Category Archives: Teachers’ Resources

—
—
—Guiding
PART II – ESTABLISHMENT, POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD
—Establishment and functions of the
— Conduct of business and affairs of the
—Composition of the
—Qualifications for appointment as chairperson or member of the
—Disqualifications from
—Appointment and term of Chairperson and
—Vacation of and removal from
—Staff of the Board. 13—Experts and consultants. 14—Remuneration of the 15— Reporting.

16— Secretary to the Board.

PART III – COUNTY EDUCATION BOARDS

17— County Education Board.

18— Functions of the County Education Boards. 19— Consultation with National Education Board. 20—Composition of the County Education Boards.

21—Conduct of business and affairs of the County Education Boards. 22— Tenure of members of the County Education Board

23— Remuneration of the County Education Boards 24— Co-option.

25— Committees of the County Education Board.

—Roles of county Government
—Role of

PART IV – FREE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION

28—Right of child to free and compulsory education. 29— Free Tuition.

30—Compulsory primary and secondary education. 31—Duty of parents and guardian.

32—No payment of fee for admission. 33—Proof of age for admission.

34—No denial of admission.

35—Incentives and prohibition of holding back and expulsion. 36—Prohibition against physical punishment and mental harassment. 37— Holiday Tuition

38— Prohibition against employment of a child of compulsory school age. 39—Responsibility of the government.

40—Duty of a principal or head teacher.

PART V – SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURE OF BASIC EDUCATION

41—Promotion of education. 42—Structure of education. 43—Categories of schools.

PART VI- PROMOTION OF SPECIALNEEDS EDUCATION

44—Establishment and management of special institutions. 45— Regulations in special needs education.

46— Duty of County Education Board to provide child guidance services. 47—Report of child with special needs by County Education Board.

48—Future provision for children with special need.

PART VI I – PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

49—Establishment of private schools. 50—Registration of private schools. 51—Right to attend a private school. 52—Duties and rights of a private school.

PART VIII—GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING

53—Governance and management of education and training. 54—Structures of governance and management in education. 55—Board of Management.

56—Composition of Board of Management. 57—Qualifications of members of Boards of Management.

58—Functions of a Management Committee of pre-primary institution. 59—Functions of the Board of Management.

60—Annual report on governance.

61—Committees of the Board of Management of a basic education institution. 62—Secretary to the Board of Management.

63—Remuneration of the members of the Board of Management.

PART IX- STANDARDS, QUALITY AND RELEVANCE

64—Establishment of the Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council. 65— Composition and staff at Education Standards and Quality Assurance

Council.

66—Powers of the Quality Assurance and Standards Officers. 67—Cabinet Secretary and promoters to be responsible for maintenance of

standards.

68—National Qualifications Framework Accounts and Audit 69—Review of standards, quality and relevance.

70—National and international standards and quality assurance 71—Standards, quality and relevance in education.

72—Guidelines on standards, quality and relevance. 73—Policy and guidelines on curricula.

74—Curricula development.

75—Prohibition of development and examination of own curriculum.

PART X- LICENSING, REGISTRATION AND ACCREDITATION PROCEDURES IN BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING

76—Licensing, registration and accreditation of persons and institutions of education, training and research.

77—Rejection of application by the County Education Board.

78—Offence to promote without being licensed or accredited and registered. 79—County Education Board to maintain a databank.

80—Fees.

81—Rules, regulations and guidelines on quality. 82—Licensing of an institution of basic education and training.

83—Application to County Education Board for establishment of a basic education institution.

84—Examination and assessments.

85—Appeal against decision of County Education Board.

PART XI -FINANCIAL PROVISIONS

86—Financing of basic education. 87—Financial year.

88—Annual estimates.

89—Accounts and Audit of departments or schools. 90—School based auditing.

91—Investment of funds.

PART XII – GENERAL PROVISIONS

92—General penalties.

93—The Education Appeals Tribunal.

94— Establishment of the National Council for Nomadic Education. 95—Regulations.

PART XIII – REPEAL, SAVINGS AND TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

96—Repealed Acts.

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97—Preservation of proceedings and rights of appeal. 98—Continuance of periods of time.

99—Preservation of licences, certificates and registration. 100—Transfer of property, assets, liabilities and staff.

101—General savings.

SCHEDULES

FIRST SCHEDULE – CONDUCT OF BUSINESS AND AFFAIRS OF

THE NATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD. SECOND SCHEDULE – CONDUCT OF BUSINESS AND AFFAIRS

OF THE COUNTY EDUCATION BOARDS.

THIRD SCHEDULE – ESTABLISMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF

PARENTS ASSOCIATION

FOURTH SCHEDULE – CONDUCT OF BUSINESS AND AFFAIRS

OF THE BOARD OF MANAGEMENT

FIFTH SCHEDULE – SPECIAL BOARD OF ADULT AND

CONTINUING EDUCATION

SIXTH SCHEDULE – ESTABLISHMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF

THE NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR NOMADIC EDUCATION IN KENYA

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THE BASIC EDUCATION ACT, 2013

AN ACT of Parliament to give effect to Article 53 of the Constitution and other enabling provisions; to promote and regulate free and compulsory basic education; to provide for accreditation, registration, governance and management of institutions of basic education; to provide for the establishment of the National Education Board, the Education Standards and Quality Assurance Commission, and the County Education Board and for connected purposes

ENACTED by the Parliament of Kenya as follows―

PART I — PRELIMINARY

Short title. 1. This Act may be cited as the Basic Education Act, 2013.

Interpretation. 2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires—

“accreditation” means the procedure by which the accreditation agency formally recognizes the status of an institution offering basic education and confirms in writing by way of a documentation issued under this Act;

“adult” means an individual who has attained the age of eighteen years;

“adult and continuing education” means the learning processes within the perspective of lifelong learning in which an adult or out-of-school youth is granted an opportunity in an institution of basic education for purposes of developing abilities, enriching knowledge and improving skills;

“adult basic education” means basic education offered as a full-time or part-time course to a person who is above the age of eighteen years and includes education by correspondence, the media of mass communication and the use of libraries, museums, exhibitions or other means of visual or auditory communication for educational purposes and “Adult learning” shall be construed accordingly;

“basic education” means the educational programmes offered and imparted to a person in an institution of basic education and includes Adult basic

2013

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education

and education

offered

pre-primary

No. 8 of 2012

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educational institutions and centres;

“Cabinet Secretary” means the Cabinet Secretary for the time being responsible for matters relating to Basic education and training;

“child” means an individual who has not attained the age of eighteen years;

“community” means persons residing in the neighbourhood of a basic education institution;

“County Director of Education” means a Director appointed under section 52;

“County Education Board” means a Board established as an agency of the national Government to serve the relevant county under section 17;

“curriculum” means all the approved subjects taught or programmes offered and includes all the activities provided at any institution of basic education;

“Director-General” means a person appointed under the Public Service Commission Act and responsible to the Cabinet Secretary;

“Duksi” means Islamic elementary institution that offers Quranic education and other related subjects;

“Education Appeals Tribunal” means the Appeals Tribunal established under section 92;

“EMIS” means Educational Management Information System;

“Education Standards and Quality Assurance Commission (ESQAC) means the Commission established under section 62;”

“formal education” means the regular education provided in the system of schools, and other formal educational institutions;

“headteacher” has the meaning assigned to it under the Teachers Service Commission Act;

“ICT Integration and Education” means the seamless incorporation of information communication technologies to support and enhance the attainment of curriculum objectives, to enhance the appropriate

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competencies including skills, knowledge, attitudes and values and to manage education effectively and efficiently at all levels;

“institution of basic education and training” means a public or private institution or facility used wholly or partly, regularly or periodically for conducting basic education and training and includes a school, a tuition facility, an educational centre, an academy, a research institution, a school correctional facility or a borstal institution;

“Madrassa” means the structural Muslim educational institutions or schools that offer Islamic and other subjects and are laddered from primary to secondary;

“manager” means a person who has been appointed by the Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the proprietor through regulations to coordinate and oversee implementation of education policies and guidelines in non-public basic education institutions and performs delegated teacher management functions;

“mobile school” means a formal flexible institution that allows for mobility of pupils and teachers and is specifically designed to suit the needs of migrant communities;

“National Council for Marginalized and Nomadic Education” means the council provided for under section 92;

“National Education Board” means the National Board for Education and Training established under section 5 of this Act;

“non-formal education” means any organized educational activity taking place outside the framework of the formal education system and targets specific groups/categories of persons with life skills, values and attitudes for personal and community development;

“out-of-school youth” means all persons who have attained the age of eighteen years but have not attained thirty five years and who are not engaged in learning in the formal education system;

“parent” means a mother, father or guardian of a child

2013 Basic Education No. 14 and includes any person who is responsible under the law to maintain a child or is entitled to a child’s custody;

“parent’s association” means an association as prescribed in subsection 53(2);

“pastoral programmes” means the curriculum designed by different Christian churches;

“pre-primary education” means education offered to a child of four or five years before joining level one in a primary school;

“primary education” means education imparted to a child who has completed pre-primary education;

“Principal” has the meaning assigned to it under the Teachers Service Commission Act;

“private school” means a school established, owned

No.20 of 2012.

or operated by private individuals, entrepreneurs and institutions;

No. 10 of 2011. “Salaries and Remuneration Commission” has the meaning assigned to it under the Salaries and Remuneration Act;

“school” means an institution registered under this Act that meets the basic prescribed standards and includes institutions offering alternative approaches of multi-grade, double-shift, mobile schooling, out of school programmes, adult and continuing education, distance or correspondence instruction, or accelerated learning and talent based institutions, but does not include-

any institution or assembly for which a Cabinet Secretary other than the Cabinet Secretary responsible for matters relating to basic education and training, is responsible;
any institution or assembly in which the instruction is, in the opinion of the Cabinet Secretary, wholly or mainly of a religious character; or
an institution mainly or wholly of a religious character;

“special education needs” means conditions, physical, mental or intellectual conditions with substantial

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and long term adverse effects on the learning ability (other than exposure) or the needs of those who learn differently or have disabilities that prevent or hinder or make it harder for them to access education or educational facilities of a kind generally provided for learners of the same age in the formal education system;

“special needs education” includes education for gifted or talented learners as well as learners with disability and includes education which provides appropriate curriculum differentiation in terms of content, pedagogy, instructional materials, alternative media of communication or duration to address the special needs of learners and to eliminate social, mental, intellectual, physical or environmental barriers to learners;

“special school” means a school established for the benefit of a particular class of children who require some special form of education, treatment or care;

“sponsor” means a person or institution who makes a significant contribution and impact on the academic, financial, infrastructural and spiritual development of an institution of basic education;

“stakeholder” means a person, a public or private institution or organization involved in an education institution and with vested interests for the benefit of such an institution;

“statutory structural adjustment” means a systematic multi-disciplinary process of collecting information about learners for the purpose of identifying and confirming the substantial and long-term impact on the learning process, abilities or educational progress so as to provide educational support based on the assessment or findings;

“teacher” has the meaning assigned to it under the

No. 20 of 2012

Teachers Service Commission Act;

“tuition fees” means fees charged to cater for instruction or instructional materials.

Application. 3. This Act shall apply to all institutions of basic, education under this Act.

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Guiding principles. 4. The provision of basic education shall be guided by the following values and principles-

the right of every child to free and compulsory basic education;
equitable access for the youth to basic education and equal access to education or institutions;
promotion of quality and relevance;
accountability and democratic decision making within the institutions of basic education;
protection of every child against discrimination within or by an education department or education or institution on any ground whatsoever;
protection of the right of every child in a public school to equal standards of education including the medium of instructions used in schools for all children of the same educational level
without prejudice to paragraph (f) above, advancement and protection of every child in pre- primary and lower primary level of education to be instructed in the language of his or her choice where this is reasonably practicable;
encouraging independent and critical thinking; and cultivating skills, disciplines and capacities for reconstruction and development;
promotion of peace, integration, cohesion, tolerance, and inclusion as an objective in the provision of basic education;
elimination of hate speech and tribalism through instructions that promote the proper appreciation of ethnic diversity and culture in society;
imparting relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to learners to foster the spirit and sense of patriotism, nationhood, unity of purpose, togetherness, and respect;
promotion of good governance, participation and inclusiveness of parents, communities, private sector and other stakeholders in the development and management of basic education;

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transparency and cost effective use of educational resources and sustainable implementation of educational services;
ensuring human dignity and integrity of persons engaged in the management of basic education;
promoting the respect for the right of the child’s opinion in matters that affect the child;
elimination of gender discrimination, corporal punishment or any form of cruel and inhuman treatment or torture;
promoting the protection of the right of the child to protection, participation, development and survival;
promotion of innovativeness, inventiveness, creativity, technology transfer and an entrepreneurial culture;
non-discrimination, encouragement and protection of the marginalised, persons with disabilities and those with special needs;
enhancement of co-operation, consultation and collaboration among the Cabinet Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, the National Education Board, the County Education Boards, the education and training institutions and other related stakeholders on matters related to education; and
provision of appropriate human resource, funds, equipment, infrastructure and related resources that meet the needs of every child in basic
PART Il —ESTABLISHMENT, POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD.

Establishment and functions of the Board.

(1) There is established a Board to be known as the National Education Board.
The functions of the Board shall be to advise the Cabinet Secretary, the department of education and related departments on policy matters in respect to–

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collaboration with the Quality Assurance and Standards Council, Teachers Service Commission and with other stakeholders to promote standards in basic education and training;
working with all relevant authorities and agencies to ensure that all the barriers to the right to quality education are removed and that the National and County governments facilitate the realization of the right to education by all Kenyans;
the initiation of guidelines for approval by the Cabinet Secretary on the establishment of basic education institutions;
putting measures in place to ensure all children attend and remain in school to complete basic education requirements;
putting measures to ensure, where applicable, transition to the next level of education, especially for the vulnerable and marginalized children;
any other matter as shall be from time to time be referred to the Board by the Cabinet Secretary.
The National Education Board shall generate and cause to be published an annual report on the state of education and service delivery in the country.

Conduct of business and affairs of the Board.

Composition of the Board.

Qualifications for appointment as

(1) The conduct and regulation of the business and affairs of the Board shall be as provided in the First

(2) Except as provided under the First Schedule, the Board may regulate its own procedure.

(1) The Board shall consist of a chairperson and

eight other members appointed by the Cabinet Secretary in accordance with the provisions of this Act.

The chairperson shall serve for a term of four years and shall be eligible for reappointment for one further term of four years.
The members shall serve for a term of three years and shall be eligible for re-appointment for one further term of three years.
(1) A person shall be qualified for appointment as the Chairperson of the Board if such person—

chairperson or member

of the Board.

holds a degree in education from a university

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recognized in Kenya;

has knowledge and at least fifteen years experience in matters relating to education;
has had a distinguished career in their respective fields; and
meets the requirements of Chapter Six of the
A person shall be qualified for appointment as a member of the Board if such person—
holds a degree from a recognized university;
has knowledge and at least ten years experience in matters relating to any of the following fields —
education;
management;
finance;
governance;
human rights;
public administration;
law;
economics; and
meets the requirements of Chapter Six of the Constitution.
has had a distinguished career in their respective fields; and
meets the requirements of Chapter Six of the

Disqualifications from appointment.

A person shall not be qualified for appointment as the Chairperson or a member of the Board if such person—
is a member of Parliament or a county assembly;
is a member of a local authority;
is an undischarged bankrupt; or
has been removed from office for contravening the provisions of the

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Constitution or any other written law.

Appointment and term of Chairperson and members.

(1) Upon commencement of this Act or whenever there is a vacancy in the Board, the Cabinet Secretary shall, within fourteen days of the occurrence of the vacancy, appoint a Selection Panel for the purpose of selecting suitable candidates for appointment as the Chairperson or member of the Board.
The Selection Panel appointed under subsection (1) shall consist of a chairperson —
two persons to represent registered School Heads Association;
a representative of the Cabinet Secretary responsible for matters relating to education who shall be the Secretary to the Selection Panel;
one person to represent the Public Service Commission;
one person to represent the National Council for Persons with Disabilities;
three persons nominated by the following bodies-
a joint forum of the National Council of Churches of Kenya and the Evangelical Fellowship of Kenya;
the Kenya Episcopal Conference; and
the Muslims Education
one person to represent the Kenya Private Sector Alliance;
one person to represent the Teachers Service
two persons to represent trade unions of teachers;
one person to represent organizations dealing with children’s rights; and
one person to represent an association of

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The Selection Panel shall, subject to this section, determine its own procedure, and the Cabinet Secretary responsible for education shall provide the Panel with such facilities and such other support as the Panel may require for the discharge of its functions.
The Selection Panel shall, within seven days of its convening, invite applications, in at least two newspapers of nationwide circulation from qualified persons to be submitted within twenty-one days from the date of the
The Selection Panel shall within seven days of receipt of applications under subsection (4) consider the applications and publish the names and academic qualifications of all shortlisted applicants in at least two daily newspapers of nationwide circulation.
The Selection Panel shall within fourteen days of the publication under subsection (5) interview and identify three persons qualified for appointment as Chairperson and thirteen persons qualified for appointment as members of the Board and shall forward the names of the selected candidates to the Cabinet Secretary for
The Cabinet Secretary shall, within seven days of receipt of the names forwarded under subsection (6), appoint the chairperson and members of the Board.
Where the Cabinet Secretary rejects a nominee or all of the nominees submitted by the Selection Panel for approval under paragraph (6), the provisions of paragraph
to (5) shall
In rejecting a nominee or nominees, the

Cabinet Secretary shall attach a memorandum indicating the reason for such rejection.

The Selection Panel convened under subsection
shall stand dissolved upon the appointment of the Chairperson or member of the Board whichever is the
In short listing, nominating or appointing persons as Chairperson and members of the Board, the Selection Panel and the Cabinet Secretary shall observe the

2013 Basic Education No. 14 principle of gender equity, regional, ethnic and religious balance, transparency, openness and competitiveness and shall have due regard to the principle of equal opportunities for persons with disabilities.

The Selection Panel may, subject to this section, determine its own procedure.

Vacation of, and removal from office.

(1) The office of the Chairperson or a member of the Board shall become vacant if the holder—
dies;
resigns from office, by a notice in writing addressed to the Cabinet Secretary;
is absent from three consecutive meetings of the Board without good cause; or
is removed from office in accordance with subsection (2).
The Chairperson or a member of a Board may be removed from office for-
contravention of Chapter Six of the Constitution;
serious violation of this Act or any other law;
gross misconduct, whether in the performance of the Chairperson’s, member’s or office holder’s functions or otherwise;
physical or mental incapacity to perform the functions of office;
incompetence; or
if adjudged bankrupt

Staff of the Board. 12. The Cabinet Secretary may in consultation with the Board and upon such terms and conditions as may be prescribed, second such officers, agents and other staff as may be necessary for the efficient discharge of the functions of the Board under this Act.

Experts and consultants.

Remuneration of the Board.

The Board may engage consultants and experts, as it considers appropriate, to assist in the discharge of its functions under this Act.
The Chairperson and members of the Board shall be paid such remuneration, fees, allowances and

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disbursements for expenses as may be approved by the Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the Salaries and Remuneration Commission.

Reporting. 15. (1) The National Education Board shall submit an annual report to the Cabinet Secretary.

Notwithstanding subsection (1), Cabinet Secretary may, at any time, require a report from the National Education Board on a particular matter.

Secretary to the Board. 16. (1) The Board shall, through an open, transparent and competitive recruitment process, recommend for appointment by the Cabinet Secretary a suitably qualified person to be the Secretary to the Board.

A person shall be qualified for appointment as the Secretary if the person—
holds a minimum of a first degree in education or related discipline;
has had at least ten years proven experience in leadership at senior management level;
has experience in finance, management and public administration; and
satisfies the requirements of Chapter Six of the
The Secretary shall—
be appointed by the Cabinet Secretary;
be an ex officio member of the Board with no right to vote;
be the secretary to the Board;
subject to the directions of the Board, be responsible for the day to day management of the affairs of the Board; and
perform such other functions as the Board may from time to time, determine.
The Secretary shall serve on such terms and conditions as the Cabinet Secretary may determine upon the advice of the Salaries and Remuneration Commission.
PART III – COUNTY EDUCATION BOARD

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County Education Board.

Functions of the County Education Boards.

(1) There is established a County Education Board for every county.

(2) The County Education Board established under subsection (1) shall be an agent of the National Education Board.

(1) The functions of the County Education Board shall be to-
oversee in consultation with the county government, the operation and management of youth polytechnics, pre-primary education including early childhood care and education programmes in the county;
coordinate and monitor education and training in the County on behalf of the national government and the county government;
interpret national policies in education based on the county’s needs;
initiate proposals for policy reforms;
plan, promote, develop, and coordinate education, training and research in the county in accordance with the provisions of this Act, the national education policy and the laws and policies of the county government;
collaborate with the Board of Management, the Principal, the Head Teacher, and other appropriate authorities in the management of basic schools;
register and maintain a data bank of all education and training institutions within the county;
monitor curriculum implementation in basic education in the county;
monitor the conduct of examinations and assessments at the basic education and training levels in the county in collaboration with all the relevant national bodies;
collaborate with the Teachers Service Commission on teacher management within the county;
prepare and submit a comprehensive school termly annual report including Educational

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Management Information System data to the Cabinet Secretary on all areas of its mandate including education and training services, curriculum, policy implementation and school based audit report within the County;

coordinate with all relevant agencies to ensure that all the barriers to the right to quality education are removed and with National Government to facilitate realization of the right to education within the county;
put measures in place to ensure all children and youth of school going age within the county attend and stay in to complete basic education.
perform such other functions as may be necessary for the better carrying out of the functions of the county education board under this Act or any other written law.

(2) The County Education Board may in consultation with the National Education Board and relevant stakeholders appoint a sub county education office with clear functions and powers.

Consultation with National Education Board.

Composition of the County Education Boards.

(1) In carrying out its functions, the County Education Board shall work in consultation and co- operation with the National Education Board.

(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection (1), the Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the National Education Board shall make regulations prescribing the coordination between the National Education Board and the County Education Boards.

(1) Every County Education Board shall consist of a Chairperson, and twelve other members appointed by the Cabinet Secretary through an open and competitive process and shall include –
an educationist of at least five years standing, based in the county;
the County Director of Education or his or her representative who shall be the Secretary to the County Education Board;
a representative of the county executive in

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charge of education;

a representative of the Teachers Service Commission
where applicable, one person each representing-
jointly, the National Council of Churches of Kenya and the Evangelical Fellowship of Kenya;
the Kenya Episcopal Conference; and
the Muslims Education Council;
a representative of the association of private schools;
two representatives of a trade union representing the interest of teachers;
two representatives of parents teachers association; and
a representative of persons with disability;
two members nominated by the following bodies-
the Primary School Head Teachers’

Association; and

the Secondary School Principals Association.
a representative of a child rights
In appointing persons as Chairperson and members of the County Education Board, the Cabinet Secretary shall observe the principle of gender equity, regional, ethnic and religious balance, transparency, openness and competitiveness and shall have due regard to the principle of equal opportunities for persons with
All members of the County Education Board shall have a minimum qualification of secondary education

Conduct of business and affairs of the County Education

(1) The conduct and regulation of the business and affairs of the County Education Boards shall be as

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Boards. provided in the Second Schedule.

(2) Except as provided in the Second Schedule, the County Education Boards may regulate its own procedure.

Tenure. 22. (1) The Chairperson shall serve for a term of four years renewable once.

The members shall serve for a renewable term of three years.

Provided that the Cabinet Secretary shall by regulation, provide for the staggering of the terms of the inaugural Board members.

Remuneration of the County Education Boards.

The members of the County Education Boards shall be paid such allowances and disbursements for expenses as may be approved by the Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the Salaries and Remuneration Commission.

Co-option. 24. The County Education Boards may from time to time co-opt into its membership such persons not being more than three as it is satisfied possess skills and experience to assist in the discharge of the functions of the County Education Board.

Committees of the County Education Board.

(1) A County Education Board may establish such committees as may be appropriate to perform such functions and discharge such responsibilities as it may determine.
Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section
the County Education Board shall set up specialized committees on-
finance, audit and human resources;
basic education;
special needs education;
early childhood care and education;
vocational institutions and youth polytechnics;
standards and quality assurance;
assessment and examinations;
dispute resolution; and

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human rights and .
The County Education Board shall appoint the Chairperson of a committee established under subparagraph (1) from among its members.
The County Education Board may where it deems appropriate, co-opt any person to attend the deliberations of any of its committees.
All decisions of the committees appointed under subsection (1) may be reviewed by the County Education
26. (1) The roles of the county government shall include the provision of funds required for the development of the necessary infrastructure for institutions of basic education and training used for conducting preprimary education, childcare facilities,

Government.

Roles of Countyhomecraft centres and village polytechnics.

Pursuant to Article 187 of the Constitution, the national government may, upon request and with agreement between both governments, transfer its functions relating to infrastructure development of primary schools and secondary schools to a county
Where the national government transfers its functions to a county government under subsection (2), it may also allocate conditional grants to that county government to cater for the additional responsibilities arising from the transfer.

Role of Sponsor. 27. The role of the Sponsor shall be –

to participate and make recommendations of review of syllabus, curriculum, books and other teaching aids;
representation in the School Management Committees and Board of Management;
to provide supervisory and advisory services in matters regarding spiritual development in schools including the appointment of chaplains at their own expense;
maintenance of spiritual development while safeguarding the denomination or religious

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adherence of others;

to offer financial and infrastructural
PART IV – FREE AND COMPULSORY BASIC EDUCATION

Right of child to free and compulsory.

(1) The Cabinet Secretary shall implement the right of every child to free and compulsory basic education.
The Cabinet Secretary shall in consultation with the National Education Board and the relevant County Education Board provide for the establishment of-
pre-primary, primary and secondary schools, mobile schools, and adult and continuing education centers, within a reasonably accessible distance within a county;
appropriate boarding primary schools in arid and semi-arid areas, hard-to-reach and vulnerable groups as appropriate; and
academic centres, or relevant educational institutions to cater for gifted and talented learners;
special and integrated schools for learners with

Free tuition. 29. (1) No public school shall charge or cause any parent or, guardian to pay tuition fees for or on behalf of any pupil in the school.

Notwithstanding subsection (1)-
tuition fees may be payable by persons who are not Kenyan citizens;
other charges may be imposed at a public school with the approval of the Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the county education Board provided that no child shall be refused to attend school because of failure to pay such charges;

no person shall collect levies without issuing an official receipt.

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Compulsory primary and secondary education.

Duty of parents and guardian.

No payment of fee for admission.

Proof of age for admission.

(1) Every parent whose child is –
Kenyan; or
resides in Kenya

shall ensure that the child attends regularly as a pupil at a school or such other institution as may be authorized and prescribed by the Cabinet Secretary for purposes of physical, mental, intellectual or social development of the child.

A parent who fails to take his or her child to school as required under sub-section (1) commits an
A person who contravenes this section shall be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year, or both.
Subsection (2) shall not apply to a parent or guardian who presents within a reasonable time a reason to the satisfaction of the County Director of Education for the absence of his or her child at a school or institutions of basic education.
(1) It shall be the responsibility of every parent or guardian to present for admission or cause to be admitted his or her child, as the case may be, to a basic education
Where a parent or guardian defaults in the discharge of his or her responsibility under sub-section (1), such a parent or guardian shall be deemed to have committed an offence and is liable to fine not exceeding one hundred thousand or to a period not exceeding two years or to both.
A parent or guardian shall have the right to

participate in the character development of his or her child.

No person shall while admitting a child to a public school or a basic education institution collect any admission fee.
(1) For the purpose of admission to a basic education institution, the age of a child shall be determined on the basis of the birth certificate issued in

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accordance with the provisions of the Births, Deaths

Cap 149.

No denial of admission.

Incentives and

Registration Act or at the attainment of the school going age of four years on the basis of such other document, as may be prescribed under regulations.

(2) No child shall be denied admission in a school or basic education institution for lack of proof of age.

