaying news and information to Kenyans. Both radio and television stations are widely used for advertising purposes.

The T.V subsector has been liberalized since 1999 and a number of privately owned stations have emerged e.g Kenya Television Network (KTN) Nation Television, Family T.V etc. Prior to that time KBC television was in operation as a state owned monopoly.

Other services that facilitate communication

Telex
Facsimile
Paging
E-mail

Current trends and Emerging issues in communication

With the advancement of information technology (I.T) there has been a lot of revolution in communication.

The following are some of the current trends and emerging issues in communication;

Telephone Bureaux(Bureaus)

These are privately owned kiosks where telephone services are sold. The owner of the kiosk must get authority from the service provider in order to run the bureau. The individual wishing to use the services of the bureau makes payments to the owner of the service. Other services offered by the bureau include selling of scratch cards for mobile telephones and credit cards for landline telephone services.

Mobile phones (cell phones)

These are hand held telephones with digital links that use radio waves. They have become an important business and social tool. This is because most people and traders want some flexibility to be able to communicate whenever they are.

Other reasons that have led to the popularity of cell phones include:

Pre paid services which enable the owners to control communication costs.
Most cellular phones now allow the owners to browse the internet, check and send mail. This allows business people to communicate research and even place orders.
Cellular phones have short message services (sms) which enables the owners to send written messages.
E- mail ( Electronic Mail)

This is a service provided through the internet for sending messages.

It is similar to sending a letter through the postal system only that it is done electronically.

-Messages can be sent to anyone on the network, anywhere in the world. For this to take place, computers have to be connected to each other to form a network.

-To communicate, one is required to have an email address e.g raeform2 @ yahoo.com. Messages arrive at the e – mail address immediately they are sent.

-It is only the addressee of the message who can retrieve the message since a password is required to access the mailbox.

-E – mail can also be used to send documents and photographs like certificates by scanning and attaching.

– More and more businesses are using e- Mail to communicate with other businesses, their customers and suppliers.

* QUESTION: OUTLINE THE ADVANTAGES OF USING E- MAIL AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

iv) Internet

The internet links computers all over the world. Written and oral information is transmitted on the internet through the use of telephone wires, fibre- optic cables and wireless devices.

The internet has changed the way people communicate in the following ways;

Increased use of electronic mail (e-mail)
Quick access to information from all over the world.
Development of home offices and remote offices.
Use of teleconferencing and video conferencing.
Development of e-commerce.
Move towards a paperless office

The future office will rely largely on computers. Most of the communication will be done through computers. This may result in less use of paper, hence the use of the term “the paperless office”.

Vi ) Decline in the use of postal services

Decline in the use of postal services is a result of the impact of the internet. E-mail has become a popular and preferred mode of communication since it is fast and cheap. However, ordinary mail/ use of postal services may not be completely phased out since the government, businesses and people do not regard an e-mail as a binding or formal communication.

Vii) Transformation of language

The language used to pass and receive messages has evolved through time.e.g the youth have adopted the use of “sheng” in exchanging messages. such language is largely understood by its youthful users. There is also the use of cell phones to send short text messages; which are highly abbreviated and may use slang whose meaning is only known to the users e.g ‘av a gr8 day’.

COMMUNICATION REVESION QUESTIONS

Define the term communication

-Communication is the process by which information is passed from one person or place to another.

Outline the role played by communication in any given organization

It is used to give instructions on what should be done at work and during work.
It enhances good relations among workers thereby promoting and enhancing their efficiency.
Through communication most organizations have been able to improve their image, for example through advertising.
It used to improve the relationship between the organization and the customer or clients.
For co-ordinating purposes, communication is used to ensure all departments work in harmony.
The feedback got from the clients or customers helps to improve an organization’s reliability and quality of goods and services offered.
Communication is used as a tool for management.
Good decisions are made as communication helps one understand all the necessary matters.

Briefly explain the following levels of communication

(a) Vertical communication

Involves the flow of information either downwards or upwards, for example, from a senior employee to a junior employee

(b) Horizontal communication

Is also referred to as lateral communication which is passing of information between people of the same rank or status, for example from one departmental manager to another departmental manager

(c) Diagonal communication

Is communication of different people in different levels of management or departments for example a receptionist communicating to a production manager.

Distinguish between formal and informal communication

Formal communication is official and documented and follows certain rules for example a worker writing an official letter to an organization’s seniors. Informal communication does not conform to any time, for example communicating to friends and relatives.

State the essential elements in communication.

The sender who is the source of the information being communicated
The receiver(or recipient) of information
The message being communicated
The channel (or medium) through which the message is passed on
Feedback which is the response or reaction of the recipient.

Highlight the various types of verbal communication

Face-to-face communication
Telephone conversation
Radio calls conversation.

State the advantages and disadvantages of verbal communication

Advantages

A large number of people can receive the information at once for example when addressing in a meeting.
There is immediate feedback
Clarification can be made easily and immediately
This is personal appeal
It can be very convenient and persuasive
It is fast since the intended information reaches the recipient immediately.

Disadvantages

It is not easy to know if the message or information has been received particularly if the receivers are many
It is prone to outside interference due to noise and other forms of disruptions
In case of incorrect pronunciation of words, there could be distortion of the information
There is no record for future reference.
The method is not effective for recipients with learning problems.
Can take a lot of time to pass intended information.

Outline the various barriers to effective communication

Noise may hinder effective communication
The emotional state of both the sender and the recipient
Use of the wrong channel to communicate
Breakdown of a channel used to communicate
Illiteracy of the recipient particularly for written communication.
The attitude of the recipient towards the sender and the information being communicated
Use of difficult vocabulary or words by the sender
Lack of concentration on the part of the recipient may affect communication
Poor timing by the sender.

Highlight reasons that would make an organization use cell phones for communication within and outside the organization.

One gets immediate feedback
It is fast and can be used to send urgent messages
There is personal appeal
The sender has a great opportunity to convince and persuade the recipient.
It is not very expensive particularly for making calls for a short duration of time
It can be used even when both the sender and the recipient are far apart

State the various types of written communication.

Written
Memorandum(memos)
Reports
Notices
Telegrams
Circulars
Minutes

State the reasons why an organization would use written communication instead of verbal communication.

Written communication provides evidence which may not be there in verbal communication
Written information can be stored for future reference unlike verbal which cannot be stored and depends on the recipients memory
It is not prone to distortions and therefore more accurate than verbal communication
Written communication can be in form of diagrams, illustration and maps which is not possible for verbal communication
Some written communication such as letters would be cheaper and time saving than verbal communication, for example making long telephone calls.
Written communication can be used for confidential messages, for example registered mails.

State the disadvantages of written communication

Written is not very persuasive or convincing
There is no personal touch
It can only be used by literate
It can be slow where letters take time to reach the recipient
It takes time to get a feedback from the recipient
Messages cannot be enhanced by gestures, that is, body language or face expressions
It can be expense to file all the written communication

Outline the various means of visual communication

Charts
Photographs
Gestures, which may include signs and symbols
Slides

State the advantages and disadvantages of audio-visual of communication

Advantages

Information is more attractive and appealing
Can reach many people at once
It can be used even for those who cannot read and write
Immediate feedback is received from the way the recipient behave
Can be entertaining

Disadvantages

Can be misinterpreted, for example if the receiver does not understand the signs or gesture
Not suitable for passing confidential information
It is not possible for the recipient to give a feedback
Gesture and signs are only suitable to those who can understand them
The initial cost of preparing these forms of communication may be high for the sender
It may take a lot of time to prepare these forms of communication

Outline the various service that facilitate communication

Registered mail, for sending valuable or confidential information.
Speed post services offered by the post office to send letters parcels using the quickest means possible
Poste restante, usually used by those without postal addresses
Business reply service which enables customers and clients to reply to a business without having to pay for postage stamps
Broadcasting services through various radio stations
Print media such as the various newspapers, magazines and journals
Internet services which connect one to the world wide website
Telephone services

State the various trends in communication

Mobile or cell phone use
Internet which uses inter linked computers to the world wide website
Fax, which can be used to send written messages very fast
Information and telephone bureaus where one can make local and international calls
Move towards a paperless office.
Transformation of language.

Highlight the factors to be considered when choosing a means of communication.

The cost because some are more expensive than others
Availability of the means
Reliability or assurance that the message will reach the recipient
The distance between the sender and the recipient.
The literacy level of both the receiver and the recipient
The confidential nature of the information being sent
The urgency of the message
If there is need for evidence or need for future reference
The desired impact of the means upon the recipient.

Advice Mary Wakio why she should not use telex to communicate to her friends

Her friends may be illiterate and may be unable to read the message received
Her friends may not have a receiving machine and will be unable to get the information
It can be expensive to use as the sender pays a subscription fee and rental fee while he and the recipient pays for the sent message
It can be expensive to buy the teleprinters used in receiving and sending information
Telex may only send written messages but cannot be used to send maps, diagrams and charts

State circumstances when sign language can be the most appropriate form of communication

When communicating to someone who has a hearing problem
If one wishes to pass a secret or coded message
If both the receiver and the sender are far apart but can see each other
It can be used in case there is a language barrier
In an environmental where there is a lot of noise or physical interference to other forms of communication, sign language may be used
It can be appropriate where both the recipient and the sender understand the signs.

Explain four factors that have led to the popularity of mobile phones as a means of communication.

TOPIC 3:

TRANSPORT

TOPIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the meaning and importance of transport to business.
Explain the essential elements of transport.
Describe the modes and means of transport.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each means of transport.
Discuss the factors that influence choice of appropriate means of transport.
Discuss trends of transport.

MEANING OF TRANSPORT

Transport is the physical movement of people and goods from one place to another. It helps bridge the gap between producers and consumers hence creating place utility.

Importance of Transport to Business

Bridging the gap between producers and consumers/ linking consumers to producers-Transport links consumers to producers which enable the consumers to obtain the goods they need.
Employment creation-Transport helps in solving unemployment problem by creating job opportunities. For example, people may be employed as drivers, pilots, mechanics and road constructors.
Promotes specialization-Transport enables people to specialize in jobs they are best at. For example; producers would concentrate in production only while other people carry out distribution.
Making goods and services more useful-Through transport goods are moved from a place where they are least required to a place where they are most required thereby making them more useful.
Improving people’s standard of living-It enables consumers to get a variety of goods and services thereby improving the standards of living.
Availing a wide market for products-It helps producers to widen the markets for their products by enabling them access to areas they would otherwise not have accessed
Increased production/ facilitates mass production-Due to the wider market created through transport, producers are able to increase the volume of goods produced.
Avoiding wastage-Transport makes it possible for surplus goods to be disposed of by taking them to areas where they are required. Perishable goods such as flowers, fruits and vegetables can also be transported fast hence minimizing/ avoiding wastage.
Promoting development of industries-Through transport, raw materials can be taken to manufacturing industries and also finished goods to the market. Similarly, it promotes development of service industries such as tourism.
Adds value to goods and services- creates utility in goods by moving them from the point of production to where they are needed thereby adding their value.
Leads to the opening of new markets- Goods and services can be taken to new areas with ease.
It facilitates the movement of labour- people can easily move from where they stay to where they work

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORT

In order for a transport system to function efficiently it should have certain basic elements. These elements are:

Unit(S) of carriage
Methods of propulsion
Ways
Terminals(terminus)

Unit(S) of carriage

This refers to anything i.e. vessel that is used to transport goods and people from one place to another. Units of carriage include: ships, trains, aeroplanes, motor vehicles, bicycles and carts. Units of carriage are also referred to as means of transport.