(1) A child shall be admitted in a school at the commencement of the academic year or within such extended period as may be prescribed.
A school or person responsible for admission shall not discriminate against any child seeking admission on any ground, including ethnicity, gender, sex, religion, race, colour or social origin, age, disability, language or
The provisions of subsection (2) shall not apply in matters relating to gender in cases where a school is registered for a particular gender.
No public school shall administer any test related to admission of a child to a public school or cause a person to administer such test unless such a test is for purposes of placing the child at an appropriate level of
No child shall be denied admission to a public
A parent of a child who has been denied admission to a public school may notify the County Education Board of the decision.
The County Education Board shall review the decision of a school that denies a child admission.
The Cabinet Secretary may by regulation prescribe criteria for the admission to a public school.
(1) Pupils shall be given appropriate incentives to

back and expulsion.

prohibition of holding learn and complete basic education.

No pupil admitted in a school, subject to subsection (3) shall be held back in any class or expelled from school.
Subject to subsection (1) the Cabinet Secretary may make regulations to prescribe expulsion or the discipline of a delinquent pupil for whom all other

2013 Basic Education No. 14 corrective measures have been exhausted and only after such child and parent or guardian have been afforded an opportunity of being heard:

Provided that such a pupil shall be admitted to an institution that focuses on correction in the context of education.

Prohibition against physical punishment and mental harassment to the child.

Holiday Tuition.

Prohibition against

(1) No pupil shall be subjected to torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in any manner, whether physical or psychological.

(2) A person who contravenes the provisions of sub- section (1) commits an offence and shall be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand shillings or to imprisonment not exceeding six months or both.

(1) No pupil shall be subjected to holiday
A person who contravenes subsection (1) commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding one year or to
(1) No person shall employ a child of compulsory

of compulsory school

employment of a child school age in any labour or occupation that prevents such

age.

Responsibility of the Government.

child from attending school.

(2) Any person who employs or prevents a child who is subject to compulsory attendance from attending school is guilty of an offence and is liable to fine not exceeding five million or to a period not exceeding five years or to both.

It shall be the duty of the Cabinet Secretary to –

provide free and compulsory basic education to every child;
ensure compulsory admission and attendance of children of compulsory school age at school or an institution offering basic education;
ensure that children belonging to marginalized, vulnerable or disadvantaged groups are not discriminated against and prevented from pursuing and completing basic education;

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provide human resource including adequate teaching and non-teaching staff according to the prescribed staffing norms;
provide infrastructure including schools, learning and teaching equipment and appropriate financial resources;
ensure quality basic education conforming to the set standards and norms;
provide special education and training facilities for talented and gifted pupils and pupils with disabilities;
ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of basic education by every pupil;
monitor functioning of schools; and
advise the national government on financing of infrastructure development for basic education.

Duty of a principal or head teacher.

(1) Where a pupil fails to attend school, the Head Teacher shall cause investigation of the circumstances of the child’s absence from school;
Where the Headteacher finds there are no reasonable grounds for the child’s failure to attend school, the headteacher shall-
issue a written notice to the parent of the child requiring that parent to comply with the provisions of this Act.
submit a report on the child to the County Education Board.

(d) submit a report on the child to the County Education Board.

Any parent who without a reasonable cause and after a written notice from the head teacher, fails to comply with section 38 of this Act, commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding five hundred thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years or to both.
PART V – SYSTEM AND STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION

2013 Basic Education No. 14

Promotion of education.

The Cabinet Secretary shall in consultation with the relevant Cabinet Secretary and other relevant stakeholders promote education and training in Kenya under the following system and structure-
pre-primary education
primary education;
secondary education;
middle level institutions of basic education;

Structure of education. 42. (1) The system shall be so structured as to enable learners to access education and training at any level in a sequence, and at a pace that may be commensurate with the individual learner’s physical, mental and intellectual abilities and the resources available.

The Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the National Education Board and other relevant stakeholders shall make Regulations prescribing an appropriate structure for education and training.
The Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the

National Education Board shall advise the government on the financing of technical, vocational and talent education.

The Cabinet Secretary shall upon advice of the

National Education Board advice the government on the promotion of environmental protection education for sustainable development.

Categories of schools. 43. (1) Basic educational institutions shall be categorised as-

public schools which are schools established, owned or operated by the Government and includes sponsored schools;
private schools as those established, owned or operated by private individuals, entrepreneurs and institutions.
A public basic education institution shall not

be converted to a private basic education institution or to any other private status without consultation with the National Education Board and approval by the Cabinet

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Secretary.

PART VI – SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

Establishment and

44.(1) Subject to the Constitution and the provisions

institutions.

management of special of this Act, the Cabinet Secretary shall establish and

Regulations in special needs education.

maintain public special schools.

The Cabinet Secretary shall provide special needs education in special schools established under subsection

(1) or in pre-primary, primary and secondary schools suitable to the needs of a pupil requiring special education.

Children with special needs include-
intellectually, mentally, physically, visually, emotionally challenged or hearing impaired learners;
pupils with multiple disabilities; and
specially gifted and talented
The Cabinet Secretary shall ensure that every special school or educational institution with learners with special needs is provided with appropriate trained teacher, non teaching staff, infrastructure, learning materials and equipment suitable for such learners.
(1) The Cabinet Secretary may make regulations for the establishment and management of special schools and institutions offering special needs education to pupils with special needs.

(2) Notwithstanding the generality of subsection (1) the Cabinet Secretary shall make regulations to –

prescribe the duration of primary and secondary education suitable to the needs of a pupil pursuing special needs education;
provide for the learning and progression of children with special needs through the education system;
prescribe standards and requirements relating to the conduct of schools making provision for special needs education for pupils with special
prescribe the curriculum to be used in respect

2013 Basic Education No. 14

of special needs education;

prescribe the categories of pupils requiring special needs education and methods appropriate for the education of pupils in each category of special school or educational institutions under section 42;
prescribe guidelines for the promotion of education for children with special needs;
establish mechanisms to ensure that every special school or educational institution offering special needs education has appropriate personnel, infrastructure, learning materials and equipment; and
establish a mechanism for monitoring and evaluation to advice the government on the quality of infrastructure and learning facilities in regard to special needs education.
The curriculum used in special needs education shall comply with the requirement of the national curriculum in so far as it is reasonably practicable.

Duty of County education Boards to provide child guidance service.

Report of child with special needs by County Education

(1) Subject to the Constitution and the provisions of this Act, it shall be the duty of every County Education Board in consultation with the relevant county government to provide for education assessment and research centers including a special needs service in identified clinics in the county.

(2) The functions of that service shall include—

the study of children with special education needs within the county;
the giving of advice to parents and teachers as to appropriate methods of education for such children;
in suitable cases, provision for the special education needs of such children in the identified clinics; and

the giving of advice to county education boards regarding the assessment of the needs of any child under special needs education for the purposes of any of the provisions of this Act.

(1) It shall be the duty of the County Education Board to consider in relation to each child with special

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Board. needs belonging to schools in their area, what provision would benefit him or her after he or she completes basic education and to make a report to the Director-General or relevant Director.

The County Education Board’s report under subsection (1) shall include-
recommendations as to whether the child would benefit from school education after he or she completes basic education;
a summary of the child’s impairments or talent;
a statement of the special educational needs arising from those impairments or talents;
a statement of the measures proposed by the education authority to be taken to meet those needs; and
where appropriate, the proposal of a school of higher learning to be attended by him or her.

Future provision for children with special needs.

(1) A County Education Board shall in consultation with the Cabinet Secretary make such arrangements as they deem fit to enable a pupil with special needs attend an establishment whether or not a school in or outside Kenya if that establishment makes provision wholly or mainly gifted or talented learners or advantage of the pupil for one or both of his or her parents, or some other person, to be present with him or her at the establishment during the period of the attendance, learners with disabilities.

(2) Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1), the arrangements mentioned in that subsection may include defraying, whether wholly or partly—

the fees payable for the pupil’s attendance and his or her travelling, maintenance and other expenses in respect of that attendance; and
where in the opinion of the Cabinet Secretary it would be to the such expenses of, as the case may be, the parent, parents or other person.

2013 Basic Education No. 14

PART VII PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Establishment of private schools.

Registration of private schools.

No.3 of 2006

No.8 of 2010

Subject to the Constitution and the provisions of this Act, any person may establish and maintain a private
(1) A person shall not establish or maintain a private school unless it is registered under this Act.
No private school shall be registered if-
the proprietor is disqualified from being a proprietor by reason of Article 10 or Chapter Six of the Constitution;
a teacher employed in the school is not registered by the Teachers Service Commission;
the school premises, or any part of those premises, are unsuitable for a school; or
the proprietor or manager has been convicted of any crime against children under the Sexual Offences Act and Counter Trafficking in Persons Act.
Subject to the provisions of this Act, the registration of any private school shall be provisional for a term of one year renewable for one further term of one year until the institution is quality assured and notice given in writing to the proprietor that the registration is final.
If any person—
conducts a private school which is not a registered school or a provisionally registered school, or
being the proprietor of a private school does any act calculated to lead to the belief that the school is a registered school while it is a provisionally registered school,

he or she shall be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding five million shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or to both such fine and such imprisonment.

Right to attend a 51. Any person requiring basic education may

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private school. attend a private school.

Duties and rights of a private school.

Governance and management of education and training.

(1) A private school shall-
establish necessary educational and governance structures;
recruit registered teachers;
comply with and follow the approved curriculum;
maintain premises that meet the requirements of the occupational health, safety regulations and building standards;
maintain necessary teaching and learning materials;
maintain a data bank on pupils undertaking education in the school and submit to the Cabinet Secretary;
where requested by the Cabinet Secretary, provide evidence that pupils are making reasonable educational progress appropriate for their age and grade level based upon results of nationally recognized standardized achievement tests.

(2) The County Education Board in consultation with the Teachers Service Commission shall assess a private school, including teachers, non teaching staff, the school’s educational programmes and the school instructional materials, to inspect the school’s facilities and to perform such other appropriate functions with respect to the private school as the Cabinet Secretary may require. PART VIII—GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT

OF BASIC EDUCATION AND TRAINING
(1) The Cabinet Secretary shall be responsible for the overall governance and management of basic

(2) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Cabinet Secretary shall by regulation entrust the governance or management of any aspect of basic education and training to any agency, body, organ or institution as may be appropriate for the purposes of this Act.

2013 Basic Education No. 14

Structures of governance and management in education.

No. 8 of 2012

(1) For purposes of ensuring effective and efficient management of basic education in Kenya, the Cabinet Secretary shall by regulation establish such structures of governance and management at national and county levels as may be appropriate.

The structures of governance and management of education established in subsection (1) shall –
encourage cooperation and collaboration among all stakeholders involved in governance and management of basic education;
decentralize decision making authority on financial and human resources and related functions in basic education;
enhance the culture of democracy, accountability and transparency in the governance and management of basic education; and
ensure effective and efficient delivery of basic education at all levels.
There shall be a Director-General appointed through an open and competitive process under the Public Service Commission Act in consultation with the Cabinet
(a) The Director General appointed under subsection 3 shall be responsible to the Principal Secretary.

(b) The Director-General shall have functions prescribed in any written law and the directions of the Cabinet Secretary.

There shall be a County Director of Education deployed by the Cabinet Secretary through an open and competitive process.
The County Director of Education shall be Secretary to the County Education Board and holder of the authority to incur expenditure of the educational account in the country.
The County Director of Education shall, subject to the authority of the Cabinet Secretary and in consultation with the County Government, perform the following functions:

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implementation of education policies;
co-ordination and supervision of all education officers and support staff at the County level;
management of basic education, adult continuing education, non-formal, special needs education, tertiary and other educational programmes;
initiating educational policies at County level;
liaise with Kenya National Examination Council on management of national examinations;
maintenance of quality assurance and standards in the County;
management and monitoring the implementation of educational programmes;
advising and facilitating the establishment and registration of learning institutions by the County government;
administration of education management information system and the related information and communication technology at the County level;
facilitate auditing of all basic education institutions in the County;
advise the County Education Board on selection and appointment of Boards of Management (BOMs), School Management Committees and Parents Associations;
co-ordinate capacity building and development for officers, school managers, Boards of Management and curriculum implementers;
admissions, transfers and discipline of students;
co-ordination of partners and education providers in the County including links with Government Departments on all education matters;

2013 Basic Education No. 14

supervision of handing and taking over in schools and educational institutions in consultation with the Teacher Service Commission;
oversee the proper management and maintenance of school buildings, property and infrastructure development;
monitoring and evaluation of education

No.20 of 2012

programmes;

management of co-curricular activities, sports education and talent development in basic education institutions in the County;
any other duties assigned by the Cabinet
The County Director of Education shall, in the performance of the functions under subsection (7), have due regard to the teacher management functions provided under Article 237 of the Constitution and the Teachers Service Commission Act.

Board of management. 55. (1) There shall be a Board of Management for every public –

pre-primary institution;
primary school;
secondary school;
adult and continuing education centre;
multipurpose development training institute; or
middle level institutions of basic
Notwithstanding subsection (1) every school shall have a parents association which shall be constituted in the manner set out in the Third Schedule.
Every private school shall establish a parents’ teachers association.

Composition of Board of Management.

(1) The Board of Management established under section 55 shall consist of the following members appointed by the County Education Board:
six persons elected to represent parents of the pupils in the school or local community in the

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case of county secondary schools;

one person nominated by the County Education Board;
one representative of the teaching staff in the school elected by the teachers;
three representatives of the sponsors of the school;
one person to represent special interest groups in the community; and
one person to represent persons with special needs;
a representative of the students’ council who shall be an ex officio member
The Board of Management may from time to time co-opt into its membership such persons as it is satisfied possess skills and experience to assist in the discharge of the Board’s functions.
The number of members of the Board of Management co-opted under subsection (2) shall not exceed three at any particular time and such members do not have a right to vote at the meetings of the Board.
The members of the Board of Management shall elect their chairperson from amongst themselves provided that the member to be so elected shall not be a person who was appointed under subsection (1)(c).
For public schools sponsored by faith-based organisations, the Chairperson of the Board of Management shall be appointed by the County Education Board in consultation with the sponsor.
For a public school, the chairperson of the Board of Management shall be elected by the members in their first meeting.
Despite subsection (5), a faith-based sponsor who does not make a significant contribution and impact to a school or institution as contemplated under section 2 of the Act shall not be consulted in the appointment of the chairperson of the Board of Management of that school or

2013 Basic Education No. 14

The conduct and affairs of the Board of Management shall be as set out in the Fourth Schedule.
The provisions of sections 54 to 57 shall apply

mutatis mutandis to a board of management of any public-

primary school;
secondary school;
adult and continuing education centre; and
multipurpose development training

Qualifications of

(1) The Cabinet Secretary shall, by regulations

management.

members of boards ofprescribe the qualifications for persons who may be

appointed to or co-opted into the Board of Management of a primary school, secondary school, adult continuing education centre, multipurpose development training institution or any basic education institution under this Act.

Functions of a Management Committee of pre- primary institution.

In appointing persons as members of a board of management, the nominating and appointing authority shall observe and respect:
the ethnic and regional diversity of the people of Kenya;
impartiality and gender equity; and
Article 10 and Chapter Six of the
(1) The functions of a Management Committee of a pre-primary institution shall be to –
promote the best interests of the institution and ensure the institution’s development;
develop a strategic plan for the institution;
promote quality care, nutritional and health status of the children;
ensure the development of the children’s knowledge, self-confidence, free expression, spiritual and social values and appreciation of other people’s needs and views;

provide a secure physical and psycho-

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social setting for the children;

facilitate the development of children’s affective, cognitive, psychomotor and physical attributes in an integrated manner including the development of talented and gifted pupils;
perform any other function to facilitate the implementation of its functions under this Act or any other written law; and
protect human rights of and promote the best interest of the child.

Functions of the Board of management.

The functions of the Board of Management of a basic education institution shall be to-
promote the best interests of the institution and ensure its development;
promote quality education for all pupils in accordance with the standards set under this Act or any other written law;
ensure and assure the provision of proper and adequate physical facilities for the institution;
manage the institution’s affairs in accordance with the rules and regulations governing the occupational safety and health;
advise the County Education Board on the staffing needs of the institution;
determine cases of pupils’ discipline and make reports to the County Education Board;
prepare a comprehensive termly report on all areas of its mandate and submit the report to the County Education Board;
facilitate and ensure the provision of guidance and counseling to all learners;
provide for the welfare and observe the human rights and ensure safety of the pupils, teachers and non teaching staff at the institution;
encourage a culture of dialogue and participatory democratic governance at the institution;
promote the spirit of cohesion, integration, peace,

2013 Basic Education No. 14 tolerance, inclusion, elimination of hate speech, and elimination of tribalism at the institution;

encourage the learners, teachers and non teaching staff and other, parents and the community, and other stakeholders to render voluntary services to the institution;
allow reasonable use of the facilities of the institution for community, social and other lawful purposes, subject to such reasonable and equitable conditions as it may determine including the charging of a fee;
administer and manage the resources of the institution;
receive, collect and account for any funds accruing to the institution;
recruit, employ and remunerate such number of non-teaching staff as may be required by the institution in accordance with this Act; and
perform any other function to facilitate the implementation of its functions under this Act or any other written law.

Annual report on governance.

Committees of the

Every public school or institution of basic education shall, submit on an annual basis a report to the Director of Basic Education.
(1) The board of management of an institution of

of a basic education

Board of Management basic education may establish such committees as the

institution.

Board may consider appropriate to perform such functions and discharge such responsibilities as the Board may deem necessary.

Without prejudice to the provisions of subsection (1), the board of management shall establish the following committees-
finance, procurement and general purposes committee;
academic standards, quality and environment committee;
discipline, ethics and integrity committee;
audit committee; and

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human rights and student welfare

Secretary to the Board of Management.

Remuneration of the

(1) The head of a basic education institution shall be the secretary to the Board of Management.
The members of the Board of Management shall

of management.

members of the Board be paid such allowances as the Cabinet Secretary may

Establishment of the Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council.

Composition and staff

provide by regulations upon the advice of the Salaries and Remuneration Commission..

PART IX – STANDARDS, QUALITY ASSURANCE AND RELEVANCE
(1) There shall be established an Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council.
The Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council shall-
ensure standards and maintain quality in institutions of basic education;
administer policies and guidelines set for basic education;
supervise and oversee curriculum implementation and delivery;
in cooperation with county education, monitor the conduct of assessments and examinations in institutions of basic education;
monitor and evaluate standards and quality in basic education.
The Cabinet Secretary shall by regulations prescribe the composition, appointment and terms of service of the members of Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council in accordance with the Constitution and this Act
(1) The Council shall appoint quality assurance

and Quality Assurance

at Education Standards and standards officers for the purposes of this Act.

Council.

The Cabinet Secretary shall by regulation prescribe the following with respect to Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council (ESQAC):
the relationship between the Cabinet Secretary and the Director-General;

2013 Basic Education No. 14

the composition of Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council;
functions of key officers of Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council;
qualifications of members and key staff;
the relative autonomy of Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council; and
the retention by the Cabinet Secretary of policy making and oversight.

Powers of the Quality Assurance and Standards Officers.

The Quality and Assurance officers shall facilitate compliance with standards by promoting a collegial and collective approach to quality assurance.
Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council and Quality Assurance Officers shall provide appropriate incentives for voluntary compliance with the standards and quality assurance in basic education.
Subject to subsections (1) and (2) a Quality Assurance and Standards Officers may-
at any time enter any basic education and training institution with or without notice to ensure compliance with education standards and regulations
require any person responsible for the management of a basic educational institution or teacher or employee-
to produce for his or her quality review any time table syllabus, or record book, material or document;
to furnish the Quality Assurance and Standards Officer with such information relating to the teaching or the management of the basic education institution;
require by order in writing, the attendance before him or her any person who appears to be acquainted with the facts or circumstances of the case.
take such photographs or video recording as the Quality Assurance and Standards Officer

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deems necessary of the premises and persons reasonably believed to be acquainted with the fact or the circumstances of the case.

An officer appointed under this section shall have power to recommend temporary suspension of operations of the institutions to the County Education Board for a specific period until the basic standards are

Cabinet Secretary and promoters to be responsible for maintenance of standards.

National Qualifications Framework Accounts and audit.

A Quality Assurance and Standards Officer may make recommendations to the Teachers Service Commission and County Education Board for necessary
The head, institutional managers, directors, heads or principals shall allow access to all parts and records of the institution.
On being so requested by an officer appointed under this section, the head principal or any other person responsible for the school shall place at the disposal of the officer all the facilities, records, accounts, notebooks, examination scripts and other materials belonging to the school that the officer may reasonably require for the purpose of the inspection of the school or the inspection or audit of its accounts.
In this section, “school” shall include any part of the school and any building used in connection with the school, including workshops, dormitories, kitchens, sanatoria, hostels, ancillary buildings and any other buildings on the site of the school.
The Cabinet Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, Standards and Quality Assurance Council, National Education Board, national quality assurance bodies, and the County Education Boards shall ensure the maintenance of standards, quality and relevance of education and training as provided for under this Act or any other written law.
(1) The Cabinet Secretary shall in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders develop the National Qualifications Framework to-
set the standards and benchmarks for qualifications and competencies including skills,

2013 Basic Education No. 14

knowledge, attitudes and values;

define the levels of qualifications and competencies;
provide for the recognition of attainment or competencies including skills, knowledge, attitudes and values; and
facilitate linkages, credit transfers and exemptions and a vertical and horizontal mobility at all levels to enable entry, re-entry and exit.

(2) The Principal Secretary shall oversee the administration and implementation of the National Qualifications Framework with regard to basic education under this Act or any other written law.

Review of standards,

The Cabinet Secretary shall in consultation with

quality and relevance. the relevant departments or agencies and stakeholders through regulations and appropriate measures continuously review, evaluate and monitor policies on standards and relevance in education and training to assure and ensure standards, quality and relevance.

National and

Every institution of basic education in

and quality assurance.

international standards consultation with the Education, Standards and Quality

Standards, quality and

Assurance Council shall, in accordance with the provisions of this Act-

develop or adapt appropriate national and international standards;
establish, implement and manage quality assurance systems;
establish and promote appropriate collaborative arrangements with relevant national and international agencies on standards and quality assurance; and
establish systems and processes for continuous review and improvement of standards and quality
The Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the

relevance in education National Education Board, and the various County Education Boards and institutions and all persons engaged in the promotion, provision and conduct of education shall-

ensure compliance with quality and relevance in

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the provision and delivery of education;

adapt effective and efficient systems to achieve the desired outcomes and objectives and avoid duplication and waste.

Guidelines on

The Cabinet Secretary in consultation shall, in

relevance.

standards, quality and consultation with the relevant stakeholders, make

Policy and guidelines on curricula.

Curricula development.

Regulations on standards, quality and relevance in education in Kenya.

(1) To ensure standards, quality and relevance in curriculum development, the Cabinet Secretary shall, upon advice of the National Education Board, continuously develop, review, evaluate and monitor the

Provided that the curriculum shall be reviewed every five years.

Basic education institutions may, in consultation with the national quality assurance bodies, curriculum development agency and industry, initiate the review of policy on curriculum in their respective areas.
The policy and guidelines on curricula developed under this section shall secure the competencies and learning outcomes for the relevant structures and levels under the National Qualifications Framework.
The Cabinet Secretary shall, in consultation with

the relevant stakeholders make appropriate regulations to implement the provisions of this section.

(1) There shall be a Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development whose mandate shall include curriculum development for basic education
Subject to subsection (1), the Cabinet Secretary shall accredit curriculum development agencies for all levels and programmes on the basis of approved criteria.
Subject to subsection (1), the curricula shall be

developed for all levels and programmes by accredited agencies in accordance with the National Qualifications Framework and the policies and guidelines developed and established under this Act.

2013 Basic Education No. 14

Any person or institution may propose a curriculum to an accredited curriculum agency.
Any person who contravenes the provisions of this section commits an offence.

Prohibition of development and examination of own curriculum.

Licensing, registration and accreditation of persons and institutions of education, training and research.

Except as otherwise provided for under this Act, no person or institution shall combine the functions of developing and teaching and examining or assessing and issuing a certificate in respect of a curriculum without accreditation and approval in accordance with the provisions of this Act.
PART X – LICENSING, REGISTRATION AND

ACCREDITATION PROCEDURES IN BASIC EDUCATION

A person shall not offer basic education in Kenya unless the person is accredited and registered as provided for under this Act.
A person or organization intending to establish an institution offering basic education shall make an application in the prescribed manner to the relevant County Education Board.

Upon receipt of an application, the County Education Board shall-

record the application; and

if satisfied that the establishment of the institution conforms to the prescribed requirements, notify the applicant within thirty days.

Where an application is approved the County Education Board shall inform the office representing the Education, Standards and Quality Assurance Council at the county in the case of a pre-primary, primary or secondary school.

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Rejection of application by the County Education Board.

(1) Where the County Education Board is not satisfied that the institution has complied with the requirements set out under this Act the Board may reject the application and notify the applicant of the decision within thirty days.

(2) Any person aggrieved by the decision of the County Education Board under subsection (1) may appeal to the Education Appeals Tribunal within a period of thirty days of the decision.

Offence to promote

(1) A person shall not engage in the promotion,

or accredited and

without being licensed management, or teaching of basic education unless such

registered.

person is accredited and registered in accordance with the provisions of this Act.

A person may not use any premises or facilities to provide education and training through face to face, open distant or electronic learning or any other mode of delivery unless the institution has undergone quality review and approved in accordance with this Act.

Any person who contravenes the provisions of this section commits an offence and shall be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding twenty million shillings or a term of imprisonment not exceeding three years or to

County Education Board to maintain a databank.

(1) The County Education Board shall establish and maintain a databank of all-

registered, accredited, licensed and incorporated institutions of education, training and or research in the County;

teachers in the County; and

2013 Basic Education No. 14

pupils and

(2) The register established and maintained under subsection (1) shall be open to the public for inspection during normal working hours.

Fees. 80. Any person making an application for the establishment, licensing, registration and accreditation of a basic education and training institution shall pay the prescribed fees to the relevant agencies under the Act or any other written law.

Rules, regulations and guidelines on quality.

The Cabinet Secretary shall in consultation with Education, Standards and Quality Assurance Council, and the relevant stakeholders establish guidelines and prescribe rules and regulations for the establishment, licensing, accreditation and registration of basic education and training institutions.

Licensing of an institution basic education and training.

(1) The Education, Standards and Quality Assurance Council shall assess the application to ensure due compliance with the standards formulated and developed under this Act and submit its report to the County Education Board.

(2) Without prejudice to the foregoing, the County Education Board shall license and register a basic education and training institution only if-

the institution has sufficient number of registered teachers and non teaching staff under the staffing norms prescribed by the Education Standards and Quality Assurance office for the county have been complied with.

the institution has appropriate teaching and learning facilities;

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the available premises and accommodation are suitable with regard to the number, age, gender, and security of the learners who are to attend the institution;

the premises and accommodation conform to the prescribed requirements of the occupational health and safety regulations;

the necessary and suitable infrastructure as well appropriate and adequate equipment to carry out the programmes applied for as may be prescribed by regulations.

Application to County Education Board for establishment of a basic education institution.

An application for the establishment of a basic education institution shall contain:

name, physical, postal and electronic addresses of the proposed institution;

in the case of a mobile school, the name of a general area and the name of the family in which the school is situated;

the governance and management structures of the institution, membership of the proposed institution, academic qualifications and experience of the promoters and managers of the intended institution;

the aims and objects for which the institution is to be established and the programmes of instructions and the courses of study that will be offered;
the number, qualifications and competence of

2013 Basic Education No. 14

the teachers and non teaching staff;

available suitable infrastructure, and appropriate equipment;

a statement of financial ability; and

such other matters as may be prescribed in the regulations made under this Act.

Examinations and assessments

Cap. 225A

(1) Public examinations shall be conducted as provided for under the Kenya National Examination Council Act.

The Cabinet Secretary may make regulations prescribing:

the conduct of school based assessments;

conditions;

the certification of school based

Appeal against decision of County Education Board.

Any person aggrieved by the decision of County Education Board under this Part may, within thirty days of being notified of the decision, appeal against such a decision to the Education Appeals Tribunal established under section 93.

PART XI FINANCIAL PROVISIONS

Financing of basic education.

(1) The funds of the Department of Education shall consist of–

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monies provided by Parliament for the purposes of the Department;

any funds provided by bilateral or multilateral donors, for the purpose of the basic education;

monies that may accrue to or vest in the in the course of the exercise of its functions under this Act;

gifts, grants, donations or endowments as may be given to the Department;

monies that may be borrowed by the Departmentfor the discharge of the functions of the Department;

fees for services rendered to any designated institution in terms of a service agreement; and

monies from any other source provided for the Department or relevant educational institution or

(2) The funds shall be used to promote basic education.