Methods of propulsion

This is the driving force (source of power) that makes a unit of carriage to move.The power for most vessels may be petroleum products, electricity, human force or animal power.

Ways

It refers to either the route or path passes by the vessel. The route can be on land, on water or through air. Examples of ways are roads, railways, paths, canals, seaways and airways. The ways can be classified into either natural ways or manmade ways.

Natural ways-As the name suggests, natural ways are the ways that are provided by nature. They are therefore free to acquire. They include airways and seaways.
Man-made ways-These are ways that are made available by human being. They include roads, canals and railways. Manmade ways are usually expensive to construct and maintain.

Terminals (terminuses)

The vessel used to carry goods and people starts from one destination and ends up at another. At these destinations the loading and off-loading take place respectively. The loading and off-loading places are referred to as terminals or terminus. Examples of terminuses are bus stations, airports and seaports.

MODES OF TRANSPORT

Mode refers to the manner in which transport is carried out. There are three modes of transport namely:

Land transport
Water transport
Air transport

Land transport

This mode of transport involves movement of goods and people using units of carriage that move on dry land. The various means under this mode includes:

Human Porterage

This involves human beings carrying goods on their heads, shoulders or backs. Human Porterage as a means of transport is the oldest kind of transport and is still very common in our society. The means is suitable for transporting light luggage over short distances. It is also appropriate where other means of transport are not available or convenient.

Advantages of Human Porterage

Could be the only means of transport available
Compliments other means of transport
Flexible as it has no fixed time table or routes
May be a cheap means compared to other means of transport
Readily available when required
Convenient over short distances

Disadvantages of human Porterage

Not suitable for long distances
They add onto congestion on roads
Not suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods
It is relatively slow
Relies on human energy which is exhaustible

Carts

Carts are open vessels usually on two or four wheels that are pushed or pulled by either human being or animals such as oxen and donkeys. The carts pushed or pulled by human beings are referred to as hand carts or mikokoteni. The ones pulled by animals, on the other hand, are called animal driven carts. Carts are used to carry relatively large quantities compared to human porterage. Like human porterage, they are not suitable for long distances. Types of goods that are transported using this means include, agricultural produce, water and animal feeds.

Advantages of carts

Compliments other means of transport
Relatively cheap to hire
Initial buying and maintenance cost is low
Appropriate in remote areas where other means are not available
Readily available for hire
Can carry fairly heavier and bulky goods
Convenient for transporting goods over short distances

Disadvantages of carts

May not be suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods
Cause traffic jams on roads leading to congestion and accidents
Not suitable for transporting goods over long distances

Vehicles

These are means (units of carriage) of transport that ferry goods and people on roads. Vehicles are the most commonly used means of transport.

Vehicles are either passenger or goods carriers. Passenger carriers may be buses, matatus, taxis and private cars while goods are transported using Lorries, pick-ups, tankers and trailers. Vehicles are expensive to acquire and maintain. The convenience of vehicles may depend on the nature of the road on which they travel.

Some roads are impassible especially when it rains while others are usable throughout the year (all weather roads).Of special concern in road transport is the matatus. These are privately owned passenger vehicles which were introduced to supplement the existing mainstream transport companies that were inadequate at independence. They got their name from the amount of fare they used to charge originally that is, mapeni matatu. The operators have to obtain the relevant documents such as insurance cover in order to be allowed to operate. Their owners may form associations which take care of their interests along given routes or in certain areas.

Advantages of matatus

They supplement regular bus companies, especially in remote areas where they are the only means.
They fill up faster than buses hence save time
They are more flexible since they can change routes easily depending on demand
They reach out into the interior of rural areas where big buses cannot access
They are more flexible with the fares they charge
They are easier to hire as most of them are readily available
They are cheaper to acquire as compared to buses

Disadvantages of matatus

Some Matatus are poorly maintained to the extent of being roadworthy
Most drivers are reckless as they rush to compete for customers. They pick or drop passengers anywhere
In some cases, touts use impolite language when dealing with passengers
They may cause noise pollution such as unnecessary hooting and loud music
They may cause congestion in towns unnecessarily because of careless driving and parking
Uncalled for sudden increase in fares at peak hours, during the night and on public holidays
Their operation is concentrated on peak hours, rarely operating at night.
They at times unexpectedly change their route hence causing breach of contract.

Advantages of vehicles

Most readily available means of transport
Relatively fast compared to carts and human Porterage
Relatively cheaper over short distances
Flexible as it can offer door to door service
Vehicles may be available for transporting special goods
Roads are widely spread thereby making many areas accessible.

Disadvantages of vehicles

Acquisition and maintenance costs are high
May not be suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods over long distances as compared to railways
Traffic jams in roads may cause delays
Vehicle transport is prone to accidents which may lead to loss of goods and life
Some roads may be impassible especially during the rainy seasons.

Trains

Trains are vessels that transport goods and people on rails hence the term railways.

The terminuses of trains are the railways stations. Therefore; the goods to be transported by trains have to be taken to the railway station. Railway transport is suitable for heavy and bulky goods as well as passengers. There are two types of trains: cargo and passenger train.

Advantages of Trains

Relatively secure as cases of theft and accidents are rare
Enables a transporter to plan for the transport of his/her goods as trains follow a fixed time table
Economical for transporting heavy and bulky goods over a long distance
Trains may have facilities for carrying special types of goods e.g. gas, petrol and vehicles
Where shunting facilities are available trains may deliver goods up to or from the owner’s premises

Disadvantages of Trains

Not flexible as trains follow a strict time table
Railway lines are expensive to construct and to maintain
Not all areas are served by railway lines
Not suitable for transporting urgently required or perishable goods as it is slow
Unsuitable for transporting goods over short distances
Trains are expensive to acquire and maintain

Pipeline Transport

This is the movement of liquids and gases from one place to another through a pipe. Products transported through pipes include water, gases, petrol and diesel. Solids that cannot be dissolved or damaged by water may also be transported through pipes as suspension. Examples coffee berries from machines to drying places. The pipeline is both a vessel and a way.

Products flow by the force of gravity or pressure from an original station. If the original terminal is at a higher level than the receiving terminal, the force of gravity is adequate to move the product. But if the receiving terminal is at a higher level than the original than the originating terminal, then power is required to pump the product uphill. For example, petroleum from Mombasa which is at sea level needs pressure to pump it to all the receiving stations.

Advantages of pipeline Transport

It is labour saving as it requires minimal manpower
It is environmentally friendly since it is free of noise or smoke
It may be constructed in areas where it is difficult to construct roads or railway lines. For example, over rugged terrain
Pipelines allow continuous flow of the goods being transported
It ensures that road damage is reduced as the number of tankers is reduced on roads
It helps to reduce accidents that may be caused by tankers on roads
It reduces delays arising from congestion on roads
Maintenance costs are reduced as it relies on gravitational force and booster stations along the way
It may not be affected by adverse weather conditions

Disadvantages of pipeline Transport

A leakage not detected in good time may lead to high losses
Initial construction cost is high
Accidents leakages may lead to environmental pollution
It is unidirectional that is, travels only in one direction
It can transport only one product at a time
It is not flexible since once a line is laid, it cannot be adjusted according to transport patterns or demands
Generates comparatively fewer job opportunities as it is capital intensive
It is vulnerable to sabotage by enemies.
Once laid, it is difficult to re route or re locate.

Water Transport

It is a mode of transport where the units of carriage transport goods and people on water. Water in this case includes; navigable rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The means of transport which are the units of carriage or vessels using this mode include; ships, dhows, boats, steamers and ferries. Water transport can be divided into inland waterways and sea transport.

Inland waterways

This is transport carried out on lakes, rivers and inland canals. The Lake Victoria facilitates transport among the three east African countries i.e. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Ferries also connect the mainland to islands such as Rusinga Islands, found in Lake Victoria.

Water hyacinth has however been a threat to transport on the lake. Most rivers in Kenya are not navigable due to reasons such as:

Too small
Presence of rapids and waterfalls
Too shallow
Most are seasonal
High gradient

Sea Transport

This is where goods and people are transported in seas and oceans. All types of water vessels may be used in sea transport. Sea transport is important as it connects continents of the world thereby facilitating international trade. Kilindini in Mombasa provides a good natural harbor facilitating sea transport between Kenya and other countries of the world. Ferries also connect the island of Mombasa and the mainland.

Types of Water vessels

Ships

A ship is a large vessel that transports people or goods through water. Their sizes however vary depending on quantity of goods and passengers they carry. Ships help in connecting countries or places which borders the sea. They load and offload in terminals referred to as harbors found at sea ports. For example, the Kilindini harbor is found in the port of Mombasa.

Ships that transport people are referred to as passenger ship while those that transport goods are referred to as cargo ships. Cargo ships are c are convenient for carrying heavy and bulky goods.

Ships may also be classified as either liners or tramps.

Liners

These are ships that are owned and operated by shipping companies called conferences. Each conference is responsible for specifying the route on which each liner would operate the rates to be charged and setting the rules and regulations to be followed by the members.

Characteristics of liners

Have fixed routes
Follow a fixed time table
Charges are fixed
Call at specified ports along the route at specified intervals
Travel at regular intervals

Tramps

These are ships that do not follow a regular route or time table. Their routes therefore depend on demand. During times when demand is high, they charge higher rates and when demand is low they lower their rates. Tramps can therefore be likened to matatus. Tramps may be owned by either individuals or firms.

Characteristics of tramps

Do not have a fixed rate. They therefore move to wherever there are goods or passengers to carry.
Have no set time tables. They therefore move according to demand
Their fares change according to demand.
Their travelling patterns are irregular and therefore cannot be relied upon

NB: Liners and tramps owners are in constant competition business. Traders therefore need to choose the type of ships to hire. Liners are however more popular than tramps among traders because of their reliability.

When a trader hires an entire ship to transport goods to a given destination, he/she and the ship owner signs a document called a charter party. This document shows the terms and conditions under which the goods would be transported.

Other information included in the agreement are destination, nature of the goods and freight charges. When the ship is hired to carry goods for a given journey the document signed is referred to as voyage charter. On the other hand, if the ship is hired to transport goods for a given period of time, the document signed is called time charter.

Ships may be specially built to carry special commodities. These may include tankers specially built to transport petroleum products and other liquids. Refrigerated ships may also be available to transport perishable commodities such as meat, fish and fruits.

Boats and Ferries

These are water vessels used in transporting goods and people over short distances. They are therefore found in both inland water transport and also the sea transport e.g. the Likoni ferry in Mombasa carries people from and to the island of Mombasa and the main land.

Advantages of water transport

Sea transport is economical to the owner as the number of employees to carriage volume ratio is less compared to road transport
Suited for transporting heavy and bulky goods
It is cheap as the way is natural and free
Connects countries of the world which border the sea
Special types of ships are available for transporting goods
Large volume can be carried thereby reducing cost per unit
Not affected by traffic congestion.
Some ships can be very luxurious for passengers and may even provide swimming pools.
At the port/dock, there are many depots for storage of goods.

Disadvantages of water transport

Sea-sickness, sea-pirates and storms may occur
They are slow therefore not suitable for transporting perishable and urgently required goods
It is expensive to construct and maintain artificial harbors
Unfavorable weather conditions may affect water transport
Sea transport is not accessible to land locked countries
Lack of loading and off-loading facilities may lead to delay
Cost of acquiring and maintaining ships is high.
Theft of cargo and other valuables may occur during loading and offloading.
Air Transport

This refers to the movement of goods, people and documents by aircrafts. Aircrafts/ aeroplanes are the units of carriage and air the way. The terminals include airports and airstrips.

Aeroplanes are fast compared to other means of transport i.e. they are the fastest means of transport. They are therefore suitable for transporting urgently required goods like drugs and perishable goods Such as flowers over long distances.

Aircrafts may be classified as either passenger planes or cargo planes. Passenger planes transport people from one place to another. On the other hand, cargo planes transport light cargo to the required destinations. Aeroplanes may be fitted with special facilities for handling special goods. Aeroplanes are expensive to acquire and to maintain. Their operations may also be affected by weather conditions.

Advantages of Air Transport

There is less handling of goods on the way since aeroplanes may move direct to the final destinations.
The way does not require construction or maintenance as it is natural and free.
Planes can move through places where other means cannot, such as over the earth poles and across high mountains/ planes are not hampered by physical barriers.
Have efficient interconnections between airlines all over the world which makes it convenient
Suitable for long distance travelers especially from one continent to another
Very fast therefore suitable for transporting perishable and urgently required goods.
Chartered planes can be used to reach remote areas.
The movement of aircrafts is smooth therefore suitable for transporting fragile goods such as glassware and eggs.
Passengers are given the highest degree of comfort and personal attention making it the most comfortable means of transport.

Disadvantages of Air Transport

Causes noise pollution
Air fields are not available in all places
Cannot be conveniently used to carry heavy and bulky goods
Expensive to acquire and maintain aircrafts
Requires highly trained manpower e.g. air traffic controllers, pilots e. t. c
Unfavorable weather conditions such as fog, mist and heavy rains smay cause delay
It is an expensive means of transport in terms of freight charges
Not suitable for transporting inflammable goods such as cooking gas and petrol
In case of accidents results are catastrophic/ accidents are rare but fatal.
Has limited carrying capacity which should not be exceeded.
It is not flexible.
Most air fields/ terminals are located some distance away from town/ city centers and therefore require transport or railway links that are affected by jams occasionally causing delays.
Recent hijackings by terrorists have made air transport an insecure means especially for transporting valuables.

Containerization

This is a recent development in transport. It refers to the packaging of goods in standardized ‘box like’ containers designed for use in transporting cargo. The containers are mainly made of metal though a few are made of wood. They can either be hired or bought from firms that provide them. The hired containers are returnable to the owner after the goods have been transported.

Containers are designed in a way appropriate to transport goods by ships, train, lorry or by air. To safeguard the goods against risks such as theft and unfavorable weather conditions the containers are sealed immediately after goods have been packed. The sealed containers are then transported up to the final destination where they are off-loaded. The consignee can then break the seal.

Goods can be transported in containers as Full Container Load (F.C.L) or as Less Container Load (L.C.L).Full container load applies where the container is filled with goods belonging to one person. In FCL, goods are delivered to the consignee intact. On the other hand, less than container load applies where a container is filled with goods belonging to several consignors. This may be the case where a single consigner does not have enough goods to fill a container. When such a container reaches the destination, it is opened and the various consignees take their goods.

There are special handling facilities for loading and offloading containers onto and from the units of carriage.

Apart from the container depot at Mombasa, Kenya Ports Authority (K.P.A) has established inland container depots referred dry ports. An example of a dry port is found at Embakasi in Nairobi. The establishment of dry ports aims at relieving congestion at the sea port. It also aims at making handling of cargo easier and efficient for inland importers and exporters.

When containers are off loaded from ships at Mombasa, they are loaded into special container trains called railtainer which transports them by railway to the inland container depot at Embakasi. Containers can also be transported by specially designed trucks between the ports or from the port to consumer’s destination.

Advantages of containerization

Minimizes the risks of loss or damage of goods as containers are sealed at source
Containers are lifted with devices which make movement and handling easy
Saves time and labour in loading and off-loading due to use of machines
Containers sealed at source in presence of customs officials may not be opened until they reach their final destination. This reduces delay.
Special containers are available for goods requiring special attention like chemicals.
Insurance costs are relatively low as risks are less
Space is saved when containers are used as opposed to when individual items are packed in the carrier.
Can carry large quantities of cargo if packed well.
Containers are tough structure, which offer protection to sensitive and fragile goods.

Disadvantages of containerization

They are expensive and this increases the cost of transporting goods
Contributes to unemployment since it is capital intensive
Not suitable for transporting small quantities of goods.
Requires special handling equipment which may be expensive
May not be suitable for goods with irregular shapes.
Training labour force is long and expensive.
They may be used to smuggle illegal goods.
The large trucks used on the road increase road damage and may increase accidents.

Factors that influence the choice of appropriate means of transport

Cost; The cost of transporting a good should be reasonable; except where other factors should be considered such as need for quick delivery. Otherwise should be proportional to the value of goods transported.
Nature of goods; The nature of goods should be considered when choosing a means of transport. For example, perishable goods require a fast means. Similarly, heavy and bulky goods require a means of transport convenient for such goods e.g. trains and ship.
Reliability; The means chosen should be able to deliver the goods to the required place at the right time and in the right form.
Urgency; For goods that are urgently required, the fastest means available should be chosen.
Safety and Security; The means chosen should ensure that the goods on transit are secure against loss, theft or physical damages.
Distance; Some means of transport are suitable for long distances while others are suitable for short distances. If goods are to be transported for long distances, air, sea or railway transport would be appropriate, otherwise roads would be suitable for short distances.
Availability of means; The means of transport to be selected should be based on its availability. For example, where there is only one means of transport, it would be the only one to be chosen.
Flexibility; This is the ability of means of transport to be manipulated to suit the convenience of the transporter. Where flexibility is required, then the means that would provide such should be chosen. For example a matatu is usually more flexible than an aeroplane.
Terminals; Some means of transport may have their terminals near the transporter than others. In this case, the transporter should choose the means whose terminals are conveniently accessible to facilitate loading and offloading of goods.
Value of goods to be transported- goods of high value require special handling and high security during transportation.

Trends in transport

Pipeline and containerization
Electric trains are replacing diesel engines
Underground tunnels for trains are being used to ease congestion on the surface
Dual-carriage roads are being developed in various parts to ease congestion and minimize accidents
Development of planes with larger carrying capacity and speed is a major feature in the transport industry
Use of bicycles commonly known as bodaboda are a common feature in towns, bus terminals and rural areas, supplementing other means of transport to ferry people and cargo to their destinations. The bicycles are being modified to make them more convenient. It is not unusual to find a bicycle (bodaboda) which has been fitted with facilities such as:
Motors to increase their speed and reduce energy applied by the cyclist.
Music systems to entertain passengers and More comfortable seats.

Motor cycles are also being used as bodabodas in various areas. Similarly, the three wheeled vehicles commonly known as ‘Tuk Tuk’ is a major feature in cities and most towns.

Private personal vehicles with less carrying capacity e.g. four-seater vehicles are being used as matatus. The vehicles are convenient to the passengers as they:
Fill up within a shorter time compared to larger vehicles
May accommodate each of the customers interests.
Passenger vehicles are being fitted with radios, music systems and videos to entertain customers as they travel. However, some forms of entertainment may not be conducive to all.

END.

REVISION QUESTIONS ON TRANSPORT

KCSE PAST PAER 1

1996 State four circumstances under which a businessman would choose to transport goods by air? (4mks).
1997 Outline four reasons why a school in Kisumu may prefer to transport its sixty students to a music festival in Nairobi by train rather than by bus. (4mks).
1999 Give five reasons why a manufacturing firm would be located in an area well served by good road network.(4mks).
1999 Outline four limitations of containerization. (4mks).
2000 State four reasons why road transport is popular in Kenya.(4mks).
2001 State four ways in which the nature of goods would influence the choice of transport.
2002 Outline four reasons why a transporter of goods from Mombassa to Nairobi may prefer rail transport to road transport. (4mks).
2003 State the unit of carriage for each of the following modes of transport. (5mks)

Mode of transport Units of carriage

Portage
Sea
Road
Cartage
Air
2004 list four ways in which transport promotes growth of trade. (4mks)
2000 State four reasons why road transport is popular in Kenya. (4mks)
1995 Give 3 disadvantages of railway transport in Kenya. (4mks)
1998 List 4 disadvantages of using containers to transport goods. (4mks)

KCSE PAST QUESTIONS PAPER 2

1995 Explain five reasons that may account for continued use of hand carts as a mode of transport in Kenya. (12mks)
1996 The oil pipeline has recently been extended from Nairobi to western Kenya.
Explain five benefits that may be accounted to the country from the extension. (10mks).
1997 Explain five ways in which an efficient road transport system may promote trade within a country.(10mks).
1998 Discuss five factors that have hindered the expansion of railway transport in Kenya.
1999 Explain five features of an efficient transport system (8mks).
2000 Explain the advantages of pipeline as a mode of transporting oil products. (12mks).
2002 Outline five factors that should be considered when choosing a means of transport.
2003 Explain six advantages of containerization as a mode of transport.(10mks)
2004 Discuss six factors that may discourage the use of pipeline as a means of transporting petroleum products in a country.(12mks).
2005 Discuss 5 circumstances under which a trader may choose to transport goods by rail.

TOPIC 5

WAREHOUSING

Warehouse; This is a building or a part of a building where goods are received and stored until need arises for them.

-Other terms used to refer to a warehouse are depot, a go down or a silo.

Warehousing; This is the process of receiving goods into a warehouse, protecting such goods against all types of hazards and releasing them to users when need arises for them

-There are three distinct stages in warehousing process namely:

Receiving goods into a warehouse
Storing them
Releasing them to users

Importance of warehousing to Business

Steady/continuous flow of goods; Producers can produce and store goods awaiting demand through warehousing e.g. agricultural products that are produced seasonally are made available throughout the year
Stability in prices; Warehousing ensures that there is no surplus or shortage of goods. It ensures that goods are stored when in plenty and released to the market as their need arises. This helps to keep their prices fairly stable
Security; Warehousing ensures that goods are protected against physical damage and adverse weather conditions. This also ensures that the quality of the goods is maintained until they are demanded. Goods are also protected from loss through pilferage and theft.
Bridging the time lay/difference between production and consumption; many goods are produced in anticipation of demand. Such goods must be stored until their demand arises e.g. gumboots, umbrellas and sports equipment are needed seasonally but are manufactured in advance and stored in a warehouse so as to be released to the users when need arises for them.
Continuous/uninterrupted production schedules; Manufactures are able to buy raw materials in large quantities and store them awaiting their need to arise. This prevents interruption of the production process because of lack of raw materials
Preparation of goods for sale; While in the warehouse, goods can be prepared for sale e.g. they can be blended, packed, graded or sorted out.
Sale of goods; Goods may be sold while still in the warehouse. If sold while still in a bonded warehouse, duty passes to the buyer
Specialization; Warehousing encourages specialization in production and distribution. Producers concentrate on producing while distributors store the goods for sale to the customers.
Unexpected demand can be met; The government collects agricultural goods e.g. cereals and stores them as buffer stocks to be used in times of disaster or serious shortages.
Clearance of goods; Warehousing helps in clearance of goods i.e. goods entering the country can be inspected by the customs officials.
Warehousing helps to improve the quality of goods e.g. goods like tobacco and wine mature with time.
Warehousing enables buyers to inspect the goods before they buy them.
Wholesale warehouses may also operate as showrooms for traders.

Essentials of a warehouse

These are the features and resources a warehouse should have in order for it to function effectively.