Financial year. 87. The financial year of the Department of Education shall be the government financial year.

Annual estimates. 88. (1) Before the commencement of each financial year, the Cabinet Secretary shall cause to be prepared estimates of revenue and expenditure of the Department

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for that year.

The annual estimates shall make provisions for all the estimated expenditure of the Department for the financial year concerned and in particular shall provide

for –

the payment of salaries, allowances and other changes in respect of the staff of the Department;

the payment of pensions, gratuity and other changes in respect of retirement benefits which are payable out of the funds of the Department;

the acquisition, maintenance, repair and replacement of the equipment, facilities and other movable properties of the Department;

the proper maintenance of buildings and grounds of the Department;

the creation of such reserve funds to meet future or contingent liabilities in respect of retirement benefits, insurance or replacement of buildings or equipment, or in respect of such other matter as the Department may deem as appropriate;

the infrastructural

The annual estimates shall be approved by Parliament before the commencement of the financial year to which they relate.

Accounts and Audit of 89. (1) The Cabinet Secretary shall cause to be kept

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Departments or schools.

No. 12 of 2003

all proper books and records of accounts of the income, expenditure, assets and liabilities of the Department.

Within a period of three months after the end of each financial year, the Cabinet Secretary shall submit to the Controller of Budget and the Auditor General, the accounts of the Department in respect of that year together with –

a statement of income and expenditure during the year; and

a statement of the assets and liabilities of the Department on the last day of that

The accounts of the Department shall be audited and reported upon in accordance with the provisions of the Public Audit Act.

School based auditing. 90. (1) The Cabinet Secretary shall establish mechanisms for school-based auditing.

The officers responsible for school-based auditing for public schools shall advise and work with the respective headteachers, principals, school administrators and governing bodies to ensure the proper maintenance of accounts and assets of the institution.

The Cabinet Secretary shall make appropriate regulations on school based auditing for public schools.

Investment of funds. 91. (1) The Cabinet Secretary may invest any of the funds of the Department in securities in which for the time being trustees may by law invest funds or in any other securities which the Treasury may from time to time approve for that purpose.

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(2) The Cabinet may place on deposit, with such bank or banks as it may determine, any monies not immediately required for the purpose of the Department.

PART XII – GENERAL PROVISIONS

General penalties. 92. Any person who commits an offence under this Act for which no other penalty is provided is liable: –

in the case of a first conviction, to a fine not exceeding two hundred thousand shillings or a term of imprisonment not exceeding twelve months, or both; and

in any other case, to a fine not exceeding three hundred thousand shillings or a term of imprisonment of not exceeding twelve months or

The Education Appeals Tribunal.

(1) There is established an Education Appeals

Any person aggrieved by the decisions of the County Education Board may appeal to the Education Appeals Tribunal.

The Cabinet Secretary in consultation with the National Education Board and relevant stakeholders shall prescribe regulations on the operation and structure of the Education Appeals Tribunal.

The Education Appeals Tribunal shall comprise of—

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the chairperson of the National Education Board;

Establishment of the National Council for Nomadic Education.

the Director-General;

the Secretary to the Teachers Service Commission;

a representative of the Education Standards and Quality assurance Council;

a representative of the Kenya Private Sector Alliance;

a representative of the Attorney-General; and

the Chief Executive Officer of the National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya.

(1) There is established a National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya.

Notwithstanding subsection (1), the National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya shall be constituted in a manner set out in the Sixth Schedule.

Regulations. 95. (1) The Cabinet Secretary may upon consultation with the Board make regulations-

prescribing anything that may be prescribed under this Act; and

generally for the better carrying out of provisions of this Act.

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on the establishment of Boards of Management for primary schools.

Without prejudice to the generality of subsection
the Cabinet Secretary may make regulations to provide for –

an appropriate structure for education and training

incentives to learners, teachers and non teaching staff;

discipline, corrective measures and expulsion to facilitate compliance;

admission, progression and transfer of learner;

integration of the madrassa, Duksi and pastoral programmes of instructions into the formal education system as appropriate to improve access and retention;

to secure appropriate institutional linkages and relative autonomy for the Kenya National Commission for United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization to enable it to promote education through culture, natural science, social and human sciences, and information and communication

The Cabinet Secretary may make regulations with respect to the conduct and management of schools and such regulations may-

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prescribe standards with regards to the numbers and qualifications of staff, the size of classes and the expenditure on educational standards in accordance with international best practices;

provide for the preparation or approval of curricula, syllabuses, books and other educational materials;

prescribe minimum standards for the health and safety of pupils and for a satisfactory environment for education;

provide for the keeping of registers and records and the submission of returns, including EMIS data;

provide for incentives for submission of reports, returns and related EMIS data;

provide for sanctions and penalties for non submission and falsification of records, reports, returns, and related EMIS data;

provide for admission, suspension, discipline, punishment and expulsion of pupils;

provide for educational calendar;

prescribe how schools shall be classified;

make different provisions with respect to

2013 Basic Education No. 14 different classes or kinds of schools, impose conditions and make exemptions;

provide for the promotion, development, management and governance of education through ICT Integration and Education, and EMIS, and statutory structural adjustment;

provide for religious instruction and religious education in basic education having regard to the national values and principles under Article 10 and Chapter Six of the Constitution;

provide for teacher education and development;

provide for the implementation of international instruments on education and child rights to which Kenya is a party; and

provide for or prescribe such other matters as the Cabinet Secretary considers necessary or desirable to provide for or

(7) The Cabinet Secretary may make regulations prescribing the duties and rights of students.

PART XIII – REPEAL, SAVINGS AND TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

Repealed Acts. 96. The following Acts are repealed-

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Cap 211

Cap 223. (a) the Education Act; and

(b) the Board of Adult Education Act,.

Preservation of

Any proceedings, instruments and any right of

of appeal.

proceedings and rights review appeal subsisting immediately before the

commencement of this Act by virtue of the repealed Acts shall after the commencement of this Act be treated as subsisting by virtue of the corresponding enactment in this Act.

Continuance of periods of time.

Where a period of time specified in the repealed Acts is current at the commencement of this Act, this Act shall have effect as if the corresponding provisions had been in force when the period began to run.

Preservation of licences, certificates and registration.

(1) Any register kept, registration effected, certificate issued, letters of Interim Authority, notice or information given, return made or other thing done under the repealed Acts which, immediately before the date of commencement of this Act, was in force or effect shall continue in force and have effect as if kept, effected, issued, given, made or done under the corresponding provision of this Act.
Any form used and any requirement as to the particulars to be entered in any form used for the purposes of the repealed Act which was in force or effect immediately before the date of commencement of this Act shall continue in force and have effect as though prescribed under this Act until forms or particulars are so

Transfer of property, assets, liabilities and staff.

(1) All immovable and movable property and assets which immediately before the commencement of this Act were vested in, or possessed by the institutions established under the repealed Acts shall by virtue of this section vest in the respective institutions established under

2013 Basic Education No. 14 this Act without further conveyance, transfer or assignment.

(2) All rights, obligations and liabilities which immediately before the commencement of this Act were vested in or imposed on the institutions established under the repealed Acts are deemed to be the rights, obligations and liabilities of the respective institutions established under this Act.

All references to the offices or institutions established under the repealed Acts in any agreement or instrument relating to any property, assets, rights, privileges, immunity, obligations or liabilities transferred under subsection (1) and (2) and subsisting immediately before the commencement of this Act, shall, unless the context otherwise requires, be read as references to respective offices or institutions established under this

Except as the institutions established under the repealed Acts otherwise directs under the relevant law, all persons who were members of the staff of the offices or institutions established under the repealed Acts shall be members of the staff of respective offices or institutions established under this Act and shall be deemed to have been appointed under this Act on the terms and conditions of service applicable to them immediately before the commencement of this Act.

General savings. 101. (1) Notwithstanding the repeal of the Acts under all acts, directions, orders, appointments, requirements, authorizations, decisions or other things given, taken or done under, and all funds, assets and other property acquired or disposed of by virtue of the repealed Acts shall, so far as are not inconsistent with this Act, be deemed to have been given, taken, done or acquired or disposed of under this Act.

All rules and regulations made under the repealed Acts and in force immediately prior to the

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commencement of this Act shall continue to be in force but may be amended or revoked by rules and regulations made under this Act.

All pending disciplinary matters will be determined as if they were commenced under this Act.

All instruments issued by the offices or institutions established under the repealed Acts and in force immediately prior to the commencement of this Act shall be deemed to have been issued under this Act.

All pre-primary institutions currently managed by the Ministry of Education, or any local government shall continue under such management until the first general election under the Constitution.

The Cabinet Secretary may, in consultation with the National Education Board, make regulations prescribing anything which under this Act may be prescribed, and generally for the better carrying into effect the provisions of this Act.

FIRST SCHEDULE (s. 6)

CONDUCT OF BUSINESS AND AFFAIRS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD.

Filling of vacancy. 1. A vacancy in the office of a member under paragraph 3 shall be filled by a person appointed by the Cabinet Secretary in accordance with the provisions of this Schedule.

Vice chairperson. 2. The Board shall, at its first meeting, elect a Deputy Chairperson from amongst the persons appointed under section 6 of this Act.

2013 Basic Education No. 14

Meetings of the Board. 3. The Board shall meet at least three times in each year.

Special meetings. 4. The Chairperson may at any time convene a special meeting of the Board and shall do so within fifteen days of a written requisition for the meeting signed by at least three members.

Chairperson to preside. 5. (1) The Chairperson shall preside at all meetings of the Board, in which the Chairperson is present and in the case of his or her absence, the Deputy Chairperson shall preside.

(2) At a meeting of the Board at which neither the Chairperson or Deputy Chairperson is present, the members of the Board present shall elect one of their numbers to preside, and the person so elected shall have all the powers of the Chairperson with respect to that meeting and the business transacted thereat.

Quorum. 6. The quorum for the conduct of the business of the Board shall be five members.

Voting procedure. 7. The decisions of the Board shall be by a majority of votes, and the Chairperson of the meeting shall have an original and a casting vote.

Validity of proceedings.

Minutes of the meeting.

Committees of the Board.

Power of the Board to

The validity of any proceedings of the Board shall not be affected by any vacancy among the membership thereof, or by reason of a defect in the appointment of a

Minutes of the proceedings at meetings of the Board shall be kept in such a manner as the Board directs, and, on the written request of the Cabinet Secretary, shall be made available to him or her or any person nominated by him or her.

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regulate own procedure.

The Board may establish such committees as may be necessary for the performance of the functions of the Board and may, subject to the provisions of this Act, delegate powers conferred on it to any such committee.

Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the Board shall regulate its own procedure.

Disclosure of interest. 12. (1) If a member of the Board is directly or indirectly interested in any contract, proposed contract or other matter before the Board and is present at a meeting of the Board at which the contract, proposed contract or other matter is the subject of consideration, he or she shall at the meeting and as soon as reasonably practicable after the commencement thereof, disclose the fact and shall not take part in the consideration or discussion of, or vote on, any questions with respect to the contract or other matter, or be counted in the quorum of the meeting during consideration of the matter.

A disclosure of interest made under this paragraph shall be recorded in the minutes of the meeting at which it is made.

SECOND SCHEDULE (s. 21)

CONDUCT OF BUSINESS AND AFFAIRS OF THE COUNTY EDUCATION BOARDS.

Vacation of office. 1. The office of a member of the County Education Board shall become vacant if the member-

is absent without the permission of the Chairperson from three or more consecutive meetings of the County Education Board;

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resigns the office in writing under his or her hand delivered to the Chairperson of the County Education Board;

is convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment for a term of six months or more without the option of a fine;

is found guilty of an offence which in the opinion of the County Education Board renders him or her unsuitable to continue to hold office;

Meetings of the Board.

Special meetings.

Presiding at meetings. Quorum at meetings.

becomes for any reason including infirmity of body or mind, incompetent or incapable of performing the functions of the office; or

is otherwise unable to discharge the functions of his or her office.

2.(1) The County Education Board shall hold such number of meetings at such places and at such times as the County Education Board shall consider necessary for the proper discharge of its functions.

Notwithstanding sub-section (1) the County Education Board shall meet not less than three times in each financial year.

At least fourteen days notice shall be given prior to any meeting of the County Education Board.

Notwithstanding the provisions of section 2, the Chairperson or any three members may call a special meeting whenever it is expedient for the transaction of the business of the County Education Board by giving not less than seven days notice to the members

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(1) The chairperson shall preside at all meetings of the County Education Board.

In the absence of the chairperson at a meeting, the vice-chairperson shall preside at that meeting of the County Education Board.

In the absence of the chairperson and the vice- chairperson at a meeting, the members present shall elect a member to preside at that meeting of the County Education Board.

The quorum for the conduct of business at a meeting of the County Education Board shall be more than half of the members of the County Education Board.

Voting. 6. (1) A decision on any matter before the County Education Board shall be by a majority of votes of the members present.

In the case of an equality of votes the Chairperson or the person presiding shall have a casting vote.

Procedure at meetings.

Subject to the provisions of this Act the County Education Board may determine its own procedure.

Vacancies and defects in appointment.

Subject to sections 2 and 5, proceedings of the County Education Board shall not be invalid by reason only of a vacancy in the membership of the County Education Board or by reason of a defect in the appointment of a member.

Disclosure of interest.

(1) If a member of the County Education Board is directly or indirectly interested in a contract, proposed contract or other matter before the County Education

2013 Basic Education No. 14 Board and is present at a meeting of the County Education Board at which the contract, proposed contract or other matter is the subject of consideration, that member shall disclose the fact as soon as is practicable after the commencement of that meeting.

(2) A member to whom subsection (1) applies shall not participate in the consideration, discussion or voting on the matter in which the member has disclosed an interest.

Board.

Records. 10. The Secretary to the Board shall keep a record of all proceedings and meetings of the County Education

THIRD SCHEDULE (s. 55) ESTABLISMENT AND FUNCTIONS

OF PARENTS ASSOCIATION

There shall be a Parents Association for every public or private secondary school consisting of-

every parent with a pupil in the school;

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a representative of the teachers in the

(1) There shall be an Executive Committee consisting of representatives of each class and two

The members of the Executive Committee of Parents Association shall be elected during an annual general meeting of parents and teachers.

The Parents Association shall, at its first meeting, elect a Chairperson from amongst the persons elected under paragraph 2 of this Schedule.

The Chairperson and two members of the Association shall be co-opted to the Board of

The Head or Principal shall be the Secretary to the

The functions of the Parents Association shall be

to–

promote quality care, nutritional and health status of the pupils;

maintain good working relationship between teachers and parents;

discuss, explore and advise the parents on ways to raise funds for the physical development and maintenance;

2013 Basic Education No. 14

explore ways to motivate the teachers and pupils to improve their performance in academic and co- curricular activities;

discuss and recommend charges to be levied on pupils or parents;
undertake and oversee development projects on behalf of the whole Parents Association.
assist the school management in the monitoring, guidance, counseling and disciplining of pupils; and
discuss and recommend measures for the welfare of staff and pupils.
The Parents Association shall hold such number of meetings at such places and at such times as the Association shall consider necessary for the proper discharge of its functions.
Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the Parents Association shall regulate its own procedure.
There shall be established National Parents Associations, County Parents Associations and Sub- County Parents Associations elected by Parents Associations from schools through a delegate system.
FOURTH SCHEDULE (s. 56) PART I

CONDUCT OF BUSINESS AND AFFAIRS OF THE BOARD OF MANAGEMENT.

Incorporation of Board of Management.

The Board of Management shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession and a common seal, and shall in their corporate names, be capable of-

suing and being sued;

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taking, purchasing or otherwise acquiring, holding, charging or disposing of movable and immovable property;

borrowing, lending and granting money;

entering into contracts; and

doing or performing all other acts or things for the proper performance of its functions under this Act which may lawfully be done or performed by a body corporate.

There shall be an executive Board of Management for each Board of Management consisting of—

the chairperson of the Board;

the secretary of the Board;

the chairperson of a Parents Teachers Association; and

two other Board

Tenure. 3. (1) Unless the appointment of the chairperson or a member of the Board of Management is earlier terminated under this Act, a person appointed as chairperson or as a member shall hold office for a term of three years from the date of appointment and shall be eligible for re- appointment for one further term of a period not exceeding three years

2013 Basic Education No. 14

In reappointing members of the Boards of Management the Cabinet Secretary shall maintain a proportion of new membership that ensures continuity in the affairs of the Boards of Management.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, a person who has served as a member of a Board of Management for one term at the date of the commencement of this Act may be re-appointed for a second and final term of three years.

Resignation from the

(1) A member of a Board of Management may at

Board of Management. any time resign by giving notice in writing to the County Education Board.

(2) A person giving notice under subsection (1) shall cease to be a member of the Board of Management from the date specified in the notice or, if no date is specified, from the date of the receipt by the County Education Board of the notice.

Revocation of appointment and vacation of office.

(1) The appointment of a member to a Board of Management shall be revoked and the member shall vacate office if the member —

resigns in accordance with paragraph 2 of this schedule;

becomes insolvent or has conveyed or assigned his property or has made a proposition or arrangement for the benefit of his creditors;

is sentenced by a court of law to imprisonment for a term of six months or more;

is incapacitated by physical or mental illness;

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has been absent from three consecutive meetings of the Board of Management without leave;

has his appointment revoked by the nominating body; or

is otherwise unable or unfit to discharge his functions as a member of the Board of Management on account of any matter in this

(2) Where the office of a member of a Board of Management becomes vacant by reason other than the expiry of the period of that office, the County Education Board, or the proprietor or sponsor may, in accordance with the provisions of this Act appoint another person to replace the member.

Frequency of meetings of the Board of Management.

Quorum of the Board of Governors.

(1) A Board of Management shall meet at least once every four months.

Every meeting of the Board of Management shall be convened by giving at least fourteen days’ notice in writing to every member unless three quarters of the total members of a Board of Management otherwise agree.
Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection (1), the chairperson of a Board of Management may, on his own motion or upon requisition in writing by at least five members of the Board, convene a special meeting of the Board of Management or at any time for the transaction of specific business.
(1) The quorum for the conduct of business at a meeting of a Board of Management shall be two- thirds of the total number of members of the Board of

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(2) Subject to the provisions of subparagraph (1) no proceedings of a Board of Management shall be invalid by reason only of a vacancy among the members thereof.

Chairperson to preside over a meeting of Board of Governors.

Decision of the Board of Management.

(1) The Chairperson shall preside at every meeting of the Board of Management at which the chairperson is present and in his absence, the deputy chairperson shall
In the absence of both the chairperson and the deputy chairperson at any meeting, the members present shall elect one of their number to preside, who shall, with respect to that meeting and the business transacted thereat, have all the powers of the chairperson.
Unless a unanimous decision is reached, a decision on any matter before a Board of Management shall be by a majority of the votes of the members present and voting and in the case of an equality of votes, the chairman or the person presiding shall have a casting vote.

Disclosure of interest. 10. (1) If a member is directly or indirectly interested in any contract, proposed contract or other matter before a Board of Management and is present at a meeting of the Board of Management at which the contract, propose contract or other matter is the subject of consideration, he shall, at the meeting and as soon as reasonably practicable after the commencement thereof, disclose the fact and shall not take part in the consideration or discussion of, or vote on, any questions with respect to the contract or other matter, or be counted in the quorum of the meeting during consideration of the matter.

A disclosure of interest made under this paragraph shall be recorded in the minutes of the meeting at which it is made.
A member of the Board of Management who contravenes sub-paragraph (1) shall commit an offence and be liable to a fine of fifty thousand shillings, or to imprisonment for a term of six months, or to both.

Common seal. 11. (1) Subject to this Act, the common seal of a registered institution of basic education for which a Board of Management is responsible shall be kept in a safe in the registered office of the institution and shall not be used except in the manner authorized by the Board of Management.

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(2) All deeds, instruments, contracts and other documents shall be deemed to be duly executed by or on behalf of the institution-

Remuneration of the

where they are required to be under seal, if sealed with the common seal of the institution and authenticated by the chairperson and the secretary of the Board of Management;
where they are not required to be under seal, if executed in that behalf by a member authorized by the Board of Management for that purpose.
A deed, instrument, contract or other documents executed in accordance with sub-paragraph (2) shall be effective in law to bind the institution and its successors and may be varied or discharged in the same manner as that in which it was executed.
Members of a Board of Management shall be

of Management.

members of the Board paid in respect of their services such allowances as the

Appointment of staff of the Board of Management.

Protection from

Board of Management shall, with the approval of the Cabinet Secretary, determine.

A Board of Management may, upon such terms and conditions of service as the County Education Board may determine, employ such staff or hire the services of such consultants or experts as may be necessary for the proper performance of its functions.
No matter or thing done by a member of a Board

or officer of a Board of

Liability for a member of Management or any officer, employee or agent of the

Management.

Liability of an institution for damages.

Board of Management shall, if the matter or thing is done bona fide in executing the functions, powers or duties of the Board of Management, render the member, officer, employee or agent or any person acting on directions personally liable to any action, claim or demand whatsoever.

The provisions of paragraph 12 shall not relieve an institution of basic education of liability to pay compensation or damages to any person for an injury to him, his property or any of his interests caused by the exercise of the powers conferred on the institution of basic education or its Board of Managements by this Act or by

2013 Basic Education No. 14 any other written law or by the failure, whether wholly or partially, of any works.

Annual estimates. 16. (1) A Board of Management of a public institution of basic education shall prepare annual estimates of revenue and expenditure for the institution under its charge, in such form and at such times as the Cabinet Secretary may prescribe.

The Board of Management may incur expenditure for the purpose of the institution in accordance with estimates approved by the Cabinet Secretary, and any approved expenditure under any head of the estimates may not be exceeded without the prior written approval of the Cabinet Secretary.
A Board of Management for a public institution of basic education shall receive all grants made out of public funds, whether for capital or revenue purposes, and any subscriptions, donations or bequests made to the
Nothing in this Act shall affect the terms and conditions upon which any grant may be made to an institution of basic education or a Board of Management in aid of an institution out of public funds.
A Board of Management may, with the approval of the Cabinet Secretary and subject to any restriction imposed by law, appeal to the general public for subscriptions, donations or bequests to an institution of basic education.
The Secretary to a Board of Management of a public institution of basic education shall be responsible for the day-to-day management of the affairs of the institution, and shall present any account of such expenditure to the Board of Management.
A Board of Management of a public institution of basic education may, with the approval of the County Education Board upon consultation with the Cabinet Secretary pay all expenses connected with the institution including the salaries of staff; but the personal emoluments of a person seconded to the service of the Board of Management shall, in the first instance, be paid by the seconding authority and may be recovered from

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Unexpended monies. 17. (1) Any unexpended balance of grant may be carried forward in the accounts of a public institution of basic education from one year to the next and be committed as the Board of Management may determine, or be put into the account of the institution.

(2) The Board of Management shall not authorize any withdrawal from the account without express approval of the County Education Board or the responsible Accounting Officer.

Securing of loans by

The Board of Management shall be responsible

Board of Management. for making arrangements to raise any loan which they may, at the request of the institution, authorize the Board of Management to secure for the purpose of the institution and shall ensure that proper provision is made for the repayment thereof and payment of all interest and other charges thereon in accordance with any order made by the Cabinet Secretary in the matter, or in accordance with the terms and conditions of the loan.

Vesting of property. 19. All such immovable property, shares, funds and securities as may from time to time become the property of a public institution of basic education shall be in the name of the institution and shall be dealt with in such manner as the Board of Management of the institution may from time to time determine, subject to the conditions upon which any grants are made from public funds for capital or recurrent purposes and the conditions upon which any endowment, bequest or donation is made for any purpose connected with the Institution:

Provided that the Board of Management may only dispose of any property with the consent of the County Education Board or on the authority of appropriate written law and regulations.

Investment of funds. 20. (1) A Board of Management of a public institution of basic education may invest any of the funds of the institution in securities in which for the time being trustees may by law invest in trust funds, or in any other securities which the Treasury may, from time to time, approve for that purpose.

(2) The Board of Management may, subject to the guidelines and regulations issued by Treasury, place on deposit with such bank or banks as the Board of

2013 Basic Education No. 14 Management may determine, any monies not immediately required for the purposes of the institution.

Financial year. 21. The financial year of a public institution of basic ducation shall be the financial year of the government.

Funds of a public institution of basic education.

(1) The funds of a public institution of basic education shall comprise of—
such sums as may be granted to the institution by the Cabinet Secretary;
such monies or assets as may accrue to or vest in the institution in the course of the exercise of its powers or the performance of its functions under this Act or under any other written law; and
all monies from any other source provided for or donated or lent to the
There shall be made to the institution of basic education, out of monies provided by Parliament for that purpose, grants towards the expenditure incurred by the institution in the exercise of its powers or the performance of its functions under this Act.

Accounts and audit. 23. (1) A Board of Management of a public institution of basic education shall cause to be kept all proper books and records of accounts of the income, expenditure and assets of the institution.

Within a period of four months from the end of each financial year of the government, a Board of Management shall submit to the Auditor- General or to a auditor appointed under this section, the accounts of the institution together with—
a statement of the income and expenditure of the Institution during that year; and
a balance sheet of the institution on the last day of that year.

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The accounts of the institution shall be audited and Reported upon in accordance with the Public Audit Act,

A Board of Management of a public institution of basic education shall furnish the Cabinet Secretary with a certified copy of the audited annual statement of accounts and such other information about the revenue, expenditure, assets and liabilities of the institution as he may require.

PART II

For purposes of governance and oversight in the education sector, the National Education Board shall advise the Cabinet Secretary on all matters concerning education in the country.

The members of the National Education Board shall be appointed by the Cabinet Secretary on recommendation of the selection Panel and shall comprise –

an educationist of at least five years standing who shall be the Chairperson;

two representatives of the Teachers Union;

one representative of the Teachers Service Commission;

where applicable, one person each representing—

jointly, the National Council of

2013 Basic Education No. 14 Churches of Kenya and the Evangelical Fellowship of Kenya;

the Kenya Episcopal Conference; and

the Muslims Education Council;

one representative of the Kenya Private Sector Alliance;

two representatives of the Parents Teachers Association;

one representatives of the Head Teachers Association;

one representative of persons with

One representative of the Primary School HeadTeachers’ Association

One representative of the Secondary School Principals’ Association.

FIFTH SCHEDULE

Special Board of Adult and Continuing Education

Establishment and functions of the Board.

There shall be a Special Board of Adult and

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

ontinuing Education, the functions of which shall be-

to advise the Cabinet Secretary on any matter relating to adult and education, including the formulation of courses and syllabuses, the establishment of residential and non-residential institutions,

to advise with respect to the co-ordination and regulate all the providers of Adult and Continuing Education private and public

to identify and assess the need for new developments in adult and continuing

to stimulate and encourage activities in adult and continuing education.

to report annually to the Cabinet secretary on the progress and development of adult and continuing education.

to advise the National Education Board on matters of Adult and Continuing Education

Members of the Board. 2. (1) The Board shall consist of the following members:

A chairman appointed by the Cabinet Secretary

not more than ten persons appointed by the Cabinet Secretary to represent the activities

2013 Basic Education No. 14 of the Government in Adult and Continuing Education.

five persons appointed by the Cabinet Secretary to represent local and international agencies involved in Adult and Continuing Education.

(2) The Board may co-opt other members as may be deemed necessary..

Chairman and Secretary.

(1) The Chairman shall hold office for three years but shall be eligible for re- appointment thereafter.

(2) In the absence of the chairman at any meeting of the board, the members present shall elect one of their number to be Chairman for that meeting only.

The Cabinet Secretary shall appoint a public officer to be secretary to the Board, who shall, if the Cabinet Secretary so appoints, also be a member of the Board in accordance with Section 4 (1) (b).

Period of

Office members.

(1) A member of the Board shall hold office for three years:

Provided that the members first appointed shall, at the Cabinet Secretary discretion, hold office for one, two or three years to make provisions for rotational termination of office.

Members shall be eligible for reappointment on the termination of their period of office.

Where a person ceases to be a member of Board before the end of his term of office. The Cabinet Secretary

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

shall, in accordance with section 2 (1), appoint a member for the unexpired term of office.

Procedure and quorum.

(1) The Special Board shall regulate its own procedure:

Provided that a quorum at any meeting of the Board shall be one-third of all the members of the Board for the time being appointed or co-opted thereto.