These include;

Ideal location; A warehouse should be located at a suitable place to facilitate receipt and issue of goods e.g. a manufactures warehouse should be located near his/her factory.
Proper building; A warehouse should have proper buildings which are suitable for different types of goods to be stored.
Equipment; A warehouse should be equipped with appropriate facilities for handling goods such as fork-lifts conveyer belts e.t.c.It should also be well equipped with necessary storage facilities e.g. provision of refrigerated or cold storage for perishable goods such as meat and fruits.
Accessibility; A warehouse should be accessible to its users. It should therefore be linked with good and appropriate transport system to facilitate movement of goods in and out of the warehouse.
Safety and security; It should have/be fitted with safety equipment or facilities necessary for protection of goods against damaged caused by such things like water, fire or sunshine as well as for the protection of the personnel.
Communication; A warehouse should have a good communication network or system for easy contact with its clients and suppliers
Qualified personnel; A warehouse should have well trained and efficient staff/personnel for proper management and efficient functioning of the warehouse.
Recording system; There should be a proper recording system in a warehouse to ensure that all movement of goods is properly monitored.
A warehouse should be spacious enough to allow easy movement and accumulation of goods and personnel.

Types of warehouses

Warehouses can be broadly classified into three namely:

Private warehouses
Public warehouses
Bonded warehoused

Private warehouses

These are warehouses that are owned by private individuals/organizations for the purpose of storing their own goods only. They include;

Wholesalers warehouses
Producers warehouses
Retailer’s warehouses.

a) Wholesalers warehouses

These are warehouses for storing the wholesalers’ goods as they await distribution or sale. They need warehouses because they buy goods in bulk from producers and store them until they are needed by retailers.

-The wholesalers warehouses also act as showrooms i.e. they display their goods in the warehouse.

-These warehouses also enable the wholesalers to prepare their goods for sale e.g. branding, blending, packing and sorting may be carried out in the warehouse

b) Producers warehouses;

-These warehouses are owned by producers and they are for storing goods prior to their demand.

-The producers may be manufactures of finished goods or farmers

-Such warehouses are built near the manufactures factories or the farmers production points.

-Manufactures who export may locate some warehouses near ports through which they export e.g Mumias sugar warehouse, Bamburi Portland cement warehouse e.t.c

c) Retailers warehouses

Some large-retailers such as chain stores and supermarkets own warehouses for storing their large stores

-It becomes necessary for such business to have warehousing facilities due to their large and bulky purchases dictated by the nature of their business

-Goods are distributed from their warehouses to the retail outlets or to the branches

Advantages of private warehouses

The owner has full control over its operation and may make major decisions without having to consult anyone.
The warehouse is designed to suit the specific needs of the organizations
It enables special handling, storage and protection of goods by having special facilities which may not be available in a public warehouse
The owner is not tied down by procedures of receiving and issuing goods unlike in public warehouse.
The owner does not incur the cost of hiring space unlike with a public warehouse
The operation can be easily automated because the goods to be received stored and dispatched are already known.

Disadvantages of private warehouses

The initial construction cost of a warehouse is high
Under-utilization of personnel and facilities may occur especially in times of low volumes
They may not employ qualified management personnel and are consequently disadvantaged in dealing with management problem.
Risks arising from dangers such as fire,pests,theft or damage are not spread

Public warehouses

These are warehouses owned by individuals or organizations who do business by renting space. To those traders who are in need of storage facilities to store goods temporarily. They have the following characteristics;

Are owned and operated by individuals or companies who do not use them for storing their own goods.
Are open to any member of the public who wish to rent storing space for their goods
The customers pay on the basis of space rented and the period of time required to store the goods.
They are often situated near terminals as airports, sea-ports and railway station and industrial areas. This facilitates the movement of goods in and out of the warehouse.
The rent paid includes charges for insurance and other services i.e. goods are insured against loss or damage as a result of fire or theft while they are still in the warehouse.
They provide other services apart from storing the goods e.g. grading,packaging,preparing export samples, preparing market reports and clerical documents
Imported goods can be sold while they are still in the public warehouse. If such a transaction takes place the goods may change ownership without being physically moved out of the warehouse. This becomes possible if the importer has signed a document called ‘a warehouse-warrant’ (which is a negotiable instrument out of order), it is issued by the new owner after the transaction has taken place.

Advantages of a public warehouses

A public warehouse serves a number of customers that deal with the same product. It assembles the small orders from these customers and places one order for all of them. This enables them to enjoy economies of large scale buying and delivery of goods to a warehouse.
Goods stored in a public warehouse may be sold without their physical movement from the warehouse.
Traders can rent space to store their goods
Traders do not have to construct their own warehouses/do not have to tie up capital in storage buildings and handling equipment.
Goods are insured against risks such as damage by fire and theft
A trader may get a short term loan from the warehousing firm by using the goods held as collateral security.
Apart from the handling, sorting and documentation of goods additional services such as bottling, bagging and repairs of damaged goods can be offered by public warehouses.
Sharing equipment and machinery enables the users to reduce handling costs
Inspection, re-packaging and labeling services provide users of public warehouses the expertise they themselves may not have.

Disadvantages of public warehouses

The hirer is denied the opportunity to physically handle the goods and is forced to compete for attention with other hirers of the warehouse. If the hirer had his/her own warehouse, he/she would have absolute authority on the goods and therefore enjoy individual attention.
The hirer may lose contact with his/her customers since they get goods from a rented warehouse, away from the hirers premises
The hirer may get poor services or miss space altogether during peak seasons due to stiff competition for the same facility.
Documentation involving receipt and release of goods in a public warehouse is likely to be a long and complicated procedure due to the large number of clients involved.
Continued renting of space can even be more expensive than constructing one’s own warehouse in the long run
Public warehouses are sometimes situated far away from the hirer’s premises unlike private ones which are usually within the vicinity of the owner’s premises.
The operations of a general merchandise public warehouse are difficult to automatic because different kinds of goods need different methods and equipment to handle them.

Bonded warehouses

These are public warehouses for keeping imported goods until customs duties have been paid against them. They are mainly located at the points through which goods enter a country

-Imported goods are kept in this type of warehouses if the owner has not paid customs duties. Such goods are said to be “goods under bond”or “goods in bond”

–Bonded warehouses are so called because the owners of such warehouses give a ‘bond’ to the customs authorities i.e. a sum of money as guarantee that they will not release goods from the warehouses until customs duties have been paid.

-The importer may withdraw the goods either in part or in full after the customs duties have been paid for the goods he/she intends to collect.

-If the goods are sold while still in a bonded warehouse, the new owner of the goods pays the duty before taking them out of the warehouse.

-If the goods re-exported to another country while still in a bonded warehouse, the importer does not have to pay the customs duties e.g an importer may import some goods and further prepare them for sale inside a bonded warehouse and can then re-export them without having paid the customs duties

-When the importer pays the duties to the customs officials, a “release warrant” is issued. This is a document that enables the importer to have his/her goods released from a bonded warehouse

-Bonded warehouses have resident customs officials who monitor the movement of goods in and out of a bonded warehouse.

Features of a bonded warehouse

Goods are bonded until customs duty is paid
Goods can be re-exported while in the warehouse
Storage charges are made on all goods stored in the warehouse
Goods can be sold while still under bond
Goods can be inspected and prepared for sale i.e. they can be repacked, branded and blended while in the warehouse
Goods are released only on the production of a release warrant

Advantages of bonded warehouse to the importer

While in bond, goods can be prepared for sale
The owner can look for the market for the goods before paying the duty
Some goods lose weight while in the warehouse so the duty paid becomes lower if based on weight.
If goods are sold while still in the bonded warehouse, the duty passes to the buyer
The importer has more time to arrange for payment of customs duty.
Security is provided for the goods, so the importer is relived of the task of providing security for his/her goods
Some goods improve in quality while in a warehouse for example, wine and tobacco.

Advantages of Bonded warehouse to the Government

The government gets revenue by levying duty on the goods
The government is able to control the entry of harmful goods
The government is able to verify the documents for goods in transit
The government is able to check on the quantity, quality and the nature/type of goods imported.
The government is able to check on illegal goods entering the country.

Disadvantages of a bonded warehouse

The importer may eventually fail to pay customs duties. This forces the customs authorities to auction the bonded goods in order to recover the duties.
When the importer withdraws goods from a bonded warehouse he/she ends up paying a higher duty if he/she had paid the duty at once.
The importer incurs costs in hiring a bonded warehouse as opposed to if he/she had a private warehouse

Free warehouses

These are warehouses in which tax-free goods are kept awaiting sale or collection by owners

-Goods stored in these warehouses can be either locally produced, requiring no taxation or imported goods for which customs duties have already been paid.

NOTE: i) All warehouses apart from bonded warehouses are free warehouses since goods held in them are not subject to control by customs authorities. This includes all private and public warehouses

Locally produced goods are stored in free warehouses since no custom duties are paid for them.

Advantages of free warehouses

Owners of goods stored need not to pay any taxes, thus the goods cannot be auctioned for failure to pay customs duties
It is cheaper to store goods in free warehouses as compared to bonded warehouses since there are no customs duties levied.
Clearence of the goods from the warehouse is simple since a “release warrant” to prove payments of duties is necessary
These warehouses are located at places that are convenient to users

Disadvantages of free warehouses

The Government does not benefit since no customs duty is levied on the goods stored
Some unscrupulous traders might use them to store durable goods so as to evade tax.
Checking and security of goods is more relaxed hence the possibility of storing illegal goods.

Current trends and emerging issues in warehousing

Warehousing technology is undergoing important changes in both building design and handling in storage equipment. These may include;

Warehousing design-In modern times, there is an increasing emphasis on high ceiling warehouses to permit storage of more goods and to make it possible for the movement of fork lift trucks and stuck-cranes
Handling of goods-Handling includes the steps involved in moving of goods to and from storage. There is widespread use of modern machines in most warehouses such as conveyer belts, tracks, forklifts and stuck cranes. The use of automated stucker cranes which more by remote control in a fixed path on guide rails, is a new development in warehousing

Computerization has also greatly helped in monitoring the movement of stock in and out of storage. This has eased the handling, especially in loading and unloading of goods.

Storage of goods-Storage is the condition of the goods at rest in their assigned areas of the warehouse. Most warehouses are currently using storage racks that permit replacement or retrieval of goods without disturbing neighbouring
Environmental pollution-Goods that expired or spoilt while in the warehouse are sometimes discarded in a manner or in areas that may cause pollution to the environment e.g. expired chemicals are sometimes thrown into rivers and oceans thereby endangering the marine life.

-Other times they are burned causing air pollution with toxic gases. Some goods when thrown on land are dangerous to human life

-To avoid the effects of improper disposal of expired or spoilt goods the warehouse owners should come up with methods that are environmentally friendly such as recycling of these goods. They should also be socially responsible for whatever goes out from their warehouses.

TOPIC 6

INSURANCE

Insurance-This is an undertaking or contract between an individual or business and an insurance an occurrence of risk(s) (i.e. against events whose occurrences are unforeseen but causes financial losses or suffering to the affected parties.

Risks are also referred to as contingencies, hazards or perils and include:

–Fire outbreak

-Accidents

-Thefts

-Deaths

-Disabilities

-Risks are real and unforseen.Methods to eliminate such risks has achieved very little and thus has necessitated the need for insurance.

Importance of insurance

Continuity of business

Every business enterprise is exposed to a variety of risks e.g. fire, theft e.t.c.The occurrence of such risks often result in financial losses to the business. Insurance provides adequate protection against such risks in that, if a trader suffers losses as a result of insured risk, she/he is compensated, thus he/she is able to continue with business operations.

Investment projects

Insurance enables investors to invest in profitable yet risky business projects that would otherwise avoided.

Not all the money received as premiums (by the insurance companies) is used up for compensation to those who have been exposed to risk and suffered losses. The rest of the money is invested in other businesses to earn profits.

Creation of employment

Insurance does provide employment opportunities to members of the public.

Government policy

The profits earned are a source of revenue for the government i.e. insurance companies are profit-making organizations which generate revenue to the government through payments of taxes

Credit facilities

The insurance industry have also established credit or lending facilities which the business community uses by borrowing. Loans are made available to the public for different investment projects in different sectors of the economy and also for personal requirements.

Development of infrastructures

The insurance industry plays a crucial role in the development of urban facilities in major towns. Both residential and office buildings have been developed by insurance firms. The firms also participate in development projects in the areas where they operate. They contribute to development of a region by constructing and infrastructural facilities

Life policies can be used as security for loans from either the insurance company or other financial institutions.
Provision of life and general insurance policies encourages Kenyans to plan ahead for their dependants thereby reducing the number of needy future students.
Loss prevention-The insurance companies encourage the insured not to cause accidents thus channeling the unclaimed resources into the economy.

THE THEORY OF INSURANCE

The insurance business relies on the law of large numbers in its operations. According to this law, there should be a large group of people faced with similar risks and these risks spread over a certain given geographical area.

Every person in the group contributes at regular intervals, small amounts of money called premium into a “common pool”. The pool is administered and controlled by the insurance company.

The fact that risks are geographically spread ensures that insurance does not have a concentration of risks in one particular area.
The law of large numbers enables the insurance to accurately estimate the future probably losses and the number of people who are likely to apply for insurance. This is done in order to determine the appropriate premiums to be paid by the person taking out insurance.

Pooling of risks

The insurance operation is based on the theory that just a few people out of a given lot may suffer a loss. There is therefore a “pooling of risks” i.e the loss of the unfortunate few is spread over all the contributors of the group, each bearing a small portion of the total loss. This is why the burden of loss is not felt by the individuals because it is “shared” by a large group.

Benefits of the “pooling of Risks” to insurance company

Pooling of risks enables an insurance company to create a common pool of funds from the regular premiums from different risks.
It enables the insurance company to compensate those who suffer loss when the risks occur
The insurance company is able to spread risks over a large number of insured people
Surplus funds can be invested in for example, giving out loans or buying shares in real estates
It enables the insurance company to meet its operating costs by using the pool funds
It enables the insurance company to calculate to be paid by each client
It enables the company to re-insure itself with another insurance company.

Terms used in Insurance

Insurance

This is a written contract that transfers to an insurer the financial responsibility for losses arising from insured risk.

Premium

This is the specified amount of money paid at regular intervals by the insured to the insurer for coverage against losses arising from a particular risk.

Risk

These are perils or events against which an insurance cover is taken. It is the calamity or problem a person or business faces and results into losses.

Note: The calculation of premiums depends upon the type of risk insured against. The higher the probability of the risk occurring, the higher the premium. The more the risks the business or person is exposed to the more the premiums payable.

Pure risk

This is a risk which results in a loss if it occurs and results in no gains if it does not occur. For example, if a car is involved in an accident, there will be a loss and if the accident does not occur there will be no gain or loss

Speculative risk

This is a risk which when it occurs, may result in a loss or a profit. For example, a person may buy shares at ksh.50 each, one year later the shares may be valued at ksh40 each meaning a loss of ksh.10

Alternatively, their value might not have changed or might have increased to ksh.45 each. Speculative risk lures people to venture into business in the first place.

Insured

This is the individual or the business that takes out the insurance cover and therefore becomes the policy holder

The insured pays premiums to the insurance company to be compensated should the risk insured against occur or cause loss.

Insurer

This is the business company that undertakes to provide cover or protection to the people who suffer loss as a result of occurrence of risks

Actuaries

These are people employed by an insurance company to complete expected losses and calculate the value of premiums.

Claim

This is a demand by the insured for payment from the insurer due to some loss arising from an insured risk.

Policy

This is a document that contains the terms and conditions of the contract between the insurer and the insured. Its issued upon payment of the first premium.

Information contained in a policy includes;

Name, address and occupation
Policy number of the insured
Details of risks insured
Value of property insured
Premiums payable
Other special conditions of the insurance, for example nominees

Actual value

This is the true value of the property insured

Sum insured

This is the value for which property is insured, as stated by the insured at the time of taking the policy.

Surrender value

This is the amount of money that is refunded to the insured by the insurer incase the former(i.e. the insured) terminates payment of the premiums before the insurance contract matures. The policy holder is paid an amount less than the total amount of the premium paid.

Grace period

This is term allowed between the date of signing the contract and the date of payment of the first premium. During this period the insurance contract remains valid. This period is usually a maximum of thirty (30) days.

Proposer

This is a person wishing to take out an insurance cover (prospective insured)

Cover note (Binder)

This is a document given by the insurance company to an insured on payment of the first premium while awaiting for the policy to be processed. It is proof of evidence that the insurer has accepted to cover a proposed risk.

Annuity

This is a fixed amount of money that an insurer agrees to pay the insured annually until the latter’s death. It occurs when a person saves a lumpsum amount of money with an insurer in return for a guaranteed payment which will continue until he/she dies.

Consequential loss

This is loss incurred by a business as a result of disruption of business in the event of the insured risk occurring.

Assignment

This is the transfer of an insurance policy by an insured to another person. Any claims arising from the transferred policy passes to the new policy holder called an assignee

Beneficiaries

These are people named in a life assurance policy who are to be paid by the insurer in the event of the insured

Nomination

This is the act of designing one or more people who would be the beneficiaries in the event of death of the insured. These people are called nominees

Average clause

This clause is usually included in policies to discourage under-insurance. The clause provides that the insured can only recover such proportions of the loss as the value of the policy bears on the property insured. It is usually included in marine or fire insurance policies.

The amounts recoverable are arrived at using the following formulae:

Compensation = value of the policy * loss

Value of property

Example:

If a house worth kshs.800,000 and insured against fire for kshs.600,000 was damaged by fire to the tune of kshs.400,000,the insured would be compensated;

Compensation= (600,000 x 400,000)

800,000 (value insured x Actual loss)

Double insurance

This is taking of insurance policies with more than one company in respect to the same subject matter and the risk. It is significant because if one of the insurers is insolvent at the time the claim arises the insured can enforce his/her claim against the solvent insurer or if both insurers are solvent then they share compensation.

(Insolvency is a state where a business is not able to pay all its liabilities from its existing assets)

Co-insurance

This is an undertaking by more than one insurance company to provide insurance cover for the same risk for an insured. This will usually occur for properties that have great value and face great risk exposures that an insurer cannot successfully make compensation for e.g. value of aeroplanes, ships e.t.c

Co-insurance help spread risks to several insurers, each insurer covering only a certain proportion of the total value. The insurance company with the largest share is called the “leader” and acts on behalf of all the participating insurance companies’ e.g. in collecting premiums from the insured and carrying out documentation work, making claim after collecting each insurers premium contribution e.t.c

Note: Co-insurance is different from double-insurance in that in co-insurance company approaches another insurance company to help in covering the insured property while in double-insurance; it’s the insured who decides to approach different insurance companies to insure the same property against the same risk.

Re-insurance

‘Re-insurance’ means insuring again. This is a situation where an insurance company insures itself with a bigger insurance company called le-insurer for all or part of the risks insured with it by members of the public

Re-insurance indirectly insure an individuals risks.Re-insurance helps to reduce the burden on an insurance company when the loss is too high for a single insurer. When such losses occurs, the claim is met by both the insurer and re-insurer(s) proportionately (according to agreed percentages)

Note: Re-insurance deal with the protection of insurance companies only, while insurance companies protect individuals and business organizations.

Factors that may make it necessary for an insurance company to Re-insure

Value of property-When the value of property is great, such as ship, the risk is too high to be borne by a single insurer
High risk of loss-When chances of loss through the insured risks are high, it becomes necessary to re-insure.
Number of risks covered-When the insurance company has insured many different risks, it would be too costly to compensate many claims at once, hence the need for re-insurance
Need to spread the risk-When the insurance company wishes to share liability in the event of a major loss occurring
Government policy-The government may make a legal requirement for an insurance company to re-insure

Under-insurance

This occurs when the sum insured as contained in the policy is less than the actual value of the property e.g. A property of shs.500, 000 can be offered for insurance as having a value of shs.400, 000

Over-insurance

This is a situation where the sum insured is more than the correct value of property e.g. a person insures property of shs.300,000 for shs.600,000.If total loss occurs, he is compensated the correct value of the property i.e. that which he has lost

Agents

These are people who sell insurance policies on behalf of the insurance company. They are paid on commission that is dependent upon the total value of policies sold

Insurance Brokers

These are professional middlemen in the insurance process. They connect the people wishing to take insurance with the insurers. They act on behalf of many different insurance firms, unlike agents. Their activities include:

Examination of insurance market trends
Correspondence between the insured and his clients
Advising the insured and would be policy holders on the best policies for their property e.t.c.

He receives a commission (reward) known as brokerage.

PRINCIPLES OF INSURANCE

Principles of insurance provide guidance to the insurance firms at the time they are entering into a contract with the person taking the cover. These insurance principles include:

Help to determine whether a valid insurance contract exists between the two parties at the time claims are made.
Provide checks and controls to ensure successful operations of insurance for the benefit of both the parties

It is therefore important that a prospective insured (person wishing to take insurance policy) has basic knowledge of these principles as stated in the insurance law.

The insurance principles include;

Insurable Interest

This principle states that an insurance claim cannot be valid unless the insured person can prove that he has directly suffered a financial loss and not just because the insured risk has occurred.

Going by this principle one cannot insure his parents or friends or other people’s property since he/she has no insurable interest in them. If such properties are damaged or completely destroyed, he/she will not suffer any financial loss.

For example, Mr.x has no insurable interest in the property of his neighbours.He does not suffer any financial loss should they be destroyed. This principle ensures that people are not deliberately destroying other people’s properties/life in order for them to receive compensation.

In life insurance (life assurance) it is assumed that a person has unlimited interest in his/her own life. Similarly it is assumed that one has insurable in the life of spouse and children e.g. a wife may insure the life of her husband, a father the life of his child because there is sufficient insurable interest.

Indemnity

The essence of this principle is that the insurer will only pay the “replacement value” of the property when the insured suffers loss as a result of an insured risk.

This principle thus puts the insured back to the financial position he enjoyed immediately before the loss occurred.

It is therefore not possible, then, for anybody to gain from a misfortune by getting compensation exceeding the actual financial loss suffered as this will make him gain from a misfortune.

This principle does not apply in life assurance since it is not possible to value one’s life or a part of the body in terms of money. Instead, the insurance policy states the amount of money the insured can claim in the event of death.

Utmost good faith (uberrima fides)

In this principle the person taking out a policy is supposed to disclose the required relevant material facts concerning the property or life to be insured with all honesty. Failure to comply to this may render the contract null and void hence no compensation.

e.g.

-A person suffering from a terminal illness should reveal this information to the insurer.

-One should not under-insure or over-insure his/her property.

Subrogation

This principle compliments the principle of indemnity. It does so by ensuring that a person does not benefit from the occurrence of loss.

According to this principle, whatever remains of the property insured after the insured has been compensated according to the terms of the policy, becomes the property of the insure.

Example

Assuming that Daisy’s car is completely damaged in an accident and the insurance compensates for the full value of the loss, whatever remains of the old car (now scrap), belongs to the insurance company

Scrap metal can be sold for some values and should Daisy take the amount she would end up getting more amount than the value of the car which will be against the principle of indemnity.

Note: This principle cannot be applicable to life assurance since there is nothing to subrogate.

Proximate cause

This principle states that for the insured to be compensated there must be a very close relationship between the loss suffered and risk insured i.e. the loss must arise directly from the risk insured or be connected to the risk insured.