The Board may invite any person who is not a member of the Board to attend any meeting thereof, but such person may only speak at such meetings at the request of the chairman and may not vote.

Executive Committee. 6. (1) The Board shall establish an Executive Committee consisting of the Chairman of the Board who shall be the Chairman of such Committee. The Chairman of every Panel and not more than three other persons appointed by the Board from among its members who shall, subject to the termination of their period of office as members of the Board, hold office for one year and shall be eligible for reappointment.

The Board shall regulate the procedure of the Executive Committee.

The Board may vest in or confer on the Executive Committee any of the powers or functions of the Board. but any decision of the Executive Committee relating to any advice proposed to be given by the Board to Cabinet Secretary on any matter on which the Board is competent to give advice under this Act shall require the approval of the Board expressed by a resolution thereof supported by a majority of all the members of the Board for the time being appointed or co- opted thereto.

2013 Basic Education No. 14

The proceedings of any meeting of the Executive Committee shall be reported to the Board at the next meeting of the Board.

Advisory panels. 7.(1) The Board may establish, constitute and appoint such Advisory Panel as it considers necessary to advise the Board on any matter with which the Board is concerned under this Act.

The members of any Advisory Panel shall be appointed by the Board for such period of office as the Board shall determine, and shall include, but need not exclusively consist of members of the Board.

The Board shall appoint one of its members to be the chairman of each Advisory Panel who shall hold office for such period as the Board, shall in each case

Each Panel shall regulate its own

County Committees. 8. (1) Subject to the approval of the Cabinet Secretary in each case, the Board may establish. Constitute and appoint County Committee and the members of each such Committee shall be appointed from among persons representing the Government and agencies in the county concerned, in such numbers and for such periods of office as the Board shall determine in each case; and the Board shall regulate the procedure of each such Committee.

The functions of the County Education Committee shall be to advise the County Education Board on the activities on Adult and Continuing Education.

Each County Committee shall report to the Board annually in the month of January, and at such other times as the Board may from time to time direct, on the

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

activities of such Committee.

The secretary of a committee shall be the appropriate county adult and Education officer.

Rules. 9. The Cabinet Secretary may make rules for the better carrying out of the purposes of this Act.

Allowances. 10. The members of the Board, a Panel or any Committee established under this Act who are not public officers shall be paid out of moneys provided by Parliament such-allowances and expenses as the cabinet Minister may prescribe.

SIXTH SCHEDULE

ESTABLISHMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR NOMADIC EDUCATION IN KENYA.

Functions of the Council.

(1)The functions of the Council shall be to—

initiate the development of policies on all matters relating to nomadic education in Kenya;

mobilise funds from various sources for the development of nomadic education in order to support relevant activities of the Council;

institutionalise mechanisms for effective co- ordination, monitoring and evaluation of the activities of agencies involved in the provision of nomadic education;

2013 Basic Education No. 14

implement guidelines and ensure geographical spread of nomadic education activities and targets for the nomadic people;

establish appropriate linkages and partnerships with other participating departments and agencies;

determine standards and skills to be attained in schools and institutions within nomadic communities and review such standards from time to time;

prepare reliable statistic of nomads and their school-aged children and establish a data bank; and

co-ordinate research activities on nomadic education in Kenya.

(2) Every reference to nomadic education shall be construed to also refer to education for the marginalized and any phrase with the word nomadic shall be interpreted accordingly.

Membership of the Council

(1) The Council shall consist of the following members—

a chairperson appointed by the Cabinet Secretary;

the Principal Secretary in the department responsible for education;

the Principal Secretary in the department responsible for finance;

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

the Principal Secretary in the department responsible for the development of arid and semi- arid lands;

three representatives of faith-based organisations;

a representative of persons with disabilities;

a women representative;

a youth representative;

two representatives of teachers’ trades union; and

a representatives of parents vice

(2) The Council shall, at its first meeting, elect

a vice-chairperson from amongst the persons appointed under this Schedule.

Meetings of the Council.

The Council shall meet at least three times in each year.

Special meetings. 4. The chairperson may, at any time, convene

a special meeting of the Council and shall do so within fifteen days of a written requisition for the meeting signed by at least three of the members.

Chairperson to preside. 5. (1) The chairperson shall preside at all meetings of the Council in which the chairperson is present and in the case of his or her absence, the vice-chairperson shall

2013 Basic Education No. 14

preside.

(2) At a meeting of the Council at which neither

the chairperson nor the vice-chairperson is present, the members of the Council present shall elect one of their members to preside, and the person so elected shall have all the powers of the chairperson with respect to that meeting and the business transacted thereof.

Quorum. 6. The quorum for the conduct of the business of the Council shall be seven members.

The decisions of the Council shall be by a majority of votes, and the chairperson of the meeting shall have an original and a casting vote.

Validity of proceedings.

The validity of any proceedings of the council shall not be affected by any vacancy among the membership thereof, or by reason of a defect in the appointment of a

Minutes of the meeting.

Minutes of the proceedings at meetings of the Council shall be kept in such a manner as the Council directs and, on the written request of the Cabinet Secretary, shall be made available to him or her or any person nominated by him or her.

Committees of the Council.

The Council may establish such Committees as may be necessary for the performance of the functions of the Council and may, subject to the provisions of this Act, delegate powers conferred on it to any such committee.

Power of the Council to regulate own procedure.

Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the Council shall regulate its own procedure.

Disclosure of interest. 12. If a member of the Council is directly or indirectly interested in any contract, proposed contract or other matter before the Council and is present at a meeting of

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

the Council at which the contract, proposed contract or other matter is the subject of consideration, he or she shall, at the meeting and as soon as reasonably practicable after the commencement thereof, disclose the fact and shall not take part in the consideration or discussion of, or vote on, any questions with respect to the contract or other matter, or be counted in the quorum of the meeting during consideration of the matter.

Tenure. 13. (1) The chairperson shall serve for a term of four years renewable once.

The members shall serve for a renewable term of three years.

Qualifications. 14. (1) A person shall be qualified for appointment as the Chairperson of the Council if such person—

holds a degree in education from a university recognised in Kenya;

has knowledge and at least ten years’ experience in matters relating to education; and

meets the requirements of Chapter Six of the

A person shall be qualified for appointment as a member of the Council if such person—

hold a degree from a recognised university;

has knowledge and at least five years’ experience in matters relating to any of the following fields—

2013 Basic Education No. 14

education;

management;

finance;

governance and human rights;
public administration;
law; or
economics

has had a distinguished career in their respective fields; and

meets the requirements of Chapter Six of the

Disqualification. 15. A person shall not be qualified for appointment as the chairperson or a member of the Council if such person—

is a member of Parliament or a county assembly;

is a member of a local authority;

is an undischarged bankrupt; or

has been removed from office for contravening the provisions of the Constitution or any other written law.

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

Vacancy. 16. (1) The office of the chairperson or a member of the Council shall become vacant if the holder—

dies;

resigns from office in writing addressed to the Cabinet Secretary;

is absent from three consecutive meetings of the Council without good cause; or

is removed from office in accordance with sub-paragraph (2).

The chairperson or a member of the Council may be removed from office for—

contravening Chapter Six of the Constitution;
serious violation of this Act or any other law;

gross misconduct;

physical or mental incapacity to perform the functions of office;

incompetence; or

if adjudged

2013 Basic Education No. 14

Secondment. 17. The Cabinet Secretary may, in consultation with the Council, and upon such terms and conditions as may be prescribed, second such officers, agents and other staff as may be necessary for the efficient discharge of the functions of the Council under this Schedule.

Experts and Consultants.

The Council may engage consultants and

experts, as it considers appropriate, to assist in the discharge of its functions under this Schedule.

Remuneration. 19. The chairperson and members of the Council shall be paid such remuneration, fees, allowances and disbursements for expenses as may be approved by the Cabinet Secretary.

Reporting. 20. (1) The Council shall submit an annual report to the Cabinet Secretary.

(2) Notwithstanding sub-paragraph (1), the

Cabinet Secretary may, at any time, require a report from the National Council for Nomadic Education on a particular matter.

Secretary 21. (1) The Council shall, through an open, transparent and competitive recruitment process, recommend for appointment by the Cabinet secretary a qualified person to be the Secretary to the Council.

A person shall be qualified for appointment as Secretary if the person—

holds a minimum of a first degree in education or related discipline;

No. 14 Basic Education 2013

has at least ten years’ proven experience in leadership at senior management level;

has experience in finance, management and public administration; and

satisfies the requirements of Chapter Six of the Constitution.

The Secretary shall —

be appointed by the Cabinet Secretary;

be an ex officio member of the Council with no right to vote;

be secretary to the Council;

subject to the directions of the Council, be responsible for the day to day management of the affairs of the Council; and

perform such other functions as the Council may, from time to time, determine.

The Secretary shall serve on such terms and conditions as the Cabinet secretary may determine.

2013 Basic Education No. 14

I certify that this printed impression is a true copy of the Bill passed by the National Assembly on the 11th December, 2012.

Clerk of the National Assembly.

Presented for assent in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution on the ………………………………………….., at the hour of ……………………………………………..

Attorney-General.

Teachers' Resources

GRADE 1 ENGLISH ACTIVITIES SCHEMES – TERM 3 FREE

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

School	Grade	Learning Area	Term	Year
	1	EnglishActivities	3

Week

Lesson

Strand/

Theme

Sub Strand/Sub

theme

SpecificLearning

Outcomes

KeyInquiry

Question(S)

Learning

Experience

Learning

Resources

Assessment

Remarks

Listening

and

Speaking

Living

Together

Pronunciation and Vocabulary

Bythe end of the

sub strand, the learner should be ableto:

a) Talkaboutthe

picturesanddiscuss what theysee.

b) Pronouncethe words withthesounds /i//ea/ in preparationfor reading.

c)Recognize new words usedin the themes to acquirea range ofvocabulary and theirmeaning.

1. Howdo you

pronouncethe following

wordstin, Pin.

1. Learners

pronouncethesounds

/i//ea/bytakingturns asmodeled bythe teacheroraudio record.

2. Learners use dialogues, rhymes, tongue twisters, language gamesand songs individually, in pairs and in groups to practicevocabulary.

3.Learners practice matchingsimple shortwords with pictures and objects.

4. Learners saywords beginningwitha common sound.

5. Learnersuse simple dialoguesto practise

thepronunciation of the vocabulary.

Plasticine orclay

models of objects,realia,

pictures/

photographs, charts, posters,

computerdevices

andflash cards bearingpictures oflearntwords. NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg. 94-95

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

Listening

Language

Bythe end of the sub

1. Whose shoe

1. Learners role play

Realia,charts,

Oral

and

Speaking

Living

Together

Structures and

Functions

Useof possessives; Her, their, his, its.

strand,thelearner

should beableto:

a)Usepossessives to talkaboutsocial

cohesionin various contexts.

b)Recognise possessivesin oral communication.

c)Appreciate the use of possessivenessto show

ownershipin speech.

it?

ownership of

items/objects.

2. Ingroups, learners usephrasesto

illustrate ownership.

3. Learners identify objectsinthe

classroomand attach

appropriate possessivestothem.

pictures/

photographs showing ownership, audio-visual recordings of dialogueswith sentence structures on Possessives.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.95

questions,

portfolio, observation

Reading

Living

Together

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

withletter-sound /s/ /z/

correspondencein preparation for phrasalreading.

b)Respond to direct and indirectquestions

fromthe textVisitorsat

a school’ofabout60

wordsin shortsimple sentences to show comprehension.

c)Read aboutthirty

(30)wordsaccurately perminuteforfluency.

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

thetitle tellus aboutthestory?

1. In smallgroups,

learners practice readingunfamiliar

Sentencescontaining

decodableand non- decodablewords.

2. Learners observe pictures and in

groups, discuss where theaction could be

happening, identify

thepeople oranimals theycan see.

3. Learners read

writings onthe schoolwalls,posters and billboardsinthe surrounding environment.

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographs, newspaper cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.96

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

4. Learnersreador

listentoa textthen answerquestions.

Writing

Guided Writing

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Recognize the correct formand

meaningof the wordsto be usedin fillingin gaps.

b)Copytheletter patterns s, z, e,a, h, y, k correctlyand neatlyin theirexercisebooks.

Howdo you

writethe letters:

s, z, e, a, h, y, k

1. Learners observe

and respondto pictureprompts

appropriately.

2. Learners practice writinglettersand words fromleft

toright.

3. Learners writea three-word sentence

usingtheprompts.

4. Learners are guided infillingin

the gapscorrectlyand

meaningfully.

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographsthat prompt learners to write.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.93&97

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

Listening

and

Speaking

Technology (Mobile Phone)

Pronunciation

and Vocabulary

Bythe end of the

sub strand, the learner should be ableto:

a) Talkaboutthe picturesanddiscuss what theysee.

b) Pronouncethe words withthesounds/oo/

/ea/ inpreparationfor reading.

c)Recognize new

words usedin the themes to acquirea range ofvocabulary and theirmeaning.

1. Howdo you

saythese words book, spoon.

1. Learners

pronouncethesounds

/i//ea/bytakingturns asmodeled bythe

teacheroraudio

record.

2. Learners use dialogues, rhymes, tongue twisters, language gamesand songs individually, in pairs and in groups to practicevocabulary.

3.Learners practice matchingsimple shortwords with pictures and objects.

4. Learners saywords

Plasticine orclay

models of objects,realia, pictures/ photographs, charts, posters, computerdevices and flash cards bearing

picturesof learnt words.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.98-99

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

beginningwitha

common sound.

5. Learners use simple dialoguesto

practisethe pronunciation of the

vocabulary.

Listening

and

Speaking

Technology (Mobile Phone

Language

Structures and

Functions

WH questions

What, Who.

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Askquestions about

technologyphoneusing

‘what’and‘who’

b)Appreciate the use ofwhat, who and whereto seek information.

1.Whatis the

name ofyour friend?

2. Whereis

theirhome?

1. Learners role play

activitiesthatwill elicituse ofwhere, who and what.

2. Learners ask questions usingthe terms who, whatand wherein pairs/small groups

3. Learners use songs/shortpoems to practicethe useof

the questions with who, whatand where.

Pictures,

photographs and models ofpeople usingmobile phones,audio- visualrecordings ofdialogueswith telephone conversations

thathave “Wh”

questions.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.99

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

Reading

Technology (Mobile Phone

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

withletter-sound /oo/ correspondence in preparation forphrasal reading.

b)Respond to direct and indirectquestions

fromthe textVisitorsat

a school’ofabout60

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

thetitle tellus aboutthestory?

1. In smallgroups,

learnerspractice readingunfamiliar Sentencescontaining decodableand non- decodablewords.

2. Learners observe pictures and in

groups, discuss where

the action could be happening, identify

the people oranimals

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs, newspaper cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.100

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

wordsin shortsimple

sentencesto show comprehension.

c)Read aboutthirty

(30)wordsaccurately perminuteforfluency.

theycan see.

3. Learners read writings onthe schoolwalls,posters

and billboardsinthe surrounding

environment.

4. Learnersreador listentoa textthen answerquestions.

Listening

and

Speaking

Technology (Mobile Phone)

Pronunciation and Vocabulary

Bythe end of the

sub strand, the learner should be ableto:

a) Talkaboutthe

picturesanddiscuss what theysee.

b) Pronouncethe words withthesounds/m/

/n//ng/ inpreparation

forreading.

c)Recognize new words usedin the

themes to acquirea range ofvocabulary

andtheirmeaning.

1. Howdo you

saythese words.

Monkey,Nut

1. Learners

pronouncethesounds

/m/ /n//ng/ bytaking turns as modeled by theteacheroraudio record.

2. Learners use dialogues, rhymes, tongue twisters, language gamesand songs individually, in pairs and in groups to practicevocabulary.

3.Learners practice matchingsimple shortwords with pictures and objects.

4. Learners saywords beginningwitha common sound.

5. Learners use simple dialoguesto practisethe pronunciation of the vocabulary.

Plasticine orclay

models of objects,realia,

pictures/

photographs, charts, posters, computerdevices and flash cards bearingpictures oflearntwords.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.102-103

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

Listening

Language

Bythe end of the sub

1.Whatis the

1. Learners role play

Pictures,

Oral

and

Speaking

Technology (Mobile Phone

Structures and

Functions

WH questions

Where?

strand,thelearner

should be ableto:

a)Askquestions about technologyphoneusing

‘where’

b)use what,who and whereto denote person,

object, and place.

c)Appreciate the use ofwhat, who and

whereto seek

information.

name ofyour

friend?

2. Whereis theirhome?

activitiesthatwill

elicituse ofwhere, who and what.

2. Learners ask

questions usingthe terms who, what and where in pairs/smallgroups

3. Learners use simple questionsand

dialoguesRepeat

sentencestructures containingWH- questions froma story, poemor conversation they have listenedto.

photographs and

models ofpeople usingmobile phones,audio- visualrecordings ofdialogueswith telephone conversations

thathave “Wh”

questions.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg. 103

questions,

portfolio, observation

Reading

Technology (Mobile Phone)

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

withletter-sound /m/

/n//ng/correspondence in preparationfor phrasalreading.

b)Respond to direct and indirectquestions

fromthe text ‘Use my mobile Phone’ofabout

60 wordsinshort simple sentencesto show comprehension.

c)Read aboutthirty

(30)wordsaccurately perminuteforfluency.

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

thetitle tellus aboutthestory?

1. In smallgroups,

learners practice readingunfamiliar

Sentencescontaining

decodableand non- decodablewords.

2. Learners observe pictures and in

groups, discuss where the action could be

happening, identify

thepeople oranimals theycan see.

3. Learners read

writings onthe schoolwalls,posters and billboardsinthe surrounding environment.

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographs, newspaper cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.104

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

4. Learnersreador

listentoa textthen answerquestions.

Writing

Guided Writing

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Recognize the correct formand

meaningof the wordsto be usedin fillingin gaps.

b)Copythesentences

givencorrectly.

c)Writequestionswith their answerscorrectly.

Howdo you

write a question?

1. Learners observe

and respondto pictureprompts

appropriately.

2. Learners practice writinglettersand words fromleft

toright.

3. Learners writea three-word sentence

usingtheprompts.

4. Learners are guided

in fillingin the gaps

correctlyand meaningfully.

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographsthat prompt learners to write.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg. 101&105

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

Listening

and

Speaking

Numbers and Our Classroom

Pronunciation and Vocabulary

Bythe end of the

sub strand, the learner should be ableto:

a) Talkaboutthe

picturesanddiscuss what theysee.

b) Pronouncethe words withthesounds /th//q/ in preparationfor reading.

c)Recognize new words usedin the themes to acquirea range ofvocabulary and theirmeaning.

1. Howdo you

saythese sounds?

/th//q/

1. Learners

pronouncethesounds

/q//th/bytaking turns as modeled by theteacheroraudio record.

2.. Learners are guided to getthe meaningof new words bylookingat

pictures, froma story, and demonstration.

3.Learners practice matchingsimple shortwords with

picturesand objects.

4. Learners saywords

Plasticine orclay

models of objects,realia,

pictures/

photographs, charts, posters,

computerdevices

andflash cards bearingpictures oflearntwords.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.106-107

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

beginningwitha

common sound.

5. Learners use simple dialoguesto

practisethe pronunciation of the

vocabulary.

Listening

and

Speaking

Numbers and Our Classroom

Language

Structures andfunctions

Describing words (colour, numbervalues in tens,cardinal

numbers from1-

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should beableto:

a)Usedescribingwords

totalkaboutcardinal numbers, shapesand colours.

b) Appreciate the use ofcolour, size and

number to describe nouns.

1)Whatthings

you see outside the classroom?

2)Whatcolour arethey?

1. Learners group

objectsaccordingto theirsize big/small, colour-red, orange, yellowand numbers.

2. Learners describe objectsinthe

classroomusing

size, colourand numbers.

3. Learners colour

picturesofvarious objects.

4. Learners identify

thingsin the environment that have different colours.

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs and models ofobjects with different coloursand sizes, audio-visual recordings of dialogueswith sentence structures on colours,sizesand shapes.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.107

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

Reading

Numbers and Our Classroom

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

withletter-sound /q/

/th/correspondence in preparation forphrasal

reading.

b)Respond to direct

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

thetitle tellus aboutthestory?

1. In smallgroups,

learners practice readingunfamiliar

Sentencescontaining

decodableand non- decodablewords.

2. Learners observe picturesand in

groups, discuss where

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographs, newspaper cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

and indirectquestions

fromthe text ‘Use my mobile Phone’ofabout

60 wordsinshort

simplesentencesto show comprehension. c)Observe basic punctuation marks (comma, fullstop and question marks asthey readforcoherence.

the action could be

happening, identify the people oranimals theycan see.

3. Learners read writings onthe

schoolwalls,posters and billboardsinthe surrounding

environment.

4. Learnersreador listentoa textthen answerquestions.

Grade1by

Oxford

Pg.108

Listening

and

Speaking

Numbers and Our Classroom

Pronunciation

and Vocabulary

Bythe end of the

sub strand, the learner should be ableto:

a) Talkaboutthe

picturesanddiscuss what theysee.

b) Pronouncethe words withthesounds/bl//fl/

/fr//gr//dr/ in

preparationforreading. c)Recognize new

words usedin the themes to acquirea range ofvocabulary

andtheirmeaning.

1. Which words

canwe getfrom thefollowing sounds?

/bl/ /gr/ /dr/

1. Learners

pronouncethesounds

/bl/ /gr/ /dr/by takingturns as

modeled bythe teacheroraudio

record.

2.. Learners are guided to getthe meaningofnew words bylookingat

pictures, froma story, and demonstration.

3.Learners practice matchingsimple shortwords with

picturesand objects.

4. Learners saywords beginningwitha common sound.

5. Learners use simple dialoguesto practisethe

Plasticine orclay

models of objects,realia, pictures/ photographs, charts, posters, computerdevices and flash cards bearingpictures oflearntwords.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.110-111

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

pronunciation of the

vocabulary.

Listening

and

Speaking

Numbers and Our Classroom

Language

Structures andfunctions

Describing words

size&shape

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Usedescribingwords

totalkaboutcardinal numbers, shapesand colours.

b)Describethe shapes, sizesofobjectsin the

classroomusing adjectives.

c) Appreciate the use ofcolour, size and number to describe

nouns.

1)Whatthings

you see outside the classroom?

2)Whatcolour arethey?

1. Learners construct

sentencesin pairs aboutthesize of differentobjects.

2. Learners describe objectsinthe

classroomusingsize, colourand numbers.

3. Learners colour

picturesofvarious objects.

4. Repeatsentence structures containing describingwords

froma story, poemor conversation they

havelistenedto.

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs and models ofobjects with different coloursand sizes, audio-visual recordings of dialogueswith sentence structureson colours,sizesand shapes.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg. 111

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

Reading

Numbers and Our Classroom

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

withletter-sound /bl/

/fr//fl//gr/

correspondence in preparation forphrasal

reading.

b)Respond to direct and indirectquestions fromthe text ‘Use my mobile Phone’ofabout

60 wordsinshort

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

thetitle tellus aboutthestory?

1. In smallgroups,

learners practice readingunfamiliar

Sentencescontaining

decodableand non- decodablewords.

2. Learners observe pictures and in

groups, discuss where the action could be happening, identify the people oranimals theycan see.

3. Learners read

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographs, newspaper cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.112

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

simple sentencesto

show comprehension. c)Observe basic punctuation marks (comma, fullstop and question marks asthey readforcoherence.

writings onthe

schoolwalls,posters and billboardsinthe surrounding environment.

4. Learnersreador listentoa textthen answerquestions.

Writing

Guided Writing

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto: a)Recognize the correct formand meaningof the

wordsto be usedin

fillingin gaps.

b)Copythesentences givencorrectly.

c)Copy theletter patternsQ,q, th,bl, fl, fr, gr, correctlyneatly andlegibly.

Which words

containthe letterpatterns bl, fr, gr?

1. Learners observe

andrespondto pictureprompts appropriately.

2. Learners practice writinglettersand

words fromleft

toright.

3. Learnerswritea three-word sentence usingtheprompts.

4. Learners are guided

in fillingin the gaps correctlyand

meaningfully.

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs that prompt learners to write.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg. 109&113

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

Listening

and

Speaking

Do Not

Waste

Pronunciation

and Vocabulary

Bythe end of the

sub strand, the learner should be ableto:

a) Talkaboutthe

picturesanddiscuss what theysee.

b) Pronouncethe words withthesounds/gl//fl/

/pl//cl/ /gr/ /dr//tr/in preparation forreading.

c)Recognize new

1. Which words

canwe getfrom thefollowing sounds?

/gl//fl//pl//cl/

/gr/ /dr/ /tr/

1. Learners

pronouncethesounds

//gl//fl//pl//cl//gr/

/dr//tr/ bytaking turns as modeled by

theteacheroraudio

record.

2.. Learners are guided to getthe meaningofnew words bylookingat

Plasticine orclay

models of objects,realia, pictures/ photographs, charts, posters, computerdevices and flash cards bearing.

picturesof learnt words.

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

words usedin the

themes to acquirea range ofvocabulary and theirmeaning.

pictures, froma story,

and demonstration.

3.Learners practice matchingsimple shortwords with pictures and objects.

4. Learners saywords beginningwitha common sound.

5. Learners use simple dialoguesto practisethe pronunciation of the vocabulary.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.114-115

Listening

and

Speaking

Do Not

Waste

Language structuresand

functions

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Useimperatives for

receivingand giving instructions/commands againstwastage.

b)Respond to specific instructionsfor effective oral communication.

c)Appreciate the use of imperatives.

1)Whatdoes

the

Policeofficer saywhen arrestinga criminal?

1. Learners listento a

shortdialogue containing

imperatives

2. Learners respond

to simple imperatives

3. Learners practice the useof familiar

imperatives inrole

play(parent-child)

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographsand models of common imperatives, audio-visual recordings of dialogueswith sentence structures on imperatives.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.115

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

Reading

Do Not

Waste

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

1. In smallgroups,

learners practice readingunfamiliar Sentencescontaining

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs, newspaper

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

withletter-sound /cl/

/pl//fl//gr/ correspondencein preparation forphrasal reading.

b)Respond to direct and indirectquestions

fromthe text ‘Use my

mobile Phone’ofabout

60 wordsinshort simple sentencesto show comprehension. c)Observe basic punctuation marks (comma, fullstop and question marks asthey readforcoherence.

thetitle tellus

aboutthestory?

decodableand non-

decodablewords.

2. Learners observe pictures and in

groups, discusswhere

theaction could be happening, identify the people oranimals theycan see.

3. Learners read writings onthe

schoolwalls,posters

and billboardsinthe surrounding environment.

4. Learnersreador listentoa textthen answerquestions.

cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.116

Listening and

Speaking

Do Not

Waste

Language structuresand functions

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Useimperatives for receivingand giving

instructions/commands againstwastage.

b)Respond to specific

instructionsfor effective oral communication. c)Recognise

imperatives in day todaycommunication.

1) Whatdoes

the

Policeofficer saywhen

arrestinga

criminal?

1. Learners listento a

shortdialogue containing

imperatives

2. Learners respond

to simple imperatives

3. Learners practice the useof familiar

imperatives inrole play(parent-child)

Realia, charts,

pictures/

photographs and models of

common

imperatives, audio-visual recordings of dialogueswith sentence structures on imperatives.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by

Oral

questions, portfolio,

observation

Oxford

Pg.118-119

Reading

Do Not

Waste

Comprehension

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto:

a)Read shortwords

withletter-sound /Pp/

/Bb/ /Tt//Kk/ /Qq/Gg/

/Ff/Vv//Ss//Jj/ /Mm/

/Nn/Ll//Rr/Ww/ /Yy/

correspondence in preparation forphrasal

reading.

b)Respond to direct and indirectquestions fromthe text ‘Use my mobile Phone’ofabout

60 wordsinshort simple sentencesto

show comprehension. c)Observe basic

punctuation marks

(comma, fullstop and question marks asthey

readforcoherence.

1. Whatdothe

picturestellus aboutthestory?

3)Whatdoes

thetitle tellus aboutthestory?

1. In smallgroups,

learnerspractice readingunfamiliar Sentencescontaining decodableand non- decodablewords.

2. Learners observe pictures and in

groups, discuss where the action could be

happening, identify the people oranimals

theycan see.

3. Learners read writings onthe

schoolwalls,posters and billboardsinthe

surrounding environment.