Example

If a property is insured against fire then fire occurs and looters take advantage of the situation and steal some of the property, the insured will suffer loss from ‘theft’ which is a different risk from the one insured against, so he/she will not be compensated.

However if the property burns down as a result of sparks from the fire-place, the proximate cause of the loss is sparks which are directly related to fire. So the insured is entitled for compensation.

CLASSES OF INSURANCE

Insurance covers are mainly classified into two,

Property (non-life) general insurance
Life assurance

Life Assurance

The term assurance is used in respect of life contracts. It is used to mean that life contracts are not contracts of indemnity as life cannot be indemnified i.e. put back to the same financial position he was in before the occurrence of loss.(life has no money value, no amount of money can give back a lost or injured life)

Life insurance (assurance) is entered by the two parties in utmost good faith and the premiums payable in such life contracts depend on:

Age; The higher the age the higher the premiums as the age factor increase the chances of occurrence of death.
Health condition; A person with poor health i.e. sickly person pays higher premiums as opposed to one in good health.
Exposure to health risks; The nature of a person’s occupation can make him susceptible to health problems and death.

Types of policies

Whole life assurance – In whole life assurance, the assured pays regular premiums until he/she dies. The sum assured is payable to the beneficiaries upon the death of the assured.

–Whole life assurance covers disabilities due to illness or accidents i.e. if the insured is disabled during the life of the policy due to illness or accidents, the insurer will pay him/her for the income lost.

ii) Endownment policy/insurance

This is whereby the insured pays regular premiums over a specified period of time. The sum assured is payable either at the expiry of the period (maturity of policy) or on death of the insured, whichever comes first.

The insured, at expiry of policy is given the total sum assured to use for activities of his own choice.(ordinary endownment policy)

-Where the insured dies before maturity of contract, the beneficiaries are given these amounts.

Note; The assured person may be paid a certain percentage of the sum assured at intervals until the expiry of the policy according to the terms of contract. Such an arrangement is known as Anticipated Endowment policy.

Advantages of Endowment policies

They are a form of saving by the insured, for future investments
Premiums are payable over a specified period of time which can be determined to suit his/her needs e.g. retirement time
Where the assured lives and time policy matures, he receives the value of sum assured.
Policy can be used as security for loans from financial institutions.

Differences Between a whole life policy and an Endowment policy

Whole life	Endowment
· Compensation is paid after the death of the assured	· Compensation is paid after the expiry of an agreed period
· Premiums are paid throughout the life of the assured	Premiums are paid only during an agreed period
· Benefits go to the dependants rather than the assured	The assured benefits unless death proceeds the expiry of the agreed period
· Aims at financial security of dependants	Aims at financial security of the assured and dependants

iii) Term insurance

The insured here covers his life against death for a given time period e.g. 1yr, 5yrs e.t.c.

If the policy holder dies within this period, his/her dependants are compensated.

If the insured does not die within this specified period, there is no compensation. However, a renewal can be taken.

IV) Education plan/policies

This policy is normally taken by parents for their children’s future educational needs.

The policy gives details of when the payments are due.

v) Statutory schemes

The Government offers some types of insurance schemes which are aimed at improving/providing welfare to the members of the scheme such as medical services and retirement benefits.

A member and the employer contribute, at regular intervals, certain amounts of money towards the scheme.

Examples

S.S.F
H.I.F
Widows and children pension scheme (W.C.P.S)
Annuity

Characteristics of life Assurance

It is a cover for life until death or for a specified period of time
It may be a saving plan
It is normally a long term contract and does not require an annual renewal
It has a surrender value
It has a maturity date when the assured is paid the sum assured bonuses and interests.
A life assurance policy can be assigned to beneficiaries
The policy can be any amount depending on the assureds’ financial ability to pay premiums
The policy can be used as security for a loan

General insurance (property insurance)

This type of insurance covers any form of property against the risks of loss or damage. A person can insure any property he has an insurable interest in

General insurance is usually divided into;

Fire insurance/department
Accident insurance/department
Marine insurance/department
Accident insurance

This department covers all sorts of risks which occur by accident and includes the following;

Motor policies

-These provide compensation for partial or total loss to a vehicle if the loss results from an accident.

-The policy could either be third party or comprehensive.

–Third party policies cover all damages caused by the vehicle to people and property other than the owner and his/her vehicle. This includes pedestrians, fare-paying passengers, cows, fences and other vehicles

In Kenya, a motor-vehicle owner is required by law to have this policy before the vehicle is allowed on the roads. One can also take a third party, fire and theft policy.

Comprehensive policy covers damages caused not only to the third party but also to the vehicle itself and injuries suffered by the owner. Comprehensive policies include full third party, fire, theft and malicious damage to the vehicle.

Personal accident policy

-These policies are issued by insurance companies to protect the insured against personal accidents causing;

Injury to the person
Partial or total physical disability as a result of the injury
Loss of income as a result of death

-If death occurs due to an accident, the insured’s beneficiaries are paid the total sum assured.

In case of a partial or total disability as a result of accident, the insured can be paid on regular periods, e.g. monthly as stipulated in the policy.

Compensation for injuries where one loses a part of his/her body can be done on a lump sum basis.

The insured is also paid the value of hospital expenses incurred if hospitalized as a result of an accident.

Cash and / or Goods in Transit policies

These are policies that specifically provide cover for loss of cash and goods in transit between any two locations.

E.g. Goods and cash moved from business to the markets, from suppliers to business e.t.c

d) Burglary and Theft policies

These policies cover losses caused by robbers and thieves

Burglary policies are enforceable only if the insured has met the specified safety and precautionary measures for protection of the insured items.

E.g.-How much money should be maintained in different kinds of safety boxes

-Positioning of each of the cash boxes is also an important precautionary measure.

NB: The control measures are aimed at reducing both the extent and probability of loss occurring

e) Fidelity Guarantee policies

These policies cover the employers against loss of money and/or goods caused by their employees in the cause of duty.

-The losses may be as a result of embezzlement, fraud, arithmetical errors e.t.c

-The policies may cover specified employees or all the employees

7) Workmen’s compensation (Employer’s Accident liability)

These policies provide compensation for employees who suffer injuries in the course of carrying out their duties.

The employer insures his employee against industrial injuries i.e the employer is only liable for the compensation of workers who suffer injuries at work.

f) Public liability

This insurance covers injury, damages or losses which the business or its employees cause to the public through accidents.

The insurer pays all claims from the public upto an agreed maximum

g) Bad debts

This policy covers firms against losses that might result from debtor’s failure to pay their debts.

iii)Marine Insurance

This type of insurance covers ships and cargo against the risk of damage or destruction at the sea. The main risks sea vessels are exposed to include; fire, theft, collision with others, stormy weather, sinking e.t.c

Types of Marine Insurance policies

The marine insurance covers are classified as Hull, cargo, freight and ship owners’ liability.

Marine Hull

This policy covers the body of the ship against loss or damage that might be caused by sea perils.

Included here are any equipment, furniture or machinery on the ship.

A special type of marine hull is the part policy, which is for a specified period when the ship is loading, unloading or at service.

Marine Cargo

This type of policy covers the cargo or goods carried by the ship

The policy is taken by the owners of the sea vessels to cover the cargo being transported. It has the following sub-divisions.

Voyage policy-Here cargo and ship are insured for a specific voyage/journey. The policy terminates automatically once the ship reaches the destination.
Time policy-Here insurance is taken to cover losses that may occur within a specified period of time, irrespective of the voyage taken
Fleet policy-This covers a fleet of ships,i.e several ships belonging to one person, under one policy.
Floating policy-This policy covers losses that may occur on a particular route, covering all the ships insured along that route for a specified period
Mixed policy-This policy provides insurance for the ship and cargo on specified voyages and for a particular period of time. No compensation can be made if the ship was on a voyage different from the ones specified even if time has not expired
Composite policy-This is where several insurance companies have insured one policy of a particular ship especially when the sum insured is too large to be adequately covered by one insurer.
Construction policy/builders policy-This covers risks that a ship is exposed to while it is either being constructed, tested or being delivered.
Freight policy-This is an insurance cover taken by the owner of the ship for compensation against failure to pay hiring charges by a hirer of the ship.
Third parties liability-This is an insurance policy taken by the owner of the ship to cover claims that might arise from damage caused to other people’s property.

Description of marine losses

The following are some of the losses encountered in marine insurance.

Total loss,

This occurs where there is complete loss or damage to the ship and cargo insured. Total loss can be constructive or actual.

In Actual total loss, the claims are as a result of the ships and/or cargos complete destruction. It could also occur;

-When a ship and its cargo are so damaged that what is salvaged is of no market value to both the insurer and the insured.

-When a ship is missing for a considerable period of time enough to assume that it has sunk.

–Constructive total loss occurs when the ship and/or cargo are totally damaged but retrieved. It may also occur;

-Where a ship and its cargo are damaged but of market value. This could be as a result of decision to abandon the ship and cargo as the probability of total loss appears imminent.

-If the cost of preventing total loss may be higher than that of the ship and its cargo when retrieved e.g many lives may be lost in the process of trying to prevent total loss.

General average-This is a loss that occurs as a result of some of the cargo being thrown into the sea deliberately to save the ship and the rest of the cargo from sinking. The losses made are shared by the ship owners and the cargo owners proportionately as the effort was in the interest of both.
Particular average-This occurs where there is a partial but accidental loss to either the ship or the cargo. When this happens each of the affected party is soldy responsible for the loss that has occurred to his property. A claim can, however be made if the loss incurred amounts to more than 3% of the value insured.

Fire insurance-This type of insurance covers property damage or loss caused by accidental fire. Cover is offered to domestic commercial and industrial premises, plant and machinery, equipment, furniture fittings stock e.t.c

In order to claim for compensation as a result of loss by fire, the following conditions must be fulfilled;

Fire must be accidental
Fire must be immediate cause of loss
There must be actual fire.

There are several types of types of fire insurance policies. These include;

Consequential loss policy;(profit interruption policy)

This covers or compensates the insured for the loss of profit suffered when business operations have

It is offered to protect future earnings of an enterprice after fire damage.

Sprinkler leakage policy-This provides cover against loss or damage caused to goods or premises by accidental leakages from fire fighting sprinklers
Fire and Related perils policy-This covers buildings which include factories, warehouses, shops, offices and their contents. The policy does not cover loss of profit arising from fire damage.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERAL INSURANCE

It’s a contract of indemnity
It cannot be assigned even to ones relatives
The insured must have an insurable interest in the property to be insured
Premiums charged depends on the degree of risk, the higher the premium charged.
Compensation for loss can only be upto a maximum of the value of the insured property or the sum insured in case of under insurance.
It has no surrender value
It’s normally a short term contract which can be renewed periodically, usually after one year.

Factors to be considered when Determining Premiums to be charged

Health of the person
Frequency of occurrence of previous losses
Extent of the previous losses
Value of the property insured

Insurance	Gambling
-The insured must have insurable interest	-A gambler has no insurable interest
-Reinstates the insured back to the financial position just before loss	-Aims at improving the winners financial position
-The insured is expected to pay regular premiums for the insurance cover to remain in force	-Gambling money is paid only once
-Insurance involves pure risks	-Gambling involves speculative risks
-The event of loss might never occur	-The event of bet must happen to determine the winner and the loser.

Occupation of the insured
Age of the person or of the property in question
Location of the insured(address and geographical location)
Period to be covered by the policy
Residence of the insured.