4. Learnersreador listentoa textthen answerquestions.

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs, newspaper cuttings.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook Grade1by Oxford

Pg.120

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

WRITING

Guided Writing

Do NotWaste

Bythe end of the sub

strand,thelearner should be ableto: a)Recognize the correct formand meaningof the

wordsto be usedin

fillingin gaps.

b)Copythesentences

Which words

containthe letterpatterns bl, fr, gr?

1. Learners observe

andrespondto pictureprompts appropriately.

2. Learners practice writinglettersand

words fromleft to

right.

3. Learners writea

Realia, charts,

pictures/ photographs that prompt learners to write.

NewProgressive PrimaryEnglish LearnersBook

Oral

questions, portfolio, observation

givencorrectly.

three-word sentence

usingtheprompts.

4. Learners are guided infillingin

thegapscorrectlyand meaningfully.

Grade1by

Oxford

Pg.117&121

ASSESMENT

Teachers' Resources

KISWAHILI LESSON PLANS FORM 2 FREE

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

MIPANGILIO YA VIPINDI/MASOMO MUHULA WA KWANZA KIDATO CHA PILI

JINA LA MWALIMU:…

NAMBARI LA TSC:

SHULE :MWAKA:

KIDATO CHA PILI SOMO LA KISWAHILI

MADA KUU: KUSOMA(UFAHAMU) MADA NDOGO :Ndugu majuu na wakazi wa kibabuu

WIKI:2NAMBARI LA SOMO:1

TAREHE :..WAKATI: DAKIKA 40

SHABAHA : Kufika mwisho wa somo mwanafunzi aweze;

kusoma kwa matamshi
kutumia msamiati na misemo kwa ufasaha
kujibu maswali kwa usahihi.

HATUA NA MUDA	YALIYOMO	SHUGHILI ZA MWALIMU NA MWANAFUNZI	NYENZO
UTANGULIZI (DAK.5)	Maamkizi Kupitia somo lililopita	Mwalimu na wanafunzi kuamkiana Maelezo mafupi,maswali na majibu kuhusu somo lililopita	Wanafunzi wenyewe Matini ya mwalimu
MWENDELEZO (DAK.30)	Mwalimu kuwaelekeza wanafunzi kusoma ufahamu, kutambua misamiati,misemo,methali na nahau na kuyapa maana kamili kulingana na ufahamu kisha wanafunzi kuyatumia katika utunzi wa sentensi ili kubainisha maana zao kikamilifu	Kusoma ufahamu kwa kina na mantiki Maswali na majibu baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi kuhusu ufahamu Majadiliano baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi Utunzi wa sentensi	Chemi chemi za Kiswahili 2 (uk 1-3) Kamusi ya misemo na nahau(k.w wamithila) Matini ya mwalimu Wanafunzi wenyewe
HITIMISHO (DAK.5)	Mwalimu kutoa maelezo mafupi kuhusu somo Zoezi kwa wanafunzi kuhusu somo	Maelezo mafupi, maswali na majibu kuhusu somo Wanafunzi kufanya zoezi	Chemi chemi za Kiswahili 2 (uk 1-3) Kamusi ya misemo na nahau(k.w wamithila) Matini ya mwalimu Wanafunzi wenyewe

JINA LA MWALIMU:..

.NAMBARI LA TSC:

SHULE :MWAKA:

KIDATO CHA PILI SOMO LA KISWAHILI

MADA KUU: KUSIKILIZA NA KUZUNGUMZA MADA NDOGO : Isimu jamii;

Majadiliano baina ya mwanafunzi na mwalimu

WIKI:2NAMBARI LA SOMO:2

TAREHE :.WAKATI: DAKIKA 40

SHABAHA : Kufika mwisho wa somo mwanafunzi aweze;

kuelezea sifa za mazungumzo shuleni
kuweza kuigiza mazungumzo baina ya mwalimu na mwanafunzi

HATUA NA MUDA	YALIYOMO	SHUGHILI ZA MWALIMU NA MWANAFUNZI	NYENZO
UTANGULIZI (DAK.5)	Maamkizi Kupitia somo lililopita	Mwalimu na wanafunzi kuamkiana Maelezo mafupi,maswali na majibu kuhusu somo lililopita	Wanafunzi wenyewe Matini ya mwalimu
MWENDELEZO (DAK.30)	Isimu jamii; Majadiliano baina ya mwalimu na mwanafunzi; Mwalimu kutoa maelezo ya maana ya isimu jamii na sifa za majadiliano baina ya mwalimu na mwanafunzi Mwalimu kuwaelekeza wanafunzi kusoma majadiliano baina ya mwalimu na mwanafunzi na wanafunzi kuweza kuigiza darasani.	Majadiliano baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi kuhusu sajili ya darasani Maelezo kutoka kwa mwalimu Majibu na maswali baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi Kusoma mazungumzo baina mwalimu na mwanafunzi Uigizaji wa mazungumzo hayo	Chemi chemi za Kiswahili 2 (uk 4-5) Matini ya mwalimu Wanafunzi wenyewe
HITIMISHO (DAK.5)	Mwalimu kutoa maelezo mafupi kuhusu somo Zoezi kwa wanafunzi kuhusu somo	Maelezo mafupi, maswali na majibu kuhusu somo Wanafunzi kufanya zoezi	Chemi chemi za Kiswahili 2 (uk 4-5) Matini ya mwalimu Wanafunzi wenyewe

JINA LA MWALIMU:..

.NAMBARI LA TSC:

SHULE :MWAKA:

KIDATO CHA PILI SOMO LA KISWAHILI

MADA KUU: SARUFI NA MATUMIZI YA LUGHA MADA NDOGO : Mofimu

WIKI:2NAMBARI LA SOMO:3

TAREHE :..WAKATI: DAKIKA 40

SHABAHA : Kufika mwisho wa somo mwanafunzi aweze;

kueleza maana ya mofimu na aina zake
kuweza kutambua mofimu katika maneno
kutaja maana mbalimbali zinazowakilishwa na mofimu

HATUA NA MUDA	YALIYOMO	SHUGHILI ZA MWALIMU NA MWANAFUNZI	NYENZO
UTANGULIZI (DAK.5)	Maamkizi Kupitia somo lililopita	Mwalimu na wanafunzi kuamkiana Maelezo mafupi,maswali na majibu kuhusu somo lililopita	Wanafunzi wenyewe Matini ya mwalimu
MWENDELEZO (DAK.30)	Mofimu; Mwalimu kutoa maelezo ya maana ya mofimu, aina za mofimu, kuonyesha mofimu katika maneno na kutaja maana mbalimbali zinazowakilishwa na mofimu Wanafunzi kusikiliza kwa makini na kuandika maelezo ya mwalimu	Majadiliano baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi Maelezo kuhusu somo kutoka kwa mwalimu Mazungumzo baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi Maswali na majibu baina ya mwalimu na wanafunzi Wanafunzi kuandika maelezo ya mwalimu	Chemi chemi za Kiswahili 2 (uk 6-8) Matini ya mwalimu Wanafunzi wenyewe
HITIMISHO (DAK.5)	Mwalimu kutoa maelezo mafupi kuhusu somo Zoezi kwa wanafunzi kuhusu somo	Maelezo mafupi, maswali na majibu kuhusu somo Wanafunzi kufanya zoezi	Chemi chemi za Kiswahili 2 (uk 6-8) Matini ya mwalimu Wanafunzi wenyewe

Teachers' Resources

FORM THREE TERM 2 MATHS EXAMS WITH ANSWERS IN PDF

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

ULTIMATE ACHIEVERS ACADEMY

Name: ………………………………………………………….. …Date: ……………Adm No: …………

FORM THREE TERM 2

TIME: 2 HOURS 30 MINUTES

MATHEMATICS

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

Write your name, class and Admission Number in the spaces provided above.
The paper consists of two sections. Section I and Section II.
Answer ALL the questions in Section I.
Answer only five questions only in Section II.
All answers and working must be written on the question paper in the spaces provided below each question.
Marks may be given for correct working even if the answer is wrong.
Negligence and slovenly work will be penalized
Non programmable silent electronic calculator and KNEC Mathematical tables may be used except where stated otherwise.

FOR EXAMINER’S USE ONLY

Section I

Question	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	TOTAL
Marks

Section II

Question	17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24	TOTAL
Marks

GRAND TOTAL

SECTION I (50 Marks)

Answer all the questions in this section.

Evaluate (3 marks)

By correcting each number to one significant figure, approximate the value of

(788 X 0.006).

Hence calculate the percentage error arising from this approximation (3 marks)

Three bells ring at intervals of 9 minutes, 15 minutes and 21 minutes. The bells will next ring together at 11.00pm. Find the time the bells had last rang together. (3 marks)

Solve for x in the equation below (4 marks)

Without using mathematical tables or calculator evaluate (3 marks)

Simplify (3 marks)

The figure below shoes two intersecting chords

Find the length of UT (4 marks)

Make h the subject of the formula (3 marks)

Determine the integral values of which satisfy the inequalities below.(3 marks)

Kambo bought a suit for Sh. 1200 and marked it at a price such that after allowing his customer a 10% discount, he would make a profit of 20%. Calculate the marked price of the suit. (3 marks)

Given that , without using mathematical table, express in fraction form the value of;

(1 mark)

(2 marks)

Given that evaluate (3 marks)

On a certain map an estate is represented by an area of 48cm². If the actual area of the estate is 1200 hectares, find the scale of the map in the form 1:n (3 marks)

In the figure below ABCD is a rhombus whose diagonals AC and BD meet at X. Given that AC = 27.6cm and BD = 16.2 cm, calculate the area of the rhombus. (3 marks)

The image of point (6, 4) is (3, 4) under a translation. Find the translation vector. (3 marks)

The initial cost of a ranch is sh. 5 000 000. At the end of three years the value of the ranch increases to 5 306 040. Calculate to one significant figure the value at which the ranch appreciates. (3 marks)

SECTION II (50 MARKS)

Answer any FIVE Questions ONLY from this section

Two shopkeepers Juma and Wanjiku bought some items from a wholesaler. Juma bought 18 loaves of bread, 40 packets of milk and 5 bars of soap while Wanjiku bought 15 loaves of bread, 30 packets of milk and 6 bars of soap. He prices of a loaf of bread, a packet of milk and a bar of soap were Ksh 45, Ksh 50 and Ksh 150 respectively.

Represent:
The number of items bought by Juma and Wanjiku using a matrix (1 mark)

The prices of items bought using matrix (2 marks)

Use the matrices in (a) above to determine the total expenditure incurred by each person and hence the difference in their expenditure. (3 marks)

Juma and Wanjiku also bought rice and sugar. Juma bought 36kg of rice and 23kg of sugar and paid Kshs 8160. Wanjiku bought 50kg 0f rice and 32 kg of sugar and paid Kshs 11340. Use the matrix method to determine the price of one kilogram of rice and one kilogram of sugar. (5 marks)

The diagram below represents a steel girder used in construction work. The cross – section consists of a rectangle measuring 20cm by 14cm from which two similar semi – circles have been removed. The girder is 5m long and is made of steel whose density is 8.5g/cm³.

Calculate:
The cross – sectional area of the girder. (3 marks

The mass of the girder in kilograms. (4 marks)

The removed semi – circular troughs are filled with concrete whose density is 5.5g/cm³. Calculate the mass of concrete used to fill the removed parts of the girder. (3 marks)

(Take π = )

A country bus left town A at 11.45am and travelled towards town Bat an average speed of 60km/hr. A matatu left town B at 1.15pm on the same day and travelled along the same road at an average speed of 90km/hr. The distance between the two towns is 540km.

Determine:

The time of the dsy when the two vehicles met. (4 marks)

How far from town A they met. (2 marks

How far outside town B the bus was when the matatu reached town A, (4 marks)

Two lines L₁ whose equation is and L₂ whose equation is intersect at point A.

Find the coordinates of point A. (3 marks)

A third line L₃ is perpendicular to L₂ at point A. find the equation of L₃ in the form , where area constants.(3 marks)

Another line L₄ is parallel to L₁ and passes through. Find x and y intercepts of line L₄. (4 marks)

In June of a certainyear, an employee’s basic salary was Ksh 17 000. The employee was also paid a house allowance of Ksh 6 000, a commuter allowance of Ksh 2 500 and a medical allowance of Ksh 1 800. In July that year, the employee’s basic salary was raised by 2%.

Calculate the employee’s:
Basic salary in July. (2 marks)

Total taxable in the July of that year (2 marks)

In that year, the taxable income tax rates were as shown in the table below.

Monthly taxable income (Kshs)

Percentage rate of tax per shilling

Up to 9680

From 9681 to 18 800

From 18 801 to 27 920

From 27 921 to 37 040

From 37 041 and above

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Given that the monthly personal relief was Ksh 1056, calculate the net tax paid by the employee. (6 marks)

In the triangle XYZ below line XY = 3cm, YZ = 4cm and XZ = 3.5 cm.

Calculate:

Angle ZXY (4 marks)

Angle XYZ (2 marks)

Angle XZY (1 mark)

Calculate the area of the triangle XYZ to four significant figures. (3 marks)

The 2^nd and the 5^th terms of an arithmetic progression are 8 and 17 respectively. The 2^nd, the 10^th and the 42^nd terms of the arithmetic progression form the first three terms of a geometric progression. Find:

The first term and the common difference of the arithmetic progression. (3 marks)

The first three terms of the geometric progression and the 5^th term of the geometric progression. (4 marks)

The sum of the first 4 terms of the geometric progression. (3 marks)

By taking integral values of x, from x = – 2, to x=6 make a table of values for the function (2marks)

On the same axes and using the scale of 1cm to 1 unit on the x-axis and 1cm to 5 units on the y–axis draw graphs of and (4marks)

From your graph;
Find the roots of the equations (1mark)

Write down the maximum value of (1mark)

Deduce the roots of the equation (2marks)

MATHEMATICS Form 3

MARKING SCHEME

SECTION I

WORKING

MARKS

GUIDELINES

3	21	15	9
3	7	5	3
5	7	5	1
7	7	1	1
	1	1	1

thus

Ignoring negative answer

Integral values

10.

11.

(a)

(b)

12.

Numerator:

Denominator

13.

M₁

A₁

14.

M1M1

15.

16.

SECTION II

WORKING

MARKS

GUIDELINES

17.

(a) (i)

(ii)

(b)

Juma = sh 3560

Wanjiku = sh 3075

Difference = 3560 – 3075 = 485

(c)

For both answers

18.

(a) (i)

(ii)

(b)

19.

(a) Time before the matatu started

= 13.15 – 11.45 =

Distance covered by the bus =

Distance between them =

Relative speed =

Time taken to meet =

Time they met = 1.15pm + 3 hours = 4.15pm

(b) Distance from town A to the point of meeting

Time =

Distance from A =

(c) Time taken by the matatu from B to A

The matatu reaches A = 13.15pm +6hrs = 1915hrs

Time travelled by the bus when the matatu reaches A

1915hrs – 1145hrs =

Distance moved by bus from A =

Distance outside town B

20.

(a)

Solving simultaneously

(b)

, (x ,y)

(c)

21.

(a) (i)

(ii)

(b)

Total tax = 4104

Net tax =

= 3048

22.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

23.

(a)

(b)

Geometric progression

(c)

24.

x	-2	-1	1	2	3	4	5	6
12x	-24	-12	12	24	36	48	60	72
-3x²	-12	-3	-3	-12	-27	-48	-75	-108
y	-36	-15	9	12	9	0	-15	-36

2 mks for correct table

y = 5 ( x – 2 )

y = 5 x – 10

x	0	2	5
y	-10	0	15

i) roots of 3 x ( 4 – x) = ) are x = 0, x = 4

ii) Maximum value of y = 3x ( 4 – x ) when x = 2 , y = 12

the maximum value of y = 12

iii) roots of equation 3x ( 4 – x ) = 5 ( x – 2 ) is where the curve cuts the line

y = 5 (x -2 )

The roots arc x = -1 and x = 3.3 ± 0.1

B1B1

Table

üB1 for both values of x

Teachers' Resources

FORM 2 CHEMISTRY OPENER EXAM FREE

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

CHEMISTRY

FORM 2 TERM OPENER EXAM

TIME:2 HOURS

NAME:…………………………………………………………………………….CLASS;……………..ADM;…………

From the following list of compunds;zinc oxide,solid carbon (IV) oxide,sodium carbonate,nitric (V) acid,iron (III) chloride;

(i)Identify two that sublime.(2 mks)

(ii)Identify a pair that react to form salt and water only.(2 mks)

(iii)Write a word equation for the reaction between sodium carbonate and nitric (V) acid.(1 mk)

In an experiment to investigate the percentage of oxygen in air,200cm³ of air was passed over heated copper turning repeatedly until a constant volume of air remained.160 cm³ of air remained at the end of the experiment.

(i)Name one gas remaining in the 160 cm³ of air.(1 mk)

(ii)Determine the percentage of air used up during the experiment.(2 mks)

(iii)What observation would be made during the experiment.(1 mk)

(iv)Write a word equation for the reaction between copper and oxygen.(1 mk)

Name the best method to use to separate the following mixtures.(4 mks)

(i)Common salt and water.

(ii)Coloured dyes in ethanol.

(iii)Ammonium chloride and sodium chloride.

(iv)Ethanol and water.

Study the set up below and answer the questions that follow.

(a)Identify gas X.(1 mk)

(b)Name the method used to collect gas X and give the property of the gas that enables it to be collected using the method.(2 mks)

(c)Write a word equation for the reaction liberating gas X.(1 mk)

(d)Why is not advisable to use the following in this method of preparing hydrogen;

(i)Calcium and dilute sulphuric acid(1 mk)

(ii)Zinc and Nitric (V) acid.(1mk)

(e)What is the purpose of anhydrous calcium chloride in the U-tube?(1mk)

(f)Name another compound that could serve the same purpose as anhydrous calcium chloride.(1 mk)

When magnesium is burnt in air,it reacts with oxygen and nitrogen gas giving a white ash.Write two equations for the two reactions that take place.(2 mks)

The diagram below was used to investigate the action of water on calcium metal.

(a)Identify gas R.(1 mk)

(b)The remaining solution in the beaker changes red litmus paper to blue.What does this suggest about the resulting solution.(1 mk)

(c)Write a word equation for the reaction.(1 mk)

(d)What would be observed if Carbon(IV)oxide is bubbled through the solution.(1 mk)

7 .a) Name the particles that are found in an atom.(3 mks)

b)Atoms are said to be electrically neutral.Explain.(2 mks)

c)Element Q has 18 neutrons and a mass number of 34.

i)How many protons are present in element Q?(1 mk)

(ii)Write the electron arrangement of element Q.(1 mk)

(iii)To which period and group does Q belong?Explain your answer.(2 mks)

8.(a)In an experiment to investigate what happens when steam is passed over heated magnesium,wet sand or cotton wool soaked in water is heated first before heating magnesium.Why is it necessary?(1 mk)

(b) Write a word equation for the reaction between magnesium and steam.(1 mk)

(c)Write a word equation for the reaction between iron and steam.(1 mk)

9.(a)What is the chemical name of rust?(1 mk)

(b)A form one student in attempt to stop rusting put copper and magnesium in contact with iron as shown.

(i)The set ups were left outside for two weeks.Where did rusting occur?Explain.(2 mks)

(ii)Name the method used by the student to prevent rusting.(1mk)

(iii)How does painting prevent rusting?(1 mk)

10.State the use of the following apparatus as used in the laboratory.

(a)Pipe-clay triangle(1 mk)

(b)Desiccator(1 mk)

(c)Wire gauze(1 mk)

11.The diagram below represents a set up for the laboratory preparation of oxygen gas.

Name solid R.(1 mk)

(ii)Write a word equation for the reaction in the flask.(1 mk)

(iii)How can one test for oxygen gas?(2 mks)

(iv)Give two commercial uses of oxygen gas.(2 mks)

A student was supplied with a colourless liquid suspected to be water.

(i) Describe one test that could be carried out to show that the liquid was water.(2 mks)

(ii)How could it have been shown that the liquid was pure water?(1 mk)

When a student was stung by a stinging nettle plant,a teacher applied an aqueous solution of ammonia to the affected area of the skin and the student was relieved of pian.Explain.(2 mks)

A mixture of magnesium powder and lead (II)oxide will react vigorously when heated but no reaction occurs when a mixture of magnesium oxide and lead powder are heated.

(a)Explain the observations above.(2 mks)

(b)Write a word equation for the reaction between magnesium and lead(II) oxide.(1 mk)

(c)From (b) above,identify the;(i)oxidised substance.(1 mk)

(ii)oxidizing agent.(1 mk)

(iii)what name is given to such a reaction?(1 mk)

15.Classify the following as either physical or chemical changes.(5 mks)

Freezing of beer

(b)Rusting of iron

(c)Heating of glass until it melts

(d)Burning a candle.

(e)Heating copper(II)nitrate

CHEMISTRY FORM 2 OPENER EXAMS MARKING SCHEMES

MARKING SCHEME (70 mks)

(1) Solid carbon (iv) oxide ,iron (III) chloride

(ii) zinc oxide and nitric (v) acid

2.Nitrogen or inert gases

(ii) 200-160/200*100=40/200X100=20%

(iii) Brown copper turnings turned black copper(II) oxide

iv) copper +Oxygen ———> Copper (II) oxide

(3i) Simple distillation

ii) chromatography

iii) Sublimation

iv) Fractional distillation

4 a) Hydrogen

b) upward delivery/download displacement of air

Hydrogen gas is less denser than air

C) Zinc +dilute hydrochloric acid ———->zinc chloride +hydrogen gas

d I)Formation of an insoluble coating layer of calcium sulphate that prevents further reaction from taking place

(ii) Nitric (v) acid oxidises hydrogen gas formed to water

e) Acts as a drying agent
f) Concentrated sulphuric (vi) acid

5.Magnesium + Oxygen ——–>Magnesium Oxide

Magnesium + nitrogen ——–> Magnesium nitride

(6) Hydrogen gas

b) it is basic in nature

(d) A white precipitate will be formed.

a) Electrons

Protons

Neutrons

b)Atoms have equal number of protons and electrons.Protons are positively charged while electrons are negatively charged thus electrically neutral.

c)i)34-18=16

ii)2.8.6

iii)Period 3-has three occupied energy levels

Group VI-has 6 electrons in the outermost energy level

a)To generate steam

b)Magnesium + steam —–>Magnesium oxide + hydrogen gas

c)Iron + steam ———-> Tri-iron tetra oxide + hydrogen gas

9.a)Hydrated iron (III) oxide

b)(i)Set up(i).This is because iron is more reactive than copper hence iron reacted with water. and oxygen.

(ii)Sacrificial protection

(iii)Painting cuts off oxygen gas and moisture from coming into contact with iron metal.

10.a) To hold the crucible during heating

b)Used for drying or keeping substances free from moisture.

c)Used for even distribution of heat when heating substances in beakers or flasks.

11.i)Sodium peroxide

ii)Sodium peroxide + water ——–>sodium hydroxide + oxygen gas

iii) Using a glowing splint.Oxygen relights a glowing splint.

iv) Used in hospitals by patients with breathing difficulties.

Used by deep sea divers and high mountain climbers.

12) A liquid suspected to be water turns white anhydrous Copper (II) sulphate to blue hydrated copper (II) Sulphats turns blue Cobalt (II) chloride papper to pink

ii) The purity of water can be tested by checking whether it boils at 100 oC

13) The product from stinging nettle plant is acidic hence aqueous ammonia solution being basic neutralizes the acidic product

14) Magnesium is more reactive than lead hence has a higher affinity of oxygen.It reduces lead (II) oxide to lead.Lead is less reactive than Magnesium thus can not displace oxygen in Magnesium Oxide.

(b) Magnesium + lead (II) oxide ——- Magnesium Oxide + lead

c) Magnesium

(ii) Lead

(iii) Redox reaction

15a) Physical

(b) Chemical

(d) Chemical

(e) Chemical

Teachers' Resources

ENGLISH PP3 FORM 4 KASSU JOINT EXAMINATION TEST PLUS ANSWERS

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Name……………………………………………………Index Number………………………………Class……………

Adm. No……………………….Date…………………………….

101/3

ENGLISH

PAPER 3 (Creative Writing and Essay based on Set Texts)

TIME: 2 ½ HOURS

SUNSHINE SECONDARY SCHOOL

(Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education)

Instructions to candidates:

Write your name, admission number, class, index number and date in the spaces provided below.
Answer three questions only.
Questions one and two are compulsory. Choose only one question from question three.
Each of your essays must not exceed 450 words.
Write legibly and neatly in blue ink.

For Examiner’s use only.

Question	*Maximum Score*	Student’s Score
1.	20
2.	20
3.	20
Total	60

This paper consists of 8 printed pages. Ensure no page is missing.

Imaginative Composition(Compulsory) (20 marks)

Either

Write a story which ends with the following words:

“… I knew it was just a matter of time before it was unearthed.” Or

b) The use of the social media platform should be regulated. Write a composition for or against

this proposition.

The Compulsory Set Text: The Caucasian Chalk Circle, Bertolt Brecht (20 marks)

Justice is only just when it serves people who deserve it. Write an essay in support of the above statement drawing illustrations on The Caucasian Chalk Circle.

The Optional Set Texts (20 marks)
Memories we Lost and other Short stories

Travelers are sometimes subjected to pathetic travelling conditions in Third World cities. Drawing illustrations from Benjamin Branoff’s ‘Window Seat’, write an essay to support this statement.

Betrayal in the City, Francis Imbuga

Those in power apply various means to silence their critics. Support this statement basing your illustrations from Francis Imbuga’s Betrayal in the City.

The Pearl, John Steinbeck

Coexistence is paramount to survival in any society. Justify this statement using illustrations from The Pearl by John Steinbeck.

PAPER 3

MARKING SCHEME

(a) Must be a story, if not deduct up to 4 marks AD

Should present a scenario where a character that is generous or offer assistance is finally rewarded in some way

(b) Must be a story, if not deduct up to 4 marks

Should present a scenario where a character from a poor background finally becomes successful

CLASS MARKS CATEGORY

EACH ESSAY

A A+	19-20
A	18
A-	16-17
B B+	14-15
B	13
B-	11-12
C C+	09-10
C	08
C-	06-07
D D+	04-05
D	03
D-	00-02

MARKING SYMBOLS

The main signs indicate three degrees of seriousness of error.

GROSS ERROR OMISSION FORCONSTRUCTION IN MARGIN

(b) MINOR ERROR OMISSION MINOR CONSRTRUCTION ERROR

(c)MINOR OR POSSIBLE ERROR

This sign in the margin is used only when a construction error effects more than one line.

FAULTY PARAGRAPHING

worddddddddd

REPETITION -(of words ) a circle around the word\(of ideas)

R ^{usually in the margin}

ILLEGIBILITY

Obscure/vague (in margin)

VAGUENESS

WRONG WORD ORDER Underline once and write W.O in margin

ILLOGICAL or contradictory ILL (in margin)

BROKEN ENGLISH when the candidate fails to communicate BR in margin

FOR PURPOSES OF IDENTIFICATION

COW to indicate that a candidate has used a pencil to make a correction

BRACKETS [ ] indicate a part of a d script that communicates

* Use an asterisk to indicate an item or a sentence that the rubrics indicate should be used

II TO INDICATE AN ITEM OF MERIT use a tick(Ö) either above a word or in the margin for the whole sentence.

GROSS ERRORS

Almost any error of agreement
elementary errors of sentence construction
Ridiculous use of idiom that affects communication
Misuse of common prepositions
Misuse of capital letters – Use CAPS underline the first page and use
CAPS on subsequent pages where the mistake persists

MARKING NORMAL SCRIPTS

Decide on the degree of communication achieved ,A-D
After underlining decide on the mark category
Allocate a numerical mark to the essay

PROBLEM SCRIPTS………………………………………….

All problem scripts must be marked by the examiner and then set to the Tea leader with comments

IRRELELVANCY,/

Consistent distorted of question version of question, writing on a totally different subject with a clumps attempt at connecting the essay to the subject given, inclusion of memorized passages, etc.
The question is given an unacceptable or questionable interpretation
Essays contain long, semi- relevant digressions or lack coherence

ACTION

The examiner marks the essay, gives a linguistic mark and comment on the nature of the irrelevancy

The essay is then passed over to the team leader who judges whether the irrelevancy should be judged as a deliberate attempt to deceive or should be attributed to the candidate’s poor understanding of the subject. Deduct up to 4 marks for irrelevancy in the essay. If dishonesty is suspected, the Chief examiner should be informed. Any deduction of 3marks or more should be referred to the Chief Examiner

CONTRAVENTION OF RUBRIC

Since the rubrics may change from year, the POINTS OF INTERPRETATION that are of this MARKING SCHEME must be consulted and adhered to faithfully. Here are some general rules that usually apply.