Procedure for taking a policy

Filling a proposal form
Calculation of the premium to be paid
Issuing of cover note (Binder)
Issuing of the policy

Procedure of claiming compensation

Notification to the insurer-The insurer has to be notified about the occurrence of any incident immediately.
Filling a claim form-The insurer provides the insured with a claim form which he fills to give details of the risk that has occurred
Investigation of the claim-The insurer arranges to investigate the cause of the incident and to assess the extent of the loss incurred. The insurer is then able to establish whether the insured is to be compensated and if so, for how much.
Payment of claim-On receipt of the report of the assessor, the insurer pays the due compensation to the insured. (Payment of the compensation shows that both the insurer and the insured have agreed on the extent of the loss and the payment is the settlement of the claim)

INSURANCE AND GAMBLING

In most cases, insurance is erroneously taken to be the same as gambling in that small amounts are contributed by many people into a common fund which later benefits just a few people. They are however different and their differences include;

PAST KCSE QUESTONS

1.1995 Describe the procedures that should be followed when taking an insurance policy. 10mks)

2.1996 explain four ways in which the insurance industry promotes the growth of business enterprises. (5mks)

3.1997 Explain four ways in which the insurance industry contributes to the development of Kenya’s economy. (10mks)

4.1998 Discuss various insurance policies under which an insurance company would not compensate the insured in the event of the loss. (10mks)

5.1999 Discuss various insurance policies that the owner of a supermarket may find it useful for the business. (12mks)

6.2000 Explain four benefits of the ‘pooling of risks’ to an insurance company. (8mks)

7.2001 Explain the factors that may make it necessary for an insurance company re-ensure.

8.2002 Explain the meaning of the following terms as used in insurance (10mks)

i) Uberrimae fidei
ii) Indemnity

Third party motor vehicle insurance

iv) Contribution.
v) Subrogation

9.2003 Discuss four circumstances under which an insurance contract may be terminated. (8mks)

10.2004 Explain five benefits that could be enjoyed by a person who decided to take out an endowment policy. (10mks

TOPIC

PRODUCT PROMOTION

Product is an item or service offered to the consumers at a price. Therefore, product promotion is the communication or any activity undertaken to inform the consumers, persuade and remind them to buy the product from the market.

The purpose/Importance of product promotion

It informs the customer of the availability, price, and where to obtain the product to satisfy their wants
It persuade the buyer to buy their products a head of their competitors products in the market
It reminds the customers of the continued existence of a given product in the market
It educate the consumers of the usage of the product to satisfy their needs fully
It informs them on any improvement that has been made on the product
It stimulates the demand of the product being promoted in the market
It brings out the positive features of the product
It opens new market for the product in the environment

Methods of product promotion

Product promotion may be carried out in the following ways:

Personal selling
Advertising
Sales promotion
Publicity

Personal selling

This is a method of promotion where there is an oral presentation in the conversation with the prospective customer. It is done by with the use of salesmen who informs the prospective buyer of all the aspects of the product

Methods of personal selling

Personal selling can be carried out in the following ways;

Through sales person approaching the customers

A case where the sales person approaches the prospective customers after drawing their attention, explaining details of the product and even demonstrating how the product works in order to persuade the customer to buy.

Steps involved in personal selling through sales person

Identify prospective customers who could possibly require the product
Preparing the presentation by gathering all the possible information about the product , as well as designing an appropriate methods that he will be used to present to the customer
Establishing the customers contact, as well as choosing an appropriate time to meet the customer to be. That is the time when the customer may receive him
Arousing the consumers interest in the product by attracting his/her attention through approach and languages, as well as making the prospective customer develop interest in the product
Dealing with the objections on the product which may have been brought about by the customer to be
Closing the sale by inquiring whether the prospective customer will be interested in the product or not. This should be done in a polite manner
Offering after sale service to the customer on the product that has been sold

Shows, trade fairs and exhibitions

This is where the manufacturer of a given product gets a chance to display publicly to the prospective customer to inform them about the product. The prospective customers’ attention is then drawn to the product and more information is given to him about the product at the point where it is displayed.

Advantages of shows, trade fair and exhibitions

It gives the customer an opportunity to compare various products before making a decision on what to buy
It gives the sales person an opportunity to explain in fine details the features of the product to the prospective customers
The manufacturers of the product gets a chance to receive immediate feed back from their customers through interactions during the shows
The number of people visiting their stall to asses their products will help them determine their potential market size for the product

Disadvantages of shows, trade fairs and exhibitions

It is expensive to hire a stall for the exhibition of the product
The sales person may have to explain over and over again for the prospective customers as they may not enter into the stall at the same time
The trade fairs are not frequently organized, therefore an organization rely on it as the only means of product promotion may not succeed

Showrooms

These are large rooms where goods are displayed, especially bulky and durable goods like cars, furniture’s, etc for the customer to see and be informed about them to stimulate their interest in them

The room allows the customer to get more information about the product from the sales person in the showroom

Advantages of showrooms

They enables the seller to get immediate feed back on the product
They enable the customers to get clarification on the product they need to purchase
It is a cheap method of production
It provides an opportunity for the usage of goods to be demonstrated
The information the prospective customer get from the show room is more reliable

Disadvantages of showrooms

They are usually located away from the town centers, making them not be accessible by many
It is expensive to hire showrooms
They require security to protect the goods inside them which may be very expensive
Some prospective customers may tamper with goods in the room while trying to operate them

Free Gifts

A gift is an item given to the customer free of charge after buying a product which it is pegged on or buying products of a given value. The gift may not necessarily be the same as the product bought, but they are meant to encourage the customer to buy more or give the customer opportunity to explore the product given as a gift.

Advantages of free gifts

It enable the customer to enjoy the product given as a gift without paying for it
It persuades the customer to buy more of the product in order to get the gift
It is an additional product, and therefore increases the customers satisfaction
It may help in creating loyalty in the product being promoted

Disadvantages of free gifts

It makes the customer buy including products they didn’t require in order to the said gift
The cost of the product may be very expensive for he customer
Some middlemen may remove the gift and keep or even sell to the customer to maximize profit

Free Sample

This is a product on trial given to the customers freely to influence their demand towards the product. It mainly used when the product is new and the customer may have not known about the existence of the product

Advantages of free sample

It enables the customer try the product before making a decision to buy it
The customer is able to enjoy the product that otherwise he may have not enjoyed
The organization is able to get immediate feedback from the customer about their new product
It enables the organization to acquire more customers for their product

Disadvantages of free sample

Some of those receiving the sample may not come back to buy
It may be an expensive method of promotion especially where many samples are to be given
Goods given for free may reduce the value of goods that may have been sold to earn profit
It is not suitable for expensive products

Circumstances under which personal selling is appropriate

When launching a new product in the market which requires a lot of awareness to the prospective customers to enable them make a choice
When a product is tailored to meet the customer’s needs, as different consumers have different needs, taste and preferences to be addressed.
When demonstration is required on how the product works, especially the technical products
When the organization has the capacity to finance the sales force carrying out the personal selling.
Where the market is concentrated within a given region that can easily be accessible by the task force.

Advantages of personal selling

It is more flexible than any other method for the marketer is able to meet the needs of different people
It enable the prospective customer to know more details about the product before making a decision
The sales person is able to demonstrate the use of the product
The seller is able to get immediate feedback on the product
The seller is able to obtain the personal contact of the prospective buyer
It gives the buyer an opportunity to negotiate the terms of purchase
It takes care of both literate and illiterate prospective customer
The seller is able to persuade the prospective buyer to buy the product

Disadvantages of personal

It is labour intensive and therefore very expensive when the area to be covered is wide method
It is time consuming as it involves explanation and demonstration
It may only target a particular group of people
The seller has to meet the travelling and other expenses involved which may be very expensive
Salespersons may misuse the resources allocated for them, making the target not to be achieved
The process may inconvenience the prospective buyer’s program
It may only cover a given region which may not be wide enough

Advertising

This is the presentation of information about a product through public media such as news papers, radios, billboards, etc

Types of Advertising

Product advertising: – this is a form of advertisement meant to promote a given product or a particular brand of product
Institutional advertising: – this is a form of advertisement meant to improve the image of the institution or organization and not a particular product. It is meant to create confidence in the customers about the institution
Primary demand advertising: – a form of advertisement meant to a new product that has been introduced in the market for the first time. It is mainly to create awareness of the existence of that particular product
Celebrity advertising: – a form of advertisement where a famous/popular person is used to promote a particular product. It is meant to convince those who identify themselves with that personality to buy the product
Informative advertising: – a form of advertisement meant to give the customer more information about the product to enable them make an informed decision
Competitive/persuasive advertising: – a form of advertisement carried out with organizations producing similar product to persuade the customers to buy their products ahead of their competitors
Corrective advertising: – a form of advertising meant to correct a misleading information that may have been given out about the product
Reminder advertising: – a form of advertising meant to remind the customers that the product still exists in the market and is still capable of satisfying their needs.

Advantages/Importance of advertising to the business

It maintain the sales of an already existing product
It create awareness in the customers about a new product in the market
It informs the customers about the changes that may have been made in the product
It helps in building image or reputation of the selling organization
It may increase the volume of the existing sales of a product
It reaches peoples who may have not been reached by the sales person
It compliments the effort of the sales person to enable them achieve their sales objectives
It clears the customers misconception and prejudice about the product
It opens up new markets for the products.

Disadvantages of advertising to the business

It may be costly to the business in terms of money and other resources
It leads to increase in cost of production if at all it has to be done frequently
The cost of the advertisement will always reduce the profit margin of the business
Poorly planned advertisement may negatively affect the business
Misleading advertisement may reduce the level of business operation

Advantages of advertising to the customer

They educate them on the usage of the product
They inform them on the products availability
They guide them on where to get the product
The outlines all the features about the product including prices to the customer
Competitive advertisement may lead to improved quality of goods to benefit the customer
Information on different prices through competitive advertisement makes the customer to benefit from the reduced prices

Disadvantages of advertising to the consumer

The advertisement may not disclose the side effect of the product
The advertising cost may be passed to the consumers through increased price
Some advertisement may persuade customers to buy what they do not require leading to impulse buying
Some customers may buy substandard goods due to misleading advertisement

Advertising media

These are channels or agents through which an advertisement message is conveyed to the target group. They includes both the print and electronic media which includes; newspapers, journals, magazines, posters, bill-boards, brochures’, radio, television, neon signs, etc

Newspaper

These are daily or regularly publications which contains advertisement. They includes, Daily nation, Standard, Taifa Leo, citizen, star, etc

Advantages of newspaper

The can reach areas that other means may not reach
Many people can afford them as they are relatively cheap
They cover a wider geographical area, leading to a wider market
The message on the news paper can last for a longer period of time, making it to reach more customers
The advertisement appearing in the newspaper is readily acceptable by the reader
Colored print makes the advertisement to be more attractive to the reader who in turn gets the information

Disadvantages of the newspaper

Many of them are written in English or Kiswahili, making them to only target those who can read and understand the language
It discriminate against the illiterate group who can not read the information
They have short lifespan as they may be read only on the day it is circulated
It can not be used to focus on a specific target as they are read by almost everybody
Some of the prospective customers are always in a hurry to read the newspaper and may not pay attention to the advertisement
Magazines and Journals

These are periodic publications meant to target a particular class or group of people. They may be published monthly, quarterly, annually, etc. The information reaches the targeted group as they read them

Advantages of magazines and Journals

The specific information for the targeted people can be published
They can be read and re-read before the next publication may the information to last longer and plead with the prospective customer
Their publication is of high quality and colourful, making them to draw the attention of their targeted group easier and passing the information to them
The quality material they are made of makes them to last longer and can be accessed even by those who may have not been around during their publication

Disadvantages of magazines and journals

If the time gap between the publication time and circulation time is wide, the advertisement may fail
They are a bit expensive which makes some of the potential customers not to afford them
The cost of advertising on them may be expensive for the organization
Their circulations may be limited to a small geographical region
The publications may not be available in the vernacular language to reach those who are not able to read either English or Kiswahili

Posters and Billboards

A form of advertising that may contain the information about the product either in words, pictures or both for the customer to see and read.