SCRIPTS THAT DO NOT COMMUNICATE (Broken language)

Decide on the category D+ D or D-
Mark the error on the first page of the essay
Read the other pages, if the essay still does not communicate , draw a diagonal line across each page.
Team leaders should look at a good number of those script and ensure that the mark given is fair.

BREVITY
It should be remembered that the main quality of an essay is how effectively it communicates. If an essay looks too short, the examiner should take the time to count the exact number of words

KENYAN ENGLISH

Agood number of words and expressions are understood and currently used by all Kenyans. They can be used in essays without any need for quotation marks or explanations. We can include among those Pnga, rungu ,shamba , murrain, matatu

Wananchi, ugali, madadrasa, harambee , matoke

Maendeleo ya Wanawake , salaam aya, askari

Debe, duka ,Nyayo, boma sukumawiki, goal party, manyatta.magendo

AMERICAN SPELLING

Although “English” spelling is more common than American” spelling in Kenya, examiner should accept both spelling and no penalty should be given for such various. Penalize for lack of consistency in usage of either

2 COMPULSORY TEXT- THE CAUCASIAN CHALK CIRCLE

Introduction

Everyone in life gets what is due to them depending on the effort they make and their commitment towards achieving ascertain end. People who refuse to take responsibility end up losing what they would have benefitted from.

(Accept any other relevant introduction) = 2 marks.

Introduction should confirm that the candidate understands the question.

It can be – A paraphrase

-An outline

-Contextualized

The candidate must show a point of interpretation of the question.

i)Identify the incident / circumstance.

ii) The conflict around it / contention.

iii) How one character / one party are better suited to get the things / receive the favor than the other.

Example.

The conflict between the fruit farmers and the goat herders.

The fruit farmers want the valley, the goat herders previously occupied, to put it to greater production.

The goat herders are demanding their valley back after the war.

However the fruit farmers win the day and get the valley for the simple reason;

-That they had grand plans for that valley.

-They planned to build a dam across the mountain lake that would enable them water 100 acres of infertile land.

-With that the farm could not only grow more fruits but would also support vineyards thus they needed the valley to put the plans to action.

-This plan would also benefit the good herders in the food production.

In this case the fruit farmers deserve the valley for they would put it to good use.

Grusha and not Natella deserve to keep Michael.

Natella is Michael’s biological mother but Grusha is the one who shows concern and takes great risks for the child in ensuring his security (from the Iron shirts) and his general welfare.

Natella, the biological mother forgot her own and only heir in her escape from Nuka. Which mother does that?

As if that wasn.t gross enough, she comes back to claim Michael for the sole purpose of accessing the vast wealth Georgi had put under Michael.

Grusha will not give up the baby without a fight.

When the case is brought before Judge Azdak Natella pulls the child out of the circle because she wants to win at whatever cost.

Grusha will not dare harm the child and refuses to pull him out of the chalk circle.

The judge rules in favour of Grusha because she is best suited to keep the child. She is motherly in every way and will nurture the child unlike his mother. So the child is left in the hands of the one who will bring out the best in the child.

Between Simon and Jussup, Simon is best suited to be with Grusha.

Simon before going off to war makes a promise to Grusha that he will come back and even gives her a cross as evident of their engagement. Though he stays long at war, he eventually does come back to Grusha.

A promise is fulfilled Jussup, buy unlikely circumstances marries Grusha. He is harsh on her and constantly keeps at her.

When Michael is taken by the Iron shirts back to Nuka, Simon follows her and stays with her throughout.

He is even willing to testify that the child, Michael, is his just to save and help Grusha keep Michael.

So, when judge Adzak “mistakenly” divorces Grusha instead of the old couple, we say that it is all for the best for Simon was good by Grusha unlike Jussup who harassed her all the time. It is also not lost to us that Grusha herself loves Simon and not Jussup when she get married to for convenience. So, she should go to Simon.

Azdak deserves to be judge and not prince Kazbeki.s nephew. The nephew, being fronted by Kazbeki who has just executed his own brother, G.B the governor if made judge would like his predecessors, just serve the rich Azdak on the other hand proves to be the savior of the poor neglected Glusinians.

Thus he deserved to be the judge for he would change the status que and offer respite to the poor.

Introduction -2

3: 3: 3:3 -12

Conclusion -2 Language 4

3 C) THE PEARL by JOHN STEINBECK

Introduction

Human beings desire to be wealthy they always think that happiness and wealth are directly related. This is not true according the Pearl by JOHN STEINBECK as the pearl thought to bring happiness brings nothing but trouble

Body

The pearl buyers blackmail. As the Kinos march towards the town, the villagers join them but only one man walks close to Kino, his brother, Juan Tomas. This is done due to seriousness of the occasion. Kino and Tomas are worried about the possibility of the pearl dealer cheating them of the true value of the pearl. But it appears there is no other way they can go around it. The pearls dealers have colluded to get konos pearl at a lower price. The first buyer quotes a thousand pesos. The second buyer asks to be excluded in the discussion because the pearl is monstrosity. The third one says the pearl will soon loss its color and the fourth offers a paltry five hundred pesos. In disgust, Kino snatches his pearl from the fourth buyer’s hand

After kino succeeds to get the pearl from his wife who wants to throw it into the sea, he is attacked by the dark ones and ransacked. His attackers are searching for the pearl which he has just saved from his wife. He assaults his wife and kills a man. His violence reaches beastly proportion…..”He was an animal now, for attacking and he lived only to preserve himself and his family”….pg 87

The trackers persuit.Kino wakes up with a start and investigates their surrounding only to discover trackers pursuing them. One is on his horseback. He chooses to take his family up the mountain; the desperate attempt to cover as much distance as possible before the trackers make the obvious hiding place .The music of evil in his ears becomes more ominous. The pearl that has been declared worthless by the dealers is indeed priceless and one of its own kind in the world hence the greedy and malicious intent to grab it.

Doctors interests on the pearl. Kino promises to pay the medical bill after selling his pearl. The doctor feigning ignorance asks if he truly has a pearl in his safety. Kino will not part with his pearl .Already sensing that kino has hidden the pearl somewhere inside the earthen floor; the door looks at kinos eyes intensely during conversion.

Coyotito’s death. The trackers camp by the pool and sleep in turns .One keeping sentry as others rest. Kino decides to attack his enemies instead of allowing them to find him and his family at dawn He plans to attack them under the cover of darkness before the bright moon shows up unfortunately Coyotito utters a little cry which alerts the trackers and one of them fires into the cave with a rifle hitting the baby and killing it. Kino kills the three trackers in brief but dramatic moments of sheer madness.

CONCLUSION

Kinos family finds the pearl being a curse instead of being a curse instead of being a blessing as they thought about it earlier but the opposite happens. It brings sorrow and suffering. It is true wealth can be a curse instead of being a blessing.

3a.MEMORIES WE LOST AND OTHER STORIES

Introduction

A family with a sick member goes through a lot of challenges. Others members of the family are involved in a lot of activities in order to care and treat the sick person. It involves a lot of sacrifice and patience practiced by the members of the family. This is clearly seen in the short story, memories we lost by lidudu malingani mqombothi in memories we lost and other short stories from east Africa.

Causes panic. The narrators sister suffers from an incurable disease known as schizophrenia; a serious disease mental illness in which someone thoughts and feelings are not based on what is really happening around them .she runs away from home one night, screaming waking up everyone and sending them into panic .Despite their frenzied and frightened search for her, the search parties return empty handed. It is only the girl’s mother who manages to bring the sister back later on in the morning.

The narrator describes horrifying incidents when the condition gets the better or her sister. One such incident was when she cracks her head against the wall of their house leaking it bleeding.

Causes others suffering The narrator also describes another incident when her ill sister throws a pot of searing hot porridge in her direction severely burning her chest she has to quickly remove her dress to prevent further damage.

Causes desperation and hopelessness .Narrators mother takes the child to medicine men called sangomas and churches to have the conditions exercised to no avail .Rituals are held to get rid of the condition which involve slaughtering a goat and prayers by both sangomas and pastors .Then the mother and her uncle referred to as smelly foot plan to take the narrators sister to another medicine malled called nzuki to bake her over a fire to rid of the condition.

The family members suffer trauma .The narrators sister sneaks her sister out of their homestead to an unknown place .She avoid public scrutiny as they flee by travelling on less frequently used paths and at night. She refuses to attend school until her sister gets better .She keeps her sister company when other people are afraid of her

Conclusion

The family members go through a lot of sufferings as a result of a sick member in the family. They end up doing the unthinkable in order to help the ill member

Teachers' Resources

Free Computer Studies notes, revision questions, KCSE past Papers, Exams, Marking Schemes, Topical revision materials, Syllabus and Many more

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Computer Studies is an Applied & Technical Subject that is examined by the Kenya National Examinations Council, Knec. The subject is elective for students sitting the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education, KCSE. Computer studies comprises of three (3) papers. These are: Computer Studies Paper One (451/1) that is a theory paper and Computer Studies Paper Two (451/2) which is a Practical examination. On the other hand, Computer Paper three (451/3) is a project based examination.

FOR A COMPLETE GUIDE TO ALL SCHOOLS IN KENYA CLICK ON THE LINK BELOW;

SCHOOLS’ NEWS PORTAL

To sharpen computer studies skills and gain requisite knowledge a lot of reading is desired. Sine the world has moved to utilization of digital technology, it is thus prudent that one acquires Computer studies resources in electronic format.

Here are links to the most important news portals:

Get unlimited resources for all subjects by clicking on this link; Teachers’ Resources Hub.

ou can at the same time get unlimited resources for all subjects by clicking on this link; Teachers’ Resources Hub.

AVAILABLE DIGITAL COMPUTER STUDIES RESOURCES

Available digital resources include: English Grammar notes, Set books’ guides, poetry notes, KCSE Past Papers, Schemes of Work, Assignments, Termly examination papers, Marking schemes, lesson plans, Practical Guides, topical revision resources and many more. Click on the links below to open, download and even print the available computer resources:

Also read:

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Mwalimu National Sacco members to now get reduced loans

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Mwalimu National Sacco has reviewed the loans’ lending rates for members. In the latest move, members’ loan borrowing ability will be limited.

Members of the Sacco have been enjoying increased borrowing ability following the Pay As You Earn, PAYE, tax relief of 5% at the onset of the Covid pandemic. The waiver was granted by President Uhuru Kenyatta to cushion citizens against the adverse effects of COVID- 19 and is to cease by 31st December 2020.

“We do, therefore, notify all our esteemed members on revision of our lending terms that the tax relief will not be used as part of borrowing ability for all our credit facilities effective 12th October, 2020. This policy change ensures that, members borrow within the two-third of the salary allowable deduction as required by the law and our organization’s By-laws.” Says Mwalimu National Sacco Chief Executive Officer, Alphonse Kaio via a circular dated October 9, 2020.

Kaio says the latest move will ‘also forestall the likelihood of Non-Performing loans that could pose a challenge to our financial performance.’

“The change on lending terms will be applicable on all loans and advance forms, received by the Society with effect from 12th October 2020.” He adds.

Download Free 2022 KCPE and KPSEA Knec Exam Papers Plus Marking Schemes

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

2022 KCPE and KPSEA Knec Exam Papers Plus Marking Schemes

KIS 2022 KPSEA.pdf
MAT 2022 KCPE.pdf
ENG 2022 KPSEA.pdf
science KCPE 2022.pdf
KISWAHILI KCPE 2022 NOVEMBER.pdf
MAT 2022 KPSEA.pdf
INT SCI 2022 KPSEA.pdf
KCPE 2022 November 30th.pdf
KCPE MATHEMATICS 2022.pdf

Teachers' Resources

ENGLISH FORM FOUR LESSON PLANS

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1

SCHOOL:_______________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: ______________CLASS: ___

DATE: ______________ DAY: _____________ WEEK: _________ .LESSON: ____

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/Oral Narratives

SUB-TOPIC: Human Tales

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read a human tale presented and answer questions on it.
Give the features and functions of human tales.

T/LEARNING RESOURCES: Samples of human tales, audio presentation of human tales

REFERENCES: ORAL LITERATURE FOR SCHOOLS

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Tells a story set in the modern world about people. (b) Asks students to identify the main character and their role. (c) Tells the learners that they will be learning human tales.	(a) Listens to the story. (b) Identifies the main character and its role. (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Explains the features and functions of the human tales. 2. Issues a handout containing human tale. 3. Asks students some questions on the tale. 4. Asks students to give the functions and features of the tale just read.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes too. 2. Reads the tale. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the features and function of the read tale..
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(a) Asks students to give the functions of human tales. (b) Asks learners to state the features of human tales.	(a) Gives the functions of human tales. (b) States the features of human tales.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Oral Narratives

Human Tales

COMMENTS:

__________________________________________________________________________

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2020

SCHOOL: _______________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2020 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Turn Taking

SUB-TOPIC: Violations in Turn Taking

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the common turn taking violations.
Identify these violations in the conversations carried out in class.

T/L RESOURCES: Video presentation of turn-taking

REFERENCES: New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG 146, Head Start English Bk 4 pg 21-22

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks students the various ways of achieving smooth turn taking. b) Tells them that they will be learning turn taking violations.	a) States the various ways of achieving smooth turn taking. b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Defines turn taking violations. 2. Asks students to suggest some violations in turn taking. Refers them to what they have discussed in the previous lessons. 3. Plays the audio. 4. Asks students to identify the turn taking violations evident in the audio. 5. Groups the learners and asks them to hold a short discussion. Key is the use of turn taking violations.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Suggests some turn taking violations. 3. Listens to the audio. 4. Identifies the violations. 5. Holds a short discussion.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	a) Asks some students to mention turn taking violations from the role plays. b) Asks the students to suggest solutions to the violations.	a) Mentions the violations. b) Suggests solutions to the violations.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Turn Taking

Violations in Turn Taking

COMMENTS:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: _______________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/Oral Narratives

SUB-TOPIC: Devices used in Story Telling

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the story telling devices a narrator use during a live performance.
Discuss how they would perform selected sections of the narrative read.

T/L RESOURCES: Narrative to be read, PowerPoint presentation of devices used in story telling

REFERENCES:

Studying Oral Literature pg 14-18

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students how storytellers usually make their stories captivating to the audience. (b) Tells the learners that a story becomes captivating when the storytellers employs the (a) above.	(a) Explains how the storytellers usually make their stories captivating to the audience. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Explains some devices used by narrators. 2. Asks students to explain other devices. 3. Issues a handout containing a narrative. 4. Asks students in group to discuss the devices to use in telling the story read. 5. Asks a group to recount the story using the devices discussed.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes too. 2. Explains other devices. 3. Reads the narrative. 4. Discusses the devices. 5. Retells the story.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(a) Asks students to explain the storytelling devices used by the narrator during a live performance. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Explains the storytelling devices. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Oral Narratives

Devices used in Story Telling

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: _______________________________________________ TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Negotiation Skills

SUB-TOPIC: Stages of Negotiation

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Outline the stages of negotiation.
Follow the steps outlined to carry negotiation on various situations.

T/L RESOURCES: Items to be bought during the role play, video demonstration of stages in negotiation

REFERENCES: New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG

Head Start English Bk 4 pg102-103

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	a) Asks students whether they have ever haggled over the price of things at the market. b) Tells them the process of reaching the price agreeable is negotiation. c) Asks students to state other situations in which agreements can be reached while avoiding disputes.	a) Says whether or not they have bargained. b) Listens and takes notes. c) Mentions: · Haggling over the price of a dress. · Increasing salary/better conditions · resolving conflicts
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Explains some situations mentioned by students in part 1. 2. Outlines the stages in negotiation. 3. Groups the learners. Asks them to discuss a situation that involves negotiation. 4. Asks a pair to haggle over the prices of the items brought. 5. Asks students to identify the stages in the negotiation.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Listens and takes notes. 3. Discusses the situation. 4. Haggles over the price. 5. Identifies the stages and award the pair marks.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	a) Asks students to outline the stages in negotiation. b) Writes an exercise.	a) Outlines the stages. b) Writes the exercise in their exercise book.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Negotiation Skills

Stages of Negotiation

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: _______________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/ Oral Poetry

SUB-TOPIC: Religious Poetry

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read a religious song presented and answer questions on it.
Explain the features and functions of religious songs.

T/L RESOURCES: Songs to be read, audio presentation of a religious oral poem

REFERENCES: Studying Oral Lit pg 68

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Defines oral poetry. (b) Asks learners to give types of oral poetry. (c) Tells them that they will be learning religious poetry.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Gives: · Love poetry · Work poetry · Religious poetry (c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1) Explains some features of religious poetry. 2) Asks students to explain other features and functions of the religious poetry. 3) Issues a handout containing a religious poem. 4) Asks students in group to discuss the features of religious poetry from the song read. 5) Asks students to sing any religious poetry.	1) Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes too. 2) Explains other features and functions. 3) Reads the religious poem. 4) Discusses the features. 5) Sings religious songs.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(a) Asks students to explain the features and function of the religious song sung in step 5 above. (b) Gives the exercise.	(a) Explains the features. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Oral Poetry

Religious Poetry

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________ TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING / Reading Skills

SUB-TOPIC: Summarizing

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read a passage given and respond to questions on it.
Summarize the passage read.

T/L RESOURCES: Articles and poems to be read

REFERENCES: New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG 239

Head Start English Bk 4 pg

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to give the features of summary. (b) Tells them that they would be learning how to write a summary effectively.	(a) Gives the features of summary. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Outlines the steps in writing summary. 2. Issues a handout with a passage to be read. 3. Roups the learners. Writes 2 questions to be answered in note form. 4. Asks individuals to write summary using the points drafted in step 3 above.	1. Listens and takes notes. 2. Reads the passage. 3. Writes a draft in note form. Also summarizes the first question. 4. Writes a summary.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Asks some students to read aloud their summaries. (b) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Corrects the others. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Reading Skills

Summarizing

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Paying Attention/Listening

SUB-TOPIC: Techniques of Paying Attention

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the techniques of ensuring active listening.
Demonstrate the ability to actively listen following the points explained.

T/L RESOURCES: Short speech to be read as others listen

REFERENCES:

Head Start English Bk 4 pg

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	a) Asks students to identify situations that call for active listening. b) Tells them there is need to be an active listener in all the situations mentioned.	a) Identifies the situations. b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Asks students how they usually ensure they remain attentive throughout during a church sermon. 2. Explains other ways of ensuring active listening. 3. Takes a few minutes reading an article. 4. Asks students to identify the techniques of active listening displayed by the learners.	1. Explains how they ensure they remain attentive during the sermon. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 3. Listens to the article. Demonstrates the points in step 2. 4. Identifies the points considered and award the pair marks.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	a) Asks students to state the techniques of ensuring active listening. b) Writes an exercise.	a) States the techniques. b) Writes the exercise in their exercise book.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Paying Attention/Listening

Techniques of Paying Attention

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/comprehension

SUB-TOPIC: Abortion: Let Your Desires be Ruled by Reason

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on the students’ book/ Dictionaries

REFERENCES:

Head Start English Bk 4 pg 163-165

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to retell the passage in their own words. 3. Asks students some questions on the passage. 4. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Retells the passage in their words. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(a) Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

COMPREHENSION

Abortion: Let Your Desires be Ruled by Reason

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/comprehension

SUB-TOPIC: Reading: The Best Way to Know

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Read the passage and respond to questions after it.
Use new words in sentences of their own.

T/L RESOURCES: Picture on the students’ book/ Dictionaries

REFERENCES:

Head Start English Bk 4 pg 103-104

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Talks about the issue raised in the passage without letting them know they are about to read a passage. (b) Asks students question concerning the issue. (c) Tells the students the passage they are about to read and asks them to open their course books.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Answers the questions asked. (c) Opens their books.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Asks students to read the paragraphs in turns. 2. Asks students to dramatize the passage in their own words. 3. Asks students some questions on the passage. 4. Identifies some new words and asks students to give their meanings and use in each in their own words.	1. Reads the paragraphs. 2. Dramatizes the passage. 3. Answers the questions. 4. Gives the meanings of the words and use them in sentences of their own.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	1. Asks students to discuss the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Gives an exercise.	1. Discusses the lessons they learn from the passage. 2. Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

COMPREHENSION

Reading: The Best Way to Know

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING / Reading Skills

SUB-TOPIC: Recognizing Attitude and Tone

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Make a list of positive, negative, neutral and ironic categories of tone/attitude words.
Discuss the tone/attitude from the short passage read.

T/L RESOURCES: Passage to be read

REFERENCES: New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG 137-139

Head Start English Bk 4 pg 61-62

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 5 minutes	(a) Asks students to list adjectives used to describe tone/attitude. (b) Tells them that they would be learning how to recognize attitude/tone in passages.	(a) Lists attitude/tone words. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 30 minutes	1. Defines attitude and tone. Outlines the steps in recognizing attitude/tone. 2. Issues a handout with a passage to be read. 3. Groups the learners and asks them to identify the tone in the passage. 4. Asks individuals to explain the attitude in the passage.	1. Listens and takes notes. 2. Reads the passage. 3. Identifies tone. 4. Explains the attitude.
CONCLUSION 5 minutes	(a) Reads some explanations and asks students to identify the tone in each. (b) Writes an exercise on the chalkboard.	(a) Identifies the tone in the sentences. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Reading Skills

Recognizing Attitude and Tone

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Turn Taking

SUB-TOPIC: Violations in Turn Taking

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the common turn taking violations.
Identify these violations in the conversations carried out in class.

T/L RESOURCES: Audio

REFERENCES: New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG 146

Head Start English Bk 4 pg 21-22

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	c) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks students the various ways of achieving smooth turn taking. d) Tells them that they will be learning turn taking violations.	c) States the various ways of achieving smooth turn taking. d) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	6. Defines turn taking violations. 7. Asks students to suggest some violations in turn taking. Refers them to what they have discussed in the previous lessons. 8. Plays the audio. 9. Asks students to identify the turn taking violations evident in the audio. 10. Groups the learners and asks them to hold a short discussion. Key is the use of turn taking violations.	6. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 7. Suggests some turn taking violations. 8. Listens to the audio. 9. Identifies the violations. 10. Holds a short discussion.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	c) Asks some students to mention turn taking violations from the role plays. d) Asks the students to suggest solutions to the violations.	c) Mentions the violations. d) Suggests solutions to the violations.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Turn Taking

Violations in Turn Taking

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/Oral Narratives

SUB-TOPIC: Devices used in Story Telling

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the story telling devices a narrator use during a live performance.
Discuss how they would perform selected sections of the narrative read.

T/L RESOURCES: Narrative to be read

REFERENCES:

Studying Oral Literature pg 14-18

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(c) Asks students how storytellers usually make their stories captivating to the audience. (d) Tells the learners that a story becomes captivating when the storytellers employs the (a) above.	(c) Explains how the storytellers usually make their stories captivating to the audience. (d) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	6. Explains some devices used by narrators. 7. Asks students to explain other devices. 8. Issues a handout containing a narrative. 9. Asks students in group to discuss the devices to use in telling the story read. 10. Asks a group to recount the story using the devices discussed.	6. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes too. 7. Explains other devices. 8. Reads the narrative. 9. Discusses the devices. 10. Retells the story.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(c) Asks students to explain the storytelling devices used by the narrator during a live performance. (d) Gives an exercise.	(c) Explains the storytelling devices. (d) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Oral Narratives

Devices used in Story Telling

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/Oral Narratives

SUB-TOPIC: Textual Narrative Techniques

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Discuss the textual narrative techniques giving their functions.
Identify the techniques from the narrative read.

T/L RESOURCES: Narrative to be read

REFERENCES:

Studying Oral Literature pg 19-20

New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students to give the common features of narratives. (b) Tells the learners that oral narratives usually have the features mentioned and that they play a role in the narratives.	(a) Gives the common features of narratives. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Explains some features of the oral narratives. 2. Asks students to explain other features. 3. Issues a handout containing a narrative. 4. Asks students in group to discuss the features of oral narratives evident in the story read.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes too. 2. Explains other features. 3. Reads the narrative. 4. Discusses the features.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	(a) Asks students to explain the features of oral narratives (b) Gives the exercise.	(a) Explains the features. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Oral Narratives

Textual Narrative Techniques

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Paying Attention/Listening

SUB-TOPIC: Signs of Inactive Audience

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Discuss the signs of an inactive listener.
Identify the above signs in a video played.

T/L RESOURCES: Video showing inactive listeners

REFERENCES: Excelling in Eng. Sb 4 pg

Head Start English Bk 4 pg

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks students to explain ways of ensuring active listening. b) Tells them that some speakers and even the audience can tell that some listeners are inattentive.	a) Explains the techniques. b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Asks students how they usually tell that some students are inactive during the lessons. 2. Explains other signs of in active listening. 3. Plays the video. 4. Asks students to identify the signs of inactive listeners in the video watched. 5. Asks students to suggest remedies to the problems in 4 above.	1. Gives some common signs of inattentive students. 2. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 3. Watches the video. 4. Identifies the signs of inactive listeners. 5. Suggests the remedies.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	a) Asks students to state the signs of inactive listening. b) Writes an exercise.	a) States the signs. b) Writes the exercise in their exercise book.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Paying Attention/Listening

Signs of Inactive Audience

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: LISTENING AND SPEAKING/ Paying Attention/Listening

SUB-TOPIC: Barriers to Effective Listening

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Discuss the factors that inhibit active listening.
Suggest the solutions to the barriers to effective listening.

T/L RESOURCES: Video showing barriers to effective listening.

REFERENCES: Excelling in Eng. Sb 4 pg 155-156

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	a) Reviews the previous lesson. Asks students to explain signs of inactive listeners. b) Tells them that there are barriers.	a) Explains the signs. b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Explains some things that get in the way of listening. 2. Groups the learners. Asks them to discuss other barriers to effective listening. 3. Plays the video. 4. Asks students to identify the barriers to effective listening. As one group identifies the barrier the next group to suggest the ways of overcoming the barrier. 5. Explains the remedies to the barriers.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Discusses the barriers. 3. Watches the video. 4. Identifies the barriers and suggests the solutions to the barriers. 5. Listens and takes notes.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	a) Asks students to state the barriers to effective listening. b) Writes an exercise.	a) States the barriers. b) Writes the exercise in their exercise book.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Paying Attention/Listening

Barriers to Effective Listening

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: WRITING/ Institutional Writing

SUB-TOPIC: Curriculum Vitae

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Describe the features of a curriculum vitae.
Write a curriculum vitae following the features described.

T/L RESOURCES: Sample CV

REFERENCES: New Integrated Eng SB 4 PG 178-182

Excelling in Eng. Sb 4 pg 230-233

Head Start English Bk 4 pg 169-170

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	(a) Explains the need for writing CV. (b) Tells the learners that they will be learning how to write a CV.	(a) Listens and seeks clarification. (b) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 32 minutes	1. Issues sample CV. 2. Asks students to mention the features of acv. 3. Asks students to individually write some sections of their CV. 4. Allows the students to read aloud their cvs.	1. Reads the CV. 2. Mentions the features. 3. Writes the CV. 4. Reads aloud their CVs.
CONCLUSION 4 minutes	(a) Asks students to state the features of a good CV. (b) Gives an exercise.	(a) States the features. (b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

WRITING

Institutional Writing

Curriculum Vitae

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

FORM FOUR LESSON PLAN TERM 1, 2019

SCHOOL: __________________________________________________________

TCHR’S NAME: MR MURIITHI CLASS: 4 W

DATE: 07/01/2019 DAY: MONDAY WEEK: 2 .LESSON: 1

SKILL/TOPIC: READING/ Oral Poetry

SUB-TOPIC: Structural and Stylistic Devices

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

Explain the structural and stylistic devices used in oral poetry.
Identify the structural and stylistic devices used in oral poems read.

T/L RESOURCES: Songs to be read

REFERENCES:

Studying Oral Lit pg 68

PART/TIME	TEACHER’S ACTIVITES	LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION 4 minutes	a) Reads an oral poem aloud. b) Asks students to identify the styles used in the song. c) Tells them that they will be learning stylistic devices used in oral poems.	a) Listens to the oral poem. b) Identifies some styles used. c) Listens and takes notes.
DEVELOPMENT 33 minutes	1. Explains the common styles and structure in oral poems. 2. Issues a handout containing a song. 3. Identifies some styles used in the song. 4. Issues another handout. 5. Asks groups to present their work.	1. Listens and seeks clarification. Takes notes. 2. Reads the song. 3. Identifies the other styles. Takes notes. 4. Discusses the structure and styles used in a group. 5. Presents their work.
CONCLUSION 3 minutes	a) Asks students to explains the various styles used in oral poems. b) Gives the exercise.	a) Explains styles. b) Writes the exercise.

CHALKBOARD LAYOUT

Date ENGLISH FORM 4

READING

Oral Poetry

Structural and Stylistic Devices

COMMENTS:

TAUGHT. GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE STUDENTS

Teachers' Resources

Grade 6 Free CBC Schemes of Work

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

GRADE 6 SPOTLIGHT SOCIAL STUDIES

SCHEME OF WORK TERM 1

SCHOOL	GRADE	LEARNING AREA	TERM	YEAR
	GRADE 6	SOCIAL STUDIES	1	2022

*Week*	*Lesson*	*Strand* */Theme*	*Sub-strand*	*Specific-Learning outcomes*	*Key Inquiry* *Question(S)*	*Learning/ Teaching Experience*	*Learning* *Resources*	*Assessment* *Methods*	*Reflection*
1	1	Natural and the Built Environments	Position and size of countries in Eastern Africa; Countries found in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Name the countries found in Eastern Africa. b) Draw or trace the map of Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the countries in Eastern Africa.	Which countries are found in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to name the countries found in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to draw or trace the map of Eastern Africa. In pairs, learners are guided to use a compass direction to describe the position of the countries in Eastern Africa.	Atlas Balloons Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 1-5*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	Natural and the Built Environments	Position and size of countries in Eastern Africa; Sizes of the countries of Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the sizes of different countries in Eastern Africa from an atlas. b) Arrange Eastern African countries according to their sizes starting from the smallest to the largest. c) Have fun and enjoy playing a game of describing the positons and sizes of countries in Eastern Africa.	Which is the largest country in Eastern Africa? Which is the smallest country in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to identify the sizes of different countries in Eastern Africa from an atlas. In groups, learners are guided to arrange Eastern Africa countries according to their sizes starting from the smallest to the largest. In groups, learners are guided to playing a game of describing the positons and sizes of countries in Eastern Africa.	Atlas Balloons Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 5-6*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	Natural and the Built Environments	Position and size of countries in Eastern Africa; Locating places using latitudes and longitudes in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) State the difference between latitudes and longitudes. b) Draw a map of Eastern Africa. On it, indicate the latitudes and longitudes. c) Appreciate the importance of latitudes and longitudes.	What is the difference between latitudes and longitudes?	Learners are guided to state the difference between latitudes and longitudes. Learners are guided to draw a map of Eastern Africa. On it, indicate the latitudes and longitudes. In pairs, learners are guided to use an atlas to identify the main longitudes and latitudes on the globe.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 6-9*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
2	1	Natural and the Built Environments	Main physical features in Eastern Africa; Formation of the main physical features in Eastern Africa: Volcanic mountains	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Define physical features and describe the formation of volcanic mountains. b) Model a volcanic mountain using clay or plasticine. c) Have fun and enjoy modelling volcanic mountain.	How are volcanic mountains formed?	In pairs, learners are guided to identify the main physical feature in his/her locality. Learners are guided to draw the formation of volcanic mountains. Learners are guided to watch a video, listen to an audio or visit the library to find out the formation of volcanic mountains.	Atlas Clay Plasticine Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 9-13*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	Natural and the Built Environments	Main physical features in Eastern Africa; Formation of the main physical features in Eastern Africa: Block Mountains	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Describe the formation of block mountains. b) Draw the illustrations showing the formation of block mountains. c) Appreciate the formation of block mountains.	How are block mountains formed?	Learners are guided to describe the formation of block mountains. Learners are guided to draw the illustrations showing the formation of block mountains. In pairs, learners are guided to give examples of block mountains in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to watch a video, listen to an audio or visit the library to find out the formation of block mountains.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 13-14*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	Natural and the Built Environments	Main physical features in Eastern Africa; Formation of the main physical features in Eastern Africa: Rift Valley	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Describe the formation of the Rift Valley. b) Model the rift valley using clay or plasticine. c) Appreciate the formation of Rift Valley.	How was Rift Valley formed?	Learners are guided to describe the formation of the Rift Valley. Learners are guided to draw the formation of rift valley. Learners are guided to model the rift valley using clay or plasticine. Learners are guided to watch a video, listen to an audio or visit the library to find out the formation of rift valley.	Atlas Clay Plasticine Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 15-17*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
3	1	Natural and the Built Environments	Main physical features in Eastern Africa; Formation of the main physical features in Eastern Africa: Lakes Plains	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Describe the formation of lakes and plains. b) Model a lava-dammed lake, crater lake and ox-bow lakes. c) Appreciate the importance of lakes to the community.	How are lakes formed?	Learners are guided to describe the formation of lakes and plains. In pairs, learners are guided to classify Eastern Africa lakes according to the process of formation. In groups, learners are guided to model a lava-dammed lake, crater lake and ox-bow lakes.	Atlas Clay Plasticine Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 17-20*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	Natural and the Built Environments	Main physical features in Eastern Africa; Location of the main physical features in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Name the main physical features in Eastern Africa. b) Use an atlas to locate the main physical features in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the physical features in Eastern Africa.	Which are the main physical features in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to name the main physical features in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to use an atlas to locate the main physical features in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to trace the map of Eastern Africa and locate the physical features.	Photographs Atlas Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 21-23*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	Natural and the Built Environments	Climatic Regions in Eastern Africa; Characteristics of the main climatic regions in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the characteristics of the main climatic regions in Eastern Africa. b) Draw a map showing climatic regions in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the different climatic regions in Eastern Africa.	What are the characteristics of climatic regions in Eastern Africa? What weather conditions do you experience in your locality?	In groups, learners are guided to identify the main climatic regions in Eastern Africa form an atlas (mountain, tropical, sub-tropical, equatorial, modified equatorial, desert, semi-desert) In groups, learners are guided to identify the characteristics of the main climatic regions in Eastern Africa. In groups, learners are guided to model a map showing climatic regions in Eastern Africa.	Atlas Clay Plasticine Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 24-27*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
4	1	Natural and the Built Environments	Climatic Regions in Eastern Africa; Influence of climate on human activities	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Describe how different climate influences human activities. b) Explain how the climate around the school influences human activities. c) Appreciate how different climates influence human activities.	How does climate influence human activities?	Learners are guided to describe how different climate influences human activities. In groups, learners are guided to explain how the climate around the school influences human activities.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 27-28*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	Natural and the Built Environments	Vegetation in Eastern Africa; Main types of vegetation in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Define the meaning of vegetation. b) Observe the type of vegetation around the school and draw the vegetation. c) Have fun and enjoy the outdoor activity of observing and drawing the type of vegetation around the school.	What is vegetation? Which type of vegetation is found around your school?	Learners are guided to define the meaning of vegetation. Learners are guided to observe the type of vegetation around the school and draw the vegetation.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 28-29*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	Natural and the Built Environments	Vegetation in Eastern Africa; Locating the main types of vegetation in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the main types of vegetation in Eastern Africa. b) Create a vegetation wheel from a cartoon or manila paper and take turns to spin the wheel. c) Appreciate the types of vegetation in Eastern Africa.	Which types of vegetation are found in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to identify the main types of vegetation in Eastern Africa. In groups, learners are guided to create a vegetation wheel from a cartoon or manila paper and take turns to spin the wheel and use an atlas to locate the vegetation zone identified after every spin.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 30-32*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
5	1	Natural and the Built Environments	Vegetation in Eastern Africa; Characteristics of the main types of vegetation in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the characteristics of the main types of vegetation. b) Design vegetation cards and play a game of describing the characteristics of the main types of vegetation displayed by card. c) Appreciate the characteristics of types of vegetation in Eastern Africa.	What are the characteristics of the types of vegetation found in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to identify the characteristics of the main types of vegetation. In groups, learners are guided to design vegetation cards and play a game of describing the characteristics of the main types of vegetation displayed by card.	Atlas Cards Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia *Computing devices* *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 32-34*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	Natural and the Built Environments	Vegetation in Eastern Africa; Making of a mountain vegetation model	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Make a mountain vegetation model and colour the vegetation belts. b) Identify ways of conserving vegetation. c) Have fun and enjoy making a mountain vegetation model.	How to make a mountain vegetation model? How should we conserve vegetation?	In groups, learners are guided to make a mountain vegetation model and colour the vegetation belts. Learners are guided to label different vegetation zones on the model. Learners are guided to identify ways of conserving vegetation.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 34-37*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	Natural and the Built Environments	Historic Built Environments in Eastern Africa; Main historic built environments in Eastern Africa: Museums in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the main historic built environments in Eastern Africa. b) Search the internet or atlas for the location of different museums in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the use of museums in Eastern Africa.	Which are the main historic built environments in Eastern Africa? What are the uses of museums?	Learners are guided to identify the main historic built environments in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to search the internet or atlas for the location of different museums in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to state the uses of museums.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 38*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
6	1	Natural and the Built Environments	Historic Built Environments in Eastern Africa; Main historic built environments in Eastern Africa: Monuments in Eastern Africa Historic Buildings	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Define the meaning of monuments and identify monuments in Eastern Africa. b) Use an atlas or any other available reference materials to find the location of the historical buildings in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the reasons why some buildings are historic in Eastern Africa.	What is a Monument? Why are some buildings historical?	Learners are guided to define the meaning of monuments and identify monuments in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to use an atlas or any other available reference materials to find the location of the historical buildings in Eastern Africa (Meroe Pyramids Ruins, Great Mosque of Kilwa, Bagamoyo Old Church, Fossils Ghebbi Fortress) Learners are guided to give reasons why each of the building is historical in Eastern Africa (Meroe Pyramids Ruins, Great Mosque of Kilwa, Bagamoyo Old Church, Fossils Ghebbi Fortress)	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 39-40*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	Natural and the Built Environments	Historic Built Environments in Eastern Africa; Importance of main historic built environments in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Discuss the importance of main historic built environments. b) Compose a poem he/she will recite during the opening of the cultural corner. c) Appreciate the importance of historic built environments.	What is the importance of main historic built environments?	In groups, learners are guided to discuss the importance of main historic built environments. In groups, learners are guided to Create a poem that they will recite during the opening of the cultural corner	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 40-42*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Classification of communities in their language groups in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify major language groups in Eastern Africa. b) Classify communities according to their language group in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the importance of language groups.	What is a language group? What are the major language groups in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to define a language group. Learners are guided to identify major language groups in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to read the conversation between Mr. Ubuntu and Grade Six learners of Mpole Primary School. In pairs, learners are guided to classify communities according to their language group in Eastern Africa.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 43-46*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
7	1	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Reasons for migration and settlement of language groups	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Give reasons for migration and settlement of language groups. b) Design posters on reasons why language groups migrated and settled in their present land. c) Appreciate the reasons for migration and settlement of language groups.	What are the reasons for migration and settlement of language groups?	Learners are guided to give reasons for migration and settlement of language groups. In pairs, learners are guided to design posters on reasons why language groups migrated and settled in their present land. Learners are guided to use reference materials such as textbooks, the internet or any other available materials, find out the reasons why the main language groups in Eastern Africa migrated.	Atlas Manilla papers Rulers Colours/crayons Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia *Computing devices* *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 47-50*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Movement and settlement of different language groups in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the movement and settlement of different language groups in Eastern Africa. b) Draw a map of Eastern Africa showing the migration routes and settlements of different language groups in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the movement and settlement of different language groups in Eastern Africa.	How did different language groups move and settled in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to identify the movement and settlement of different language groups in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to draw a map of Eastern Africa showing the migration routes and settlements of different language groups in Eastern Africa. In groups, learners are guided to model the map of Eastern Africa to illustrate the migration routes.	Atlas Water Clay Plasticine Painting brushes Manilla papers Maize seeds Beans seeds Water-based colours Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 51-52*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Effects of migration and settlement of selected language groups in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Outline the effects of migration and settlement of the main language groups in Eastern Africa. b) Make a poster using declaration messages of unity. c) Appreciate the importance of unity among different communities.	What happens when people move and settled in a new place?	Learners are guided to outline the effects of migration and settlement of the main language groups in Eastern Africa. In pairs, learners are guided to make a poster using declaration messages of unity.	Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 53-55*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
8	1	People, Population and Social Organizations	Population distribution in Eastern Africa; Factors that influence population distribution in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify the factors that influence population distribution in Eastern Africa. b) Draw the map of Eastern Africa. Use different colours to show areas of high, medium and low population density in Eastern Africa. c) Appreciate the factors that influence population distribution in Eastern Africa.	Which are the factors that influence population distribution in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to identify the factors that influence population distribution in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to draw the map of Eastern Africa. Use different colours to show areas of high, medium and low population density in Eastern Africa. Learners are guided to use an atlas to find out population distribution patterns in Eastern Africa.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 55-59*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Effects of High Population Density in Eastern Africa	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Outline the effects of High Population Density in Eastern Africa. b) Recite a poem on the effects of high population density in Eastern Africa. c) Have fun reciting a poem on the effects of high population in Eastern Africa.	What are the effects of high population density in Eastern Africa?	Learners are guided to outline the effects of High Population Density in Eastern Africa. In groups, learners are guided to recite a poem on the effects of high population density in Eastern Africa.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 60-61*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	People, Population and Social Organizations	Culture and Social Organization; Age groups and age sets in African Traditional Society	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Define the meaning of age group and age sets. b) Role play the traditional dances or festivals that takes place in his/her community when celebrating age sets. c) Appreciate the importance of age sets in the community.	What is age group? What is age set? What are the roles and responsibilities of age sets?	Learners are guided to define the meaning of age group and age sets. In pairs, learners are guided to role play the traditional dances or festivals that takes place in his/her community when celebrating age sets. In pairs, learners are guided to outline the steps to be followed to be a member of a given age sets Learners are guided to mention the roles and responsibilities of age sets.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 61-63*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
9	1	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Functions of Clan	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Outline the functions of clans. b) Read the conversation between Anita and Zari and discuss the functions of a clan in a community from the conversation. c) Appreciate the functions of a clan in the community.	What is a clan? What are the functions of clans?	Learners are guided to outline the functions of clans. In pairs, learners are guided to read the conversation between Anita and Zari and discuss the functions of a clan in a community from the conversation.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 63-65* *Atlas*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	2	People, Population and Social Organizations	Language groups in Eastern Africa; Aspects of Traditional Culture that need to be preserved	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Identify aspects of Africa Traditional Culture that need to be preserved. b) Sing a song on different aspects of Africa traditional culture in his/her community. c) Appreciate the aspects of Africa Traditional Culture that need to be preserved.	What are the aspects of African traditional culture that need to be preserved?	Learners are guided to identify aspects of Africa Traditional Culture that need to be preserved. Learners are guided to sing a song on different aspects of Africa traditional culture in his/her community.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 65-67*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
	3	People, Population and Social Organizations	School and Community	By the end of the sub-strand, the learner should be able to: a) Mention ways in which the school collaborates with the community. b) Compose a song on benefits of collaboration between his/her school and the community. c) Appreciate the benefits of collaboration between the school and the community.	What are the ways in which the school collaborates with the community? What are the benefits of collaboration between the school and the community?	Learners are guided to mention ways in which the school collaborates with the community. Learners are guided to identify the benefits of collaboration between the school and the community. In groups, learners are guided to compose a song on benefits of collaboration between his/her school and the community.	Atlas Photographs Pictures Video clips Maps Charts Realia Computing devices *Spotlight; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 6 pg. 67-73*	Oral questions Oral Report Observation
10				ASSESSMENT

Teachers' Resources

GEOGRAPHY FORM 3 END TERM EXAMS PLUS ANSWERS FREE

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

ULTIMATE ACHIEVERS ACADEMY

Name___________________________________________________AdmNo:_____________

Date__________________________________________Sign_______________

END OF TERM EXAMINATION

FORM THREE

GEOGRAPHY

TIME: 2 HOURS 30 MINUTES

INSTRUCTIONS:

a). Write your name, class and Admission number in the spaces provided above.

b).Answer all the questions

c). All answers must be written in the space provided in this booklet.

a) What is the difference between weathering and mass wasting? (2 mks)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

b) State three factors which influence mass wasting. (3 mks)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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a) Name two soft wood trees grown in the forest reserves of Kenya. (2 mks)

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b) State three characteristics of softwood forests in Canada. (3 mks)

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a) The diagram below represents a composite volcano. Name the features marked. (3 mks)

P ________________________________________

Q ________________________________________

R ________________________________________

b) What is magma? (2 mks)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________

Differentiate between folding and faulting (2 mks)

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State three causes of earthquakes. (3 mks

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SECTION B

Answer all questions this section.

Study the map of Taita Hills 1:50,000 (Sheet 189/4) provided and answer the following questions.
a) i) Name two types of scales used on this map. (2 mks)

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ii) List three man-made features found in the grid square (2918). (3 mks)

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iii) Name the feature found on the grid reference (426255). (1 mk)

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b) Name two hydrographic features depicted on the map. (2 mks)

________________________________________________________________________

c) Describe the relief of the area covered by the map. (3 mks)

________________________________________________________________________

d) Giving evidence from the map, name three forms of transport in the area covered by the map. (3 mks)

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e) Draw a square of 6cm to represent the area between Eastings 36 and 40 and between Northing 26 and 29. On it show:
i) Dam
ii) Ronge forest

iii) Road – loose surface road

iv) Motorable track
v) Outcrop rock

a) The diagram below shows a waterfall. Name the features marked. (3 mks)

X______________________________________

Y______________________________________

Z_____________________________________

b) i) Describe the process of river capture. (4 mks)

________________________________________________________________________

ii) Give three evidences of river capture. (3 mks)

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c) Suppose you are to carry out a field study of one of the big rivers in your county.
i) State three ways in which you would prepare for the study. (3 mks)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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ii) State two advantages of studying rivers through field work. (2 mks)

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a) Describe how Lake Victoria was formed. (5 mks)

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b) Explain five reasons why some lakes in rift valley have fresh water. (5 mks)

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c) State five economic uses of lakes. (5 mks)

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The table below shows the Kenya’s leaching export minerals by value (Ksh million). Study the table and answer the questions that follow.

Mineral	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004
Soda ash	35150	34485	34376	33005	36072
Fluorspar	21216	19846	28334	36485	39541
Salts	11707	7460	6541	6286	6944

a) Calculate the percentage increase in value of soda ash as export between the year 2000 and 2004. (2 mks)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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b) Calculate the total mineral exports for the year 2002. (2 mks)

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c) Calculate the average exports for salts from the year 2000 to 2004. (2mks)

________________________________________________________________________

d) i) Name three method of mining. (3 mks)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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ii) Explain three benefits of gold mining in South Africa. (6 mks)

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a) The diagram below shows a feature resulting from wind erosion in the deserts. Study it and answer the questions that follow.

i) Identify the feature. (2 mks)

________________________________________________________________________

ii) Explain how the above feature is formed. (5 mks)

________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

iii) Give two main deserts where this feature is common. (2 mks)

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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b) A form three class conducted a field study in an area affected by wind deposition.
i) State three types of sand dunes the class would have identified. (3 mks)

____________________________________________________________________________

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ii) State three problems the students would have come across. (3 mks)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FORM THREE

GEOGRAPHY

MARKING SCHEME

SECTION A

a) – Weathering is physical break down or chemical decay of rocks in situ while mass

wasting is the movement of weathered rock material down a slope under the influence of gravity.

(2 mks)

b) – Angle of slope/gradient

Human activities
Amount of water in the material
Nature of material/nature of underlying rocks
Earth movements/tectonic movements
Presence or absence of vegetation
Climatic conditions

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

a) – Cypress

Pine
Cider
Eucalyptus

(2 x 1 = 2 mks)

b) – Trees are conical in shape

Trees occur in pure stands
Trees grow tall and straight (30 – 40m)
Trees have needle – like leaves
Trees bear cones
The forests are evergreen
The forests have no undergrowth
The trees have thick barks

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

a) P – conelet/parasitic cone/subsidiary cone

Q – layer of lava

R – crater

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

b) – Magma is a mixture of molten rocks and gases in the interior of the earth.

(2 mks)

– Folding is the bending of rocks of the earth’s crust while faulting is cracking or

fracturing of the rocks of the earth’s crust.

(2 mks)

– Collision between tectonic plates

Faulting/cracking of rocks
Violent volcanic eruptions/movement of magma within the crust
Isostatic adjustment
Explosions caused by man
Energy release within the mantle
Gravitative pressure

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

SECTION B

a) i) Types of scales used

Linear scale
Representative Fraction (R.F)/Ratio scale

(2 x 1 = 2 mks)

ii) List three man-made features found in the grid square (2918)

Road e.g. All weather road bound surface
School
Church
Pump house

(Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

iii) Feature found in the grid reference (426255)

A water tank

(1 mks)

b) Two hydrographic features depicted on the map

Perennial/permanent rivers e.g. R. Voi (Goshi)
Dam
Water tank

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

c) Describe the relief of the area covered by the map.

Presence of numerous hills in the area e.g. Maragua
Area is steep on the western part and gentle sloping on the eastern part
Presence of valleys especially river valleys
Land rises from east to west/slope from west to east

(Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

d) Forms of transport

Road transport evidenced by presence of roads
Railway transport evidenced by railway line
Air transport evidenced by grass air field

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

a) X – Resistant rock/hard rocks/sill

Y – Plunge pool

Z – Rock boulders

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

b) i) – River capture occurs where there are two adjacent rivers

One of the rivers has more erosive power than the other
The more powerful river erodes away the ridge that separates the two by headward erosion
Eventually it encroaches into the valley of the weaker river diverting its waters into its valley

(4 x 1 = 4 mks)

ii) Evidences of river capture

Wind gap
Elbow of capture
Misfit stream

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

c) i) – Formulate hypothesis/objectives

Reading from secondary sources
Conduct pre-visit/reconnaissance
Prepare a working schedule
Seek permission from relevant authorities
Identify/collect the relevant tools and equipment

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

ii) – It enables students to collect first-hand information

It enables to develop skills of observation/data collection
Students are able to apply the knowledge learned from books/classroom in the field
Students are able to make their own records

(2 x 1 = 3 mks)

a) How lake Victoria was formed

Earth movement caused crustal down warping
A basin-like depression was formed
Uplifting of land masses/back-tilting of the plateau around the depression diverted flow of rivers into depression, caused reversed drainage
Deposition into depression resulted into further down warping
Water from the rivers accumulated in the depression forming lake

(5 x 1 = 5 mks)

b) Reasons why some lakes in rift valley are fresh

They have surface outlets through which excess salt deposits are carried away
Some have subterranean outlets which drain the salts in the lake bed
The lakes have regular inflow of fresh water from rivers which dilutes the salts keeping water fresh
Some are situated in areas of low temperature thus low evaporation rate
Some are situated in areas of high rainfall which keeps water fresh

(5 x 1 = 5 mks)

c) Economic uses of lakes

Provide water for irrigation
Provide water for industrial use
They are source of minerals
Lake shores are source of sand used in construction industry
Lakes are harnessed to generate hydro-electric power
Lakes provide waterway
Lakes are tourist attractions
Lakes are used for fishing/source of fish

(Any 5 x 1 = 5 mks)

(2 mks)

b) 69251 million (2 mks)

= Ksh 7,787.6 million (2 mks)

d) i) – Shaft mining/underground mining

Adit mining
Drilling
Open cast mining
Alluvial mining/placer mining

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

ii) – Gold is exported to other countries to earn foreign exchange

Gold mining has provided employment to many people in South Africa
Existence of numerous gold fields has led to the growth of many towns
The profit earned from gold has been used in the development of infrastructure e.g. roads and railway
Gold mining has led to the development of industries in Transvaal and Orange Free State
Technological advancement. The co-existence of gold and Uranium has led South Africa to become a leading producer of Uranium for atomic energy

(Any 3 x 2 = 6 mks)

a) i) Identify the feature

Mushroom block rock (2 mks)

ii) Explain the formation of the feature

Formed from homogenous rocks of uniform hardness and resistance
Wind abrasion from the heavier materials near ground results in intensive undercutting at the base of the vertically laid homogenous rock
The top of the rock undergoes gradual of slow polishing and smoothing since there are few airborne materials at such high levels
At the base the rock is eroded since there is more materials at the base
The abrasion, polishing and smoothening process result in formation of a rock structure with a broad top but very narrow base known as mushroom block rock

(5 mks)

iii) Two main deserts where feature is common

Namibia desert
Arabian desert
Sahara desert

(2 x 1 = 2 mks)

b) i) Type of sand dunes identified

Barchan
Self-dunes
Transverse dunes

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

ii) Problems students would have come across

Desert storms would have made the students uncomfortable
Students would have suffered from respiratory diseases due to dust
High temperatures during the day would have made students very uncomfortable
Student would have suffered from lack of basic necessities such as water
Attack by dangerous animals

(3 x 1 = 3 mks)

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Best English Form 3 Exams and Marking Schemes Free Downloads

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Latest English Form 3 Exams and Marking Schemes Free Downloads

Set 1

paper 3 eng.docx
paper 2 eng.docx
ms paper 1eng.docx
paper 1eng.docx
ENGLISH PP3 MS.docx
eng p2 ms.docx

Set 2

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Teachers' Resources

FORM 2 GEOGRAPHY NOTES UPDATED FREE

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

FORM 2 GEOGRAPHY

INTERNAL LAND FORMING/ENDOGENETIC PROCESSES

–Processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the formation of natural physical features or landforms.

They are caused by earth movements.

Examples of these processes are folding, faulting and Vulcanicity.

Formation of land forms by internal land forming processes is determined by:

Nature and age of earth materials
Type of movement involved
Intensity and scale of movement involved

Crustal Earth Movements

–Displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks.

They are brought about by tectonic forces which originate and operate in the interior of the earth e.g. tensional forces (which operate along horizontal plane moving away from each other), compressional forces (which operate along horizontal plane moving towards each other), shear forces (which move past each other with unequal strength) and gravitational forces (which attracts things to the earths centre).

Earth movements are of 2 types:

Horizontal/lateral/orogenic movements
Vertical/epeirogenic movements

Horizontal Earth Movements

-Movements which act along a horizontal plane within crustal rocks.

They are caused by tensional and compressional and shear forces.

Effects

They cause:

Strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to stretching caused by tensional forces which cause formation of cracks or faults.
Squeezing and shortening of crustal by compressional forces rocks which cause them which also cause formation of faults.
Crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by dividing into layers which is caused by shear forces.

Results of Horizontal Earth Movements

–results in the formation of the following features:

Faults
Rift valleys
fold mountains
Escarpments
Basins
Tilt blocks
Block mountains

Vertical Earth Movements

-Movements which occur along the earth’s radius or towards the earth’s surface or towards its centre.

Effects

Causes:

Subsiding/sinking/downwarping or pulling of crustal rocks downwards.
Uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks upwards
Tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical direction due to grater uplift on one side.

Results of Vertical Earth Movements

Raised cliffs
Tilt blocks
Rift valleys
Fault scarps/escarpments
Plateaus
basins

Causes of Earth Movements

Magma movement within the earths crust.
Gravitational force
Convectional currents in the mantle
Isostatic adjustment

Magma Movement within the Earths Crust

When magma moves with force pushing crustal rocks horizontally or vertically.
When magma moves from reservoir and leaves empty spaces onto which crustal rocks are pulled inwards.

Gravitational Force

-When the attractive force of the earth pulls crustal rocks into empty spaces left after magma escaping from the reservoir.

Convectional Currents within Mantle

-When convectional currents in magma in mantle drug crustal rocks by friction.

Horizontal movement of currents cause horizontal movements while vertical cause vertical movements.

Isostatic Adjustment

-Rising of continental masses to restore the upset state of balance between sial and sima layers.

-Isostacy is the state of balance between sial and sima layers.

It can be disturbed by erosion on continents and melting of continental ice sheets.

The reduced weight causes continental masses to rise.