Advantages of posters and billboards

They are able to convey the information to the large audience, as they are placed in strategic position
Posters are cheap and easy to prepare
The use of different colors makes them to be more attractive and appealing to more audience
It can be used by both literate and illiterate group
The message may last for a longer period of time
Billboards are conspicuous and hence attractive to the audience

Disadvantages of posters and billboards

May be affected by adverse weather condition, especially rain
If not placed strategically, it may not reach the targeted group
Incase destroyed by the passersby, the information may not meet the targeted group
Bill boards are expensive to make and maintain

Transit/transport advertising

A form of advertisement whereby vehicles such as trailers, matatus, buses, etc are used to carry and convey the advertisement message

Advantages of transit advertisement

The message reaches most of the people in the environment
They message last long as the paints always last on the vehicle
Transit vehicles may carry the message a long way to their final destination
It is captivating to the members of the public especially the promotion convoy, hence can easily reach the target

Disadvantages of transit advertisement

During the rush hour, the crowd may hinder some from getting the information
It mainly relay the information to those served by the vehicles
The noise produced by the promotion convoy may be a nuisance to some members of the public

Brochures

These are small pamphlets carrying message and pictures about product being advertised.

Advantages of Brochures

They are easy to carry around as they are small in size
They are effective in meeting the targeted group
Their cost of production is not very high
They can be distributed at different places to meet the targeted group
Can be made attractive by the use of different colours
They have a long life and therefore can be used repeatedly
They can be used to direct others on where to get the product

Disadvantages of Brochures

The information may not reach the illiterate group
They may be ignored by the intended users
They may require frequent updating if many changes are made on the product making it expensive

Radio

This is a channel that allows for the advertised messages to be conveyed through sound to the listeners, with some background music accompanying the message

Advantages of Radio

Different languages may be used to reach different people
It is accessible even to the remote areas that is not covered by other media
One can choose the time to advertise to reach the targeted group
Able to serve many people at the same time
It can be used for both literate and illiterate members of the group
The advertisement can be repeated over and over again according to the advertisers needs
The music accompaniment may attract many people to listen to the information
Can reach even the blind as they are able to hear
The message can be conveyed in different languages

Disadvantages of Radio

Their advertisement does not have any reference
It may be more expensive than the print media
Poor timing may make the message no to reach the targeted group
It may interrupt some programmes to the annoyance of the listener
It short and brief advertisement may be missed by the listeners
It is difficult for the listener to visualize the product

Television (T.V) and Cinema

Television is a form of media advertisement where the written words are combined with motion pictures and sound to pass the information

Cinema is where the advertised messaged is conveyed during film shows in the cinema halls. It may be before or after the movie.

Advantages of Television (T.V) and Cinema

It appeals to most people as it is entertaining
It makes it possible for the demonstration of the use of the product
It is able to reach both the literate and illiterate viewers
The advertisement can be aired over and over again to meet the targeted group
The advertisement may be modified when need arise
It has wide appeal to many people
The message can be conveyed in different languages

Disadvantages of Television (T.V) and Cinema

The cost of advertising through this media is high
The television sets are expensive to acquire, hence many people may not have them
Their uses are limited to places with electricity
The advertisement may not last longer
The time for airing the information may not suit the targeted audience

Neon Signs

This is a form of advertisement where the message is passed to the public through the use of electrical signals transmitted through neon lights. They are usually common in the banks, airlines, jewel shops, etc

Advantages of Neon Signs

The use of different colours makes them very attractive and catch attention of different people
They can be put strategically making them to be visible to many people
Can be used both at night and day
They direct the customer on where the goods are to be found

Disadvantages of Neon Signs

Can only be used where there is electricity
They are expensive to buy and maintain
The message may not easily reach the illiterate

Advertising Agencies

These are businesses that specialize in advertising work and are hired to carry out the functions for other businesses. They are paid a commission for this

Functions of Advertising Agencies

They help the organizations in designing their trade marks, logos and advertising materials
They book space and airtime for their clients in various media
They offer advisory services to their client on selling techniques
They advertise on behalf of their clients
They choose on behalf of their clients the appropriate media to be used

Publicity

This is the mentioning of the product or the organization in the mass media to make it be known to many people. There two types of publicity, that is free publicity (where the payment is not required) and Special featured publicity (where there is payment, for example sponsoring an event in the public)

Advantages of Publicity

It saves the organization money incase of free publicity
It is likely to cover a wider region as the publicity is in the media
The organization may earn credibility due to positive publicity
The information may be received positively by the customers as the message is likely to be more objective
It may improve the competitiveness of the firm

Disadvantages of Publicity

Unfavourable information about the organization may reach the public especially in free publicity
It is irregular and short lived
Might require special occasion or event in order to attract the mass media
The firm does not have control on how the information will appear in the media and the extend of the coverage

Public relations

A process of passing information with an intention of creating, promoting, or maintaining good will and a favourable image of the organization in the public. It involves informing the public about the firm’s achievement and how it is contributing to the community welfare and development, to get more approval of the public

Advantages of public relations

May be used to correct the dented image of the firm
It informs the public about the activities of the firm
Assist in upholding the good image of the firm
It improves the relationship between the firm and its customers

Disadvantages of public relations

It is costly in terms of time and finance involved
The customer may make premature buying arising from the picture created by the firm
Effects may take long before they are actually realized
It may be difficult to evaluate the impact of the message, since the customers are not obliged to respond to it

Point of purchase (Window) display

This is where the items are arranged in the shops strategically, allowing the customers to see them easily. The arrangement is meant to attract the customer’s attention and induce them to buy goods as they pass close to the shop

Advantages of Point of purchase display

May induce the customer to buy the product due to their arrangement
As the customers get in to the shop, they are likely to buy including the other goods that were not being displayed
The customers are able to determine the features of the product with ease
It is relatively a cheaper method of promotion

Disadvantages of point of purchase

The method only work well with the potential customers who are near the shop and not far away
They may also attract thieves especially if the product displayed is of high value
In case the arrangement does not appeal so much to the customers, they may not get into the shop
It may be expensive setting up the display area

Direct mail Advertisement

A form of advertisement which is sent to the potential customers directly in the form of a mail, for example the pricelist being sent to the potential customers

Advantages of direct mail advertisement

It is able to reach the targeted group as they are sent to the potential customer directly
The message may be made to suit the requirement of the specific customer to be
There may be an immediate respond on the message
The potential customers incurs no cost to acquire the information

Disadvantages of direct mail advertisement

Some mails may not get to the intended customers in time
The prospective customer may ignore the advertisement
May not be effective where the customer needs to examine the product
This method may be expensive especially in terms of material and money
It may only appeal to the literate group only

Catalogue

A booklet that gives information about the product that the organization deals in. It gives the description about the product, the picture as well as the prices of the product.

Advantages of catalogue

It may be used to advertise all the products in the organization
The owner/organization has the total control over the catalogue
It gives detailed information about the product
Its colourful nature makes it an attractive promotion tool

Disadvantages of catalogue

It is expensive to produce increasing the cost of production
Change in price may affect the whole catalogue

Guarantee (warranty issue)

An assurance given to the customer that the product will serve as expected if used according to the instructions given by the manufacturer. For the guaranteed period the seller will be willing to maintain repair or replace the product for the customer

Advantages Guarantee

The confidence built in the customer by the guarantee to the customers makes them to buy more products.
It may create the customers loyalty to the product of the firm
The fact that the product can be replaced if it gets spoilt within the period is an advantage to the customer

Disadvantages of guarantee

Repairing or replacing the product may be very costly to the organization
The method may only be suitable for the durable goods
The customer may be tempted to mishandle the good during this period

Discount

This is a reduction in price of the commodity, allowing the buyer to pay less than what he would have paid the goods.

Types of discount

Quantity discount: – Allowed by trader to encourage him/her to buy more quantity of the product being offer
Trade discount: – Allowed to another trader who is buying products for resale to the consumers
Cash discount: – Allowed to the customer to enable him pay promptly for the goods bought

Loss leader: – Selling the price below the market price to entice the customer to buy
Psychological selling: – Playing with the customers psychology in terms of pricing by quoting odd prices such as 999, 199, 99, etc to convince the customer that the price has been reduced
Credit facilities: – where the customer is allowed to take a product for his consumption and pay for it later. This entices the customer to buy more of the product
After sales service: – these are services offered to the buyer after the goods have been bought. They may be in terms of packaging, transportation or installation which may be offered to the customers free of charge. This makes the customer to buy more goods with confidence

Sales promotion

These are activities carried out to increase the sales volume of a business. They are activities out of the ordinary routine of business that is carried out by the seller to increase his sales volume.

The methods of carrying out sales promotion includes all the methods of carrying out product promotion as discussed earlier, that is, shows and trade fair, showrooms, free gifts, free sample, personal selling, advertisement, window display, credit facilities, after sales services, etc

Factors to consider when choosing a promotion method

The cost of the promotion that is whether the company can afford it or not, for some promotion methods are very expensive that may not be easily affordable to the company.
The nature of the product being promoted especially whether it requires demonstration or not. Products which requires demonstration are best promoted through personal selling
The targeted group for the advertisement, on whether they can be reached by that method or not. The promotion method must reach the targeted group, if it has to be effective
The objective that the firm would like to achieve with the promotion, and whether the method is helping them to achieve that particular objective
The method used by the competitor in the market to enable them choose a method that will enable them compete favourably
The requirement of the law concerning product promotion, to enable them not use what the law does not allow

Ethical issues in product promotion

These are rules and regulations to be followed when carrying out promotion to avoid violating other people or businesses right. They include;

Cheating on performance of the product to attract more customers by given them wrong and enticing information about what the product can do.
Cheating on the ingredients of the product by telling them that the product contains a suitable type of ingredient which does not exist just to lure them to buy the product
Not telling them the side effects of the product which may affect them should they continuously use the product due to fear of loosing customer
False pricing, especially a case where they overprice their and later on reduce them slightly just to lure the customer, yet exploit them
Not caring about the negative effect of the product on the environment, which may includes littering of the environment by the posters used for advertisement
Social cultural conflict, especially putting up some forms of advertisement which are considered a taboo buy the community leaving around, such as hanging a billboard of a female advertising inner wears next to a church

Trends in product promotion

The following are some changes that have taken place to improve the product promotion activities

Use of website/internet to advertise product world wide, which has increased the coverage
Encouraging gender sensitivity and awareness in product promotion to bring about gender balance
Use of electronic billboards in advertisement to increase their visibility even at night
Intensifying personal selling by the business to reach more customers
Development of promotion convoys to move from one place to the other with music and dancers to attract more prospective customers
Catering for the rights of the youths when carrying out product promotion and even involving them in carrying out the promotion
Catering for the interest of those with special needs when carrying out advertisement
Advertisement through mobile phones by sending them s.m.s about the product

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Free History Notes, Exams, Schemes of Work, Lesson Plans: Form 1 to 4

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Free History Notes, Exams, Schemes of Work, Lesson Plans: Form 1 to 4

HISTORY NOTES FORM 4

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COMPLETE HISTORY NOTES FOR HIGH SCHOOLS INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. THE MEANING OF HISTORY. History is an account of events took place in the past. It may…

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