( skip 8 lines for diagaram klb bk 2 pg2 )fig 1.3

Theories Explaining the Earths Movements

A theory is reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or ideas.

There are 2 theories which explain the earth’s movements namely the Continental Drift Theory and the Plate tectonics theory.

i)Theory of Continental Drift

Its proponent was A. Wegener.

It explains the origin of 6 continents.

It states:

The earth was a single sialic land mass called Pangaea surrounded by a huge ocean called Panthalasa whose floor was a mass of sima.
Pangaea broke into two parts called Laurasia (N. Hemisphere) which lay around equator and Gondwanaland (S. Hemisphere) which lay around south pole which were separated by a narrow ocean called Tethys (the present Mediterranean Sea).
Laurasia broke into Laurentian Shield and Fennoscandia (Europe, Asia and N. America) and moved northwards to their present positions.
Gondwanaland broke into Africa, Australia, S. America and Antarctica and India subcontinent.
Africa and India drifted northwards.

Evidences Supporting the Theory

Fitting of western coast of Africa and S. America into a jigsaw.
Discovery of coal 40◦N and 55◦N which was formed by burying of tropical vegetation.
Considerable displacement of rocks along some faults e.g. along the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
Cape and Buenos Aires folds resemble one another by having east west trend.
Red sea shores show evidence of having undergone lateral displacement an indication that it was formed by movement of the earth’s crust.
Evidence of ancient Glaciation to the south of equator in Africa in Madagascar and India where there is presence of ancient glacial deposits suggesting these areas were once around south pole.

ii)Plate Tectonics Theory

It states that:

The earths crust is made of blocks called plates.

7 Large Ones

Eurasian plate
Australian plate
Africa plate
Antarctic plate
American plate
American plate
Pacific plate

Smaller Ones

Indian
Arabian

Caribbean
Cocos
Somali plates
Juan de Fuca
Nazca
Philippine
Scotia

These plates are two types : tectonic plates:
1. Oceanic plates which form major areas of the ocean floor including coastal lowland.
2. Continental plates which form the bulk of the continental land mass.
The plates float on molten mantle layer called
The plates move relative to each other due to convectional currents in the mantle.
They move away from each other forming extension or constructive boundary called so because magma fills the space between.
They move towards each other forming compressional or destructive boundary called so because materials between are crushed. The movements of those two types of plates have the following effects:

When two oceanic plates meet

There is subduction and the ocean floor is pulled inwards forming a trench e.g. Java Trench .Subduction is the passing of edge of one plate beneath the edge of another.
Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are compressed to form Fold Mountains.
1. When an oceanic plate meets a continental plate the edge of the oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate in a movement called subduction.
Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are compressed to form Fold Mountains.
Fold Mountains are also formed at the edge of the continent when the sial layer is compressed.
The edge of the oceanic plate bends into the mantle forming a trench.
1. When two continental plates collide the sial layer is folded into mountains.

They move past each other forming transform or conservative boundary called so because there is neither construction nor destruction which occurs where the plates are separated by a major fault.

Significance of Plate Movements

Are sources of earthquakes and Vulcanicity.
Causes formation of land forms such as Fold Mountains and ocean trenches.
Spectacular landscapes formed are a tourist attraction.
Eruption of magma can result in formation of valuable minerals.

FOLDING

-Process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional forces by being caused to bend upwards and downwards.

It occurs on fairly young sedimentary rocks.

Parts of a Fold

Anticlines (upfolds)-parts of the earths surface which bend upwards when folding occurs.
Synclines (down folds)-Parts of the earths surface which bend downwards when folding occurs.
Crest-upper most part of Anticline.
Trough-lowest part of a syncline
Limp-rock layers sloping on both sides of a fold
Axis-imaginary line drawn vertically through the centre of the anticline.

Types of Folds

1.Simple Symmetrical Folds

-Which are symmetrical about the anticline.

-Formed by 2 compressional forces of equal magnitude.

2.Asymmetrical Folds

–Which are asymmetrical about the anticlines axis or in which one limp is steeper than the other.

-Formed by two compressional forces of unequal magnitude in which one is stronger than the other.

3.Over Folds

-In which anticline of one fold is pushed over the limp of the other.

4.Isoclinal Folds

-Which are packed closely together and with limps almost parallel to each other.

-Vertical Isoclinal folds are formed by compressional forces of equal magnitude while inclined Isoclinal folds are formed by forces of unequal magnitude.

5.Recumbent Folds

-Which lie in a horizontal manner.

-Formed by two compressional forces one of which is very strong.

6.Nappe/Overthrust Fold

– In which one limp is pushed over the other limp.

-The forces are very strong and they cause a fracture/fault to develop.

7Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Complex

-Folds characterised by minor upfolds and minor downfolds.

Land is first subjected to weak compressional forces resulting into minor folds.
Later the land is subjected to much greater compressional forces resulting into new upfolds with minor folds (Anticlinorium) and new down folds with minor folds (Synclinorium).

Resultant Features Due To Folding

1.Fold Mountains and Their Distribution

-Worlds highest and most impressive mountains and the most conspicuous feature of folding.

Himalayas-Asia
Everest-Nepal-Tibet border-highest point.
Andes-Peru in S. America
Alps-South Central Europe
Rockies-W.N. America
Atlas-N.W. Africa.
Appalachian-E.N. America

Theories of Origin of Fold Mountains

1.Contraction Theory

During the earth’s formation surface rocks cooled faster and wrinkled to form Fold Mountains.

2.Convectional Currents Theory

Horizontal convectional currents in the mantle exerted frictional pull on crustal rocks.
Continental crusts were pulled towards each other.
Sediments between them were squeezed into folds.

3.Continental Drift Theory

During break of Gondwanaland India drifted northwards and collided with Eurasia.
Sediments between were squeezed to form fold mountains e.g. Himalayas and Everest.

4.Plate Tectonics Theory

When an oceanic plate meets another or it meets a continental plate the sediments under the sea are compressed to form Fold Mountains.
When two continental plates meet the sial layer is compressed to form fold mountains

-E.g. Alps was formed when Africa plate pushed against the rigid European plate.

2.Escarpments

-A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same direction.

Formed one compressional force causes folding resulting in one steep limp of the anticline which forms the escarpment.

3.Depressions

Formed when not very strong forces cause folding causing some parts of the earths surface to form synclines forming basins.

4.Ridges and Valleys

When folding occurs anticlines form uplands/ridges/hills while synclines form valleys.

5.Rolling Plains

–Plains which appear to rise and roll.

-Formed when plains are acted upon by weak compressional forces resulting into gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.

6.Inter-montane Plateaus

-A high fairly level land between mountains.

-Formed when rocks at the edges of a region become intensely folded and the middle parts resist folding resulting into mountains which enclose a high fairly level land.

7.Inter-montane basins

-Formed when some parts of inter-montane plateau sink more to form basins.

Significance of Folding

To Human Activities/Economic significance

Positive/advantages

Fold Mountains are a tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange.
Fold Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers.
Some fold mountains have valuable mineral deposits such as coal and petroleum.
Fold Mountains act as protective barriers during war.
Some fold mountains on the path of rain bearing rainfall influence rainfall causing the windward slopes to receive heavier rainfall.
Folding can lead to formation of valuable minerals due to metamorphism.
Folding brings valuable minerals to the surface making them easily available.

Negative/disadvantages

Fold Mountains on the path of rain winds cause the leeward slopes to receive less rainfall.
Fold Mountains discourage settlement due to cold temperatures and rugged terrain

Folding can lead to burying of minerals.
Fold Mountains are a barrier to road and railway where there are no passes and where there are passes they may be covered by snow. Orographic fog hinders pilot’s visibility.

To Physical Environment

Folding can result in submerged coastal zones which are used as harbours.
Can lead to metamorphism of rocks changing their original state and making them more resistant to erosion.
Depressions formed by folding turn into wet land important for water purification.
Folding leads to faulting and magma may escape through faults leading to Vulcanicity and earth quakes.

FAULTING

Faulting is the cracking/fracturing of the brittle crustal rocks due to tectonic forces.

Faults are fractures or cracks that develop in the crust.

When tensional forces cause crustal rocks to stretch and fracture at the region of maximum tension.
When compressional causes squeezing of crustal rocks to fracture at the areas where they are intensely squeezed.
When vertical movements exert pressure on rocks leading to fracturing.
When shear forces cause crustal rocks to tear.

Parts of a Fault

Upthrow-part of the land displaced upwards.
Down-throw-part of the land displaced downwards.
Throw-vertical displacement.
Heave-horizontal displacement
Hade-inclination of fault to vertical plane
Fault line-fault path
Fault plane-separation of land created by the fault

Types of Faults

Normal Faults

Type formed by tensional forces in which one block slides downwards in relation to the other.

Rocks are subjected to tensional forces
A normal fault develops
One block slides downwards.

Reverse Fault

Type formed by compressional forces in which one block of land is pushed upwards in relation to the other.

Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.
A reverse fault develops.
One block is pushed over the other.

Shear/Tear Fault

Type formed by shear forces in which adjacent blocks of land slide past one another. If a shear fault occurs between continents it’s called a Transform fault e.g. San Andrean fault of California and great glen fault of Scotland.

Thrust Faults

Type formed when very strong compressional forces cause almost horizontal faults to develop and one block of land is pushed over the other.

Anticlinal fault

Type formed when anticlines are compressed further and cracks form on the crest.

Features Resulting From Faulting

Fault Scarp/Escarpment

Steep line of slopes formed by vertical movement of earth along a fault e.g. Mau, Nguruman, Nyandarua and Nandi.

-Are exposed parts of a fault plane.

It may be formed due to normal faulting or reverse faulting when overhanging blocks are eroded.

Fault Steps

-Land resembling the staircase or steps of a house with a series of fault scarps at different levels.

Parallel vertical faults develop.
Land between the faults is unequally displaced downwards.
A series of fault scarps at different levels is formed.

-E.g. Keiyo escarpment and at Kijabe.

Fault Blocks/Block/Horst Mountains

Blocks of land raised above the surrounding land.

Where tectonic forces cause faulting and land on one side of the fault get raised or sink along the fault planes.

Examples of fault blocks are Aberdare/Nyandarua ranges, Mau escarpment and Nandi Hills.

Where Blocks of land bordered by normal faults which are almost parallel to each other sink leaving the middle block standing.

Examples of horsts are Ruwenzori of W. Uganda and Usambara and Pare mountains of Tanzania.

Tilt Blocks

-Fault blocks which are inclined on one side.

Occurs when the fault block, horst or fault steps have greater uplift on one side and as a result they are not flat at the top but tilted. The resultant features are tilted fault blocks, tilted horst and tilt fault steps which form ridges and fault guided valleys.

Rift Valley

-Along narrow trough with steep escarpments on both sides.

Theories of Formation

Tensional Theory

Rocks are subjected to tensional forces.
Normal faults which are almost parallel develop.
One block slides downwards forming the rift valley.

Compressional Theory

Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.
Reverse fault which are almost parallel develop.
The side blocks are pushed over the middle block.
Overhanging blocks are worn out by denudation to form escarpments

Anticlinal Theory

Suggests the rift valley was formed by Anticlinal arching.

Upward forces pushed sedimentary rock strata upwards.
The rock layers bent into a big arch.
A gaping/huge crack developed at the crest of the arch due to tension forming the rift valley.

The Great Rift Valley/The Great E.A Rift Valley

–The world’s biggest rift valley.

It starts in Syria and ends in Mozambique.

It’s divided into 4 parts.

Ethiopian Rift system-starts from Afar in Ethiopia to the Kenyan border around L. Stephanie.
Gregory Rift system-Starts from the northern border of Kenya with Ethiopia to Tanzania. It has a small N.E-S.W branches:
- Kano Rift valley in Kenya
- Eyasi Rift Valley in Tanzania
Western Rift valley-Starts at Sudan border to south of L. Rukwa. Features which are here are Ruwenzori Mountain and Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika and Rukwa.
Malawi Rift valley-a continuation of Gregory Rift system to Zambezi River in Mozambique. It has a small N.E-S.W branch called Luangwa valley.

The Gregory Rift Valley

-Named after a geologist called Gregory J.W who carried out extensive studies in this area.

It’s where the Rift Valley features are more pronounced.

Features associated with it

Fault blocks–Aberdare range, Mau, Nandi and Cherangani hills.
Step faults-Kijabe and Tambach
Tilt blocks-Aberdare range uplifted and tilted eastwards and Mau escarpment uplifted and tilted westwards.
Lava flows and volcanic cones e.g. Menengai and Ngorongoro crater.
Rift Valley lakes formed when unequal sinking created faults which were later filled with water. The lakes are deep and elongated. Examples are Lakes Naivasha, Nakuru, Elementaita, Baringo, Bogoria, Ol Bolossat and Turkana. Most of the lakes are salty with exception of L. Naivasha which has fresh water.

Why Most Rift Valley Lakes Are Salty

Lack of outlets to drain away salts contained in them.
Lack of enough water to dilute salinity due to little rainfall and lack of rivers flowing in them.
High rates of evaporation causing increased accumulation of salts.
Lake’s water being in contact with rocks with mineral salts which it directly dissolves.
Washing into the lake of mineral rich soils by surface runoff.

Why L. Naivasha Has Fresh Water

It has underground drainage to the Indian Ocean.
There is inflow of fresh water from rivers and rain.
The latest volcanic eruption covered the bed rock with lava.

Major Faulted Areas of the World

The Great Rift Valley from Syria to Mozambique.
Northern England and the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
The Central Massif of Europe.
The middle Rhine Rift Valley region.

Significance of Faulting

To Human Activities

Rift valley lakes are important for fishing, irrigation and domestic use.
The Rift Valley and associated features are a tourist attraction which earns foreign exchange.
Hot springs and geysers formed during faulting can be harnessed for geothermal power.
Block Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers due to the heavy rainfall they receive on the windward side.
Faulting results in the exposure of minerals such as diatomite in Gilgil and Fluorspar in Kerio Valley.
Fault scarps may expose underground water resulting in the formation of scarp springs.
Unequal subsidence caused by faulting may cause formation of depressions which may form lakes which useful for fishing, transport and mining e.g. L. Naivasha.

Negative

Faulting disrupts transport and communication by disjointing land.
Faulting may lead to loss of life and property by causing land to sink.
Faulting may cause a river to disappear or change its course and flow along the fault line.
Steep scarp slopes formed by faulting are prone to soil erosion.
Faulting has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas when Block Mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward sides to receive little rainfall.

VULCANICITY

-Process in which solid, liquid or gaseous materials are forced out of the interior of the earth into the earth’s crust or onto the earth’s surface.

These materials are magma, lava, gases, dust, ash and cinder.

Causes of Vulcanicity

Magma under high temperature and pressure moving through lines of weakness or faults.
When tectonic plates move away from each other and boundaries give way to magma.
Underground water coming into contact with hot materials hence changing into gaseous form.

There are 2 types of Vulcanicity:

Extrusive Vulcanicity (volcanic): in which materials intrude crustal rocks and don’t reach the earth’s surface. Magma is the molten material while it’s underground.

Intrusive Vulcanicity (plutonic): in which materials reach the earth’s surface. Lava is the molten material after it reaches the surface.

There are two types of lava and magma, acidic and basic. Acidic lava is viscous and solidifies quickly and doesn’t spread far but accumulates around the vent. Basic lava is more fluid or less viscous and takes longer before cooling and spreads for great distances before doing so. Other materials emitted are gases, ashes, dust and cinder. The solid materials are called pyroclasts. Materials come out through a hole/vent (vent eruption) or crack/fissure (fissure eruption).

Features Resulting From Vulcanicity

-Divided into intrusive and extrusive features or landforms.

Intrusive/Plutonic Features

-Features formed by intrusive Vulcanicity when materials intrude the earth’s crust.

Sill

–An igneous intrusion which lies along a bending plane of rock strata.

-Formed when magma forces its way between rock layers then cools and solidifies.

-It forms ridge like escarpments when exposed by erosion e.g. Fouta Djalon highland of Guinea and 3 sisters of S. Africa.

Dyke

-A wall-like igneous intrusion which lies across the bedding plane of rock strata.

-Formed when magma intrudes cracks or faults cutting across bedding planes of rocks then cools and solidifies.

-Can be vertical or inclined.

When exposed it forms ridges e.g. Kaap Valley in Transvaal S. Africa and Jos Plateau in Nigeria.

Laccolith

-A mushroom-shaped igneous intrusion lying between bending planes of a country rock.

-Formed when viscous magma pushes its way through a vent and accumulates around the vent before reaching the earth’s surface pushing the overlying rock into a dome shape.

-Its so high that land is turned into mountains e.g. El Koub Hill in Algeria, Henry Mountains in Utah U.S.A and Fonjay Massif in Madagascar.

Batholiths

-Largest igneous intrusion formed underground formed when very hot magma intrudes bedding planes of rocks and replaces or metamorphoses it e.g. Chaila Massif in Gabon, Ikhonga-Murwe in Kakamega and the largest is in British Columbia.

Lopolith

-a large saucer shaped igneous intrusion formed when viscous magma intrudes into bedding planes of a country rock. They form shallow depressions on the earths surface of the earth e.g. Bushveld complex in S. Africa and Duluth Gabbro mass in U.S.A.

Phacolith

–A lens shaped igneous intrusion which forms in the crest or trough of an anticline e.g. Corndon Hill in England.

Extrusive/Volcanic Features

-Formed when magma reaches the earth’s surface through vents or fissures.

Volcanoes

A volcano is a cone shaped hill formed when volcanic materials flow out and accumulate around a vent. Volcanoes are classified into three groups:

Active volcano- which is known to have erupted in recent times e.g. OL donyo Lengai in Tanzania and Mt. Cameroon, and Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Dormant volcano-not known to have erupted in the recent past but show signs of volcanic activity such as presence of hot springs, geysers and fumaroles e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Longonot and Menengai.
Extinct volcano-which has not shown signs of possible future eruptions e.g. Mountains Kenya and Elgon.

Types of Volcanoes

Acidic Lava Domes

–A steep dome shaped volcanic hill made of acidic lava.

Viscous lava flows out through a vent.
It accumulates around the vent because it’s viscous.
Eruptions occur later and lava flows out covering the layers below.
A steep sided dome shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g. Itasy Massif of Madagascar, Mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics

Its dome-shaped
Has steep slopes
Made of acidic lava
Has lava layers
Has steep slopes
Has a narrow base

Basic Lava Domes/Shield Volcanoes

–A low lying volcanic hill made of basic lava.

Basic magma flows out to the surface through a vent.
The lava flows far before solidifying because its fluid.
Eruptions occur later and lava spreads over the old lava.
A shield shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g. Canary Islands, Cape Verde and Sao Tome which are volcanic Islands in the Indian Ocean.

Characteristics

Dome/shield shaped
Has gentle slopes
Made of basic lava
Has lava layers
Has a broad base

Ash and Cinder Cones

A volcano built from ash and cinder or small fragments of lava.

Violent vent eruption occurs.
Ash and pyroclasts are emitted and thrown high.
Some materials fall and settle around the vent forming a hill.
Light materials are blown by wind to the leeward side e.g. Chyulu Hills, Teleki and Likaiyu near L. Turkana.

Characteristics

Made of pyroclasts
Asymmetrical about the axis
Cone shaped
Has smooth slopes
Has steep windward slope and gentle leeward slope

Composite /Complex/Stratified Volcanoes

A volcano made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts and conelets.

The first eruption throws out pyroclasts.
Then viscous lava flows out and solidifies on them.
Eruption occurs later blowing the rocks sealing the vent.
The pieces of rock settle on earlier solidified lava.
Another mass of lava flows out and spreads over pyroclasts and solidifies.
The process is repeated causing the volcano to build upwards
The conelets are formed when magma is unable to overcome the plug and finds its way through weak lines at the sides and then pyroclasts and lava accumulate around the side vent e.g. Mountains Kenya, Longonot, Elgon and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics

Cone shaped
Stratified (made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts.
It has conelets (parasitic cones).
It has steep slopes.
Made of acidic lava

Plug Dome/volcano/Spine

-A column of very viscous lava which sticks above the ground.

A column of very viscous magma flows out of the ground.
It cools and hardens rapidly as it rises vertically.
Pieces of rock break from the plug and accumulate on the sides e.g. Mont Pelee in West Indies, Hyrax and Fischer’s Tower at Hells gate in Naivasha and Devils Tower in U.S.A.

Characteristics

Made of very viscous lava.
It is dome shaped like a mushroom germinating out of the ground.
Has debris on its sides.
Has very steep sides
Cylindrical in shape
Disintegrates fast due to rocks undergoing rapid cooling.

Volcanic Plug

-Stump of rock formed when magma which solidified inside a vent (plug) is exposed by denudation.

A volcano is first formed.
Lava on the sides of the volcano is eroded fast due to cooling fast.
The lava in the vent which is hard due to slow cooling is exposed forming a stump of rock e.g. Peaks of Mt. Kenya, Rangwa Hill and Tororo Rock.

Characteristics

It resembles a stump of a tree.
Its dome shaped.
Very steep at the top and less steep at the bottom
Made of hard/resistant rock

Lava Plains and Plateaus

Lava plain: fairly level lowland below 500m above sea level covered by thin lava layers.

Lava plateau: fairly level highland/upland above 500m above sea level covered by thick layers.

-Formed by fissure eruption.

Magma of low viscosity comes out of the ground through a fissure.
It flows for a long distance before cooling and solidifying filling depressions and valleys forming a plain.
Eruption occurs later and lava flows out through lines of weakness on crustal rock and solidified lava.
The new lava spreads on top of the old lava forming a new layer.
The process is repeated and a plateau is formed e.g. Mwea, Nandi and Laikipia Plains and Yatta and Uasin Gishu Plateaus.

Craters

–A funnel shaped depression found on top of a volcano.

Modes of Formation

Cooling and Contraction of Magma

Eruption occurs and a volcano is formed.
Magma in the vent cools and contracts.
It withdraws into the vent leaving a depression at the vents mouth e.g. Ngorongoro and Menengai craters.
Rain water or water from melting snow may collect into craters to form crater lakes e.g. L. Paradise on Mt. Marsabit, L. Magadi on Ngorongoro Crater and L. Chala on Kenyan Tanzanian border.

Explosion

Gases underground expand due to heat from magma.
They force their way out through a weak line in the crustal rocks.
An explosion occurs leaving a hole in the ground called a ring craterg. Ghama and Dobot craters in Tanzania and Hora craters in Ethiopia.
Water from underground or rivers may accumulate into ring craters to form lakes called maarsg. Lakes Katwe and Nyungu in Uganda.

Falling of a Meteorite

A meteorite falls on the earth’s surface.
It sinks into the rocks leaving a depression.
Water may collect into the depression forming a lake e.g. L. Bosumtwi in Ghana.

Calderas/Basal Wreck

–A very large basin-shaped depression on the summit of a volcano.

Modes of Formation

Violent Explosion

Gases and water heated by magma expand.
They force their way through a vent.
The rocks at the top of the volcano are blown off forming a large depression e.g. Nyirarongo Caldera in DRC and Sabiro Caldera in Uganda.

Block Subsidence/Cauldron

Eruption occurs to form a volcano.
An empty space (cauldron) is left in the magma reservoir in the mantle.
The rocks forming the middle of volcano are pulled inwards by gravity.
The middle of the volcano collapses forming a large depression at the top e.g. Menengai Caldera near Nakuru and Ngorongoro caldera which is the largest in E. Africa and 6^th largest in the world.
Water from rain or underground may fill calderas to form lakes e.g. L. Magadi in the Ngorongoro caldera and L. Ngozi in Tanzania.

Outward Collapsing

Ash and pyroclasts volcano grows high.
Materials on top exert pressure on those below.
Materials at the base begin to spread outwards.
The top of volcano collapses inwards forming a collapse caldera e.g. Napak Caldera in Uganda.

–A vent in a volcano which emits gases.

Fumaroles

The gases come from chemical reactions in crustal rocks when heated by magma or when minerals in rocks come into contact with hot air and steam underground.

They are of two types:

Mofette: fumarole which emits carbon dioxide.

Solfatara: fumarole which emits gases with sulphurous compounds.

Hot Springs and Geysers

Hot spring is a place where hot water is emitted from the ground quietly e.g. at the shores of Lakes Magadi and Bogoria.

A geyser is a jet of water and steam which are violently ejected from the ground e.g. at Olkaria and western shores of L. Bogoria.

How They Are Formed

Percolating water is heated by hot rocks or magma.
Some collect into chambers called sumps where it develops pressure causing it to be superheated super heated.
The pressure forces the steam outwards towards the earths surface through holes and cracks in rocks.
The steam comes out of the ground which reduces pressure in sumps causing the water to expand/boil and come to the surface.
The steam comes out with a whistling sound accompanied by water forming a geyser.
The escaping steam heats ground water in surrounding rock.
The heated water may find its way to the surface where it quietly comes out of the ground forming a hot spring.

Differences

Hot spring

Geyser

-Water comes out quietly.

-only water comes out.

-water may just be warm.

-Water and steam come out violently.

-water is accompanied by steam.

-water is very hot.

Pools of Boiling Water

–Small area of still water which appears to be boiling.

Actual heating of pool water by gases and steam causing the water to boil.
Gases and steam coming out below the pool of water causing the pool to bubble and appear as if it’s boiling.

World Distribution of Volcanoes

Regions of faulting e.g. the Great Rift Valley of E. Africa.
Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.
The western coast of America.
Zones of recent mountain building e.g. fold mountains of S.E Asia.

Significance of Vulcanicity

Positive

Volcanic rocks weather to form fertile agriculturally productive soils e.g. basalt.
Geysers are sources of geothermal electricity e.g. at Olkaria.
Hot springs water is pumped into houses for heating during winter e.g. Iceland.
Volcanic features are a tourist attraction e.g. hot springs, geysers and snow capped Mt. Kenya.
Igneous rocks e.g. phonolites are crushed to make ballast for building roads, bridges, etc.
Crater lakes are a source of fish e.g. L. Katwe in Uganda, sources of minerals e.g. L. Magadi and sources of water for domestic use.
Volcanic mountains are catchment areas, sources of rivers and habitats for wildlife.
Pumice a volcanic rock is used as a scrubbing stone.
Vulcanicity is useful for production of gases e.g. carbon dioxide used in soft drinks manufacture.

Negative

Volcanic eruptions cause of life and destruction of property e.g. sulphur dioxide, ash, cinder and lava may bury houses and farm land.
Volcanic mountains are barrier to transport and communication.
Volcanic mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward slopes to receive little rainfall by preventing rain bearing winds from reaching there.
Volcanic eruptions cause environmental pollution from dust, ash and sulphur dioxide.

EARTH QUAKES

-Sudden and rapid movement of the earths crust.

-areas prone to them are called seismic zones and those not prone are called aseismic zones.

It’s caused by shock waves.

There are 3 types of earthquake waves namely:

Primary waves-which travel fastest and cause the rock particles to vibrate in a push and pull manner and can pass through gases, liquids and solids.
Secondary waves-which cause rock particles to vibrate at right angles to the direction of wave movement.
Surface longitudinal waves-which cause surface rocks to shake sometimes causing buildings to collapse.
1. Rayleigh waves-Which cause surface rocks to move in elliptical orbits.
2. Love waves-which cause rock particles to move in a horizontal manner at right angle to the direction of wave.

Earth quake originates from a point known as seismic focus/origin.

The part of the earth vertically above the seismic focus and where the shock waves are first experienced is called epicentre.

Causes of Earthquakes

Natural Causes

Tectonic movements e.g. movement of tectonic plates. They cause tectonic earthquakes.
Vulcanicity when magma movement displaces rocks suddenly shaking and shuttering them.
Gravitative force when crustal rocks collapse into cauldron due to gravity.
Energy release in the mantle when radioactivity takes place in mantle releasing explosive energy which sends shock waves outwards.
Isostatic adjustment when the continental masses rise to restore the upset state of balance between sial and sima layers.

Human Causes

Exploding nuclear bombs underground which causes shock waves which spread outwards and are felt in the neighbourhood.
When a train rolls on its rails causing the ground to vibrate.
Explosion of explosives used in mining and quarrying which cause vibrations to be felt in the neighbourhood.
When large reservoirs are constructed and the heavy weight of water reactivate dormant faults causing tremors.

Measurement of Earthquakes

Seismograph is a pendulum based instrument used to measure earthquakes.

It records seismic impulses on a graph-like record called seismogram mounted on it.

Earthquakes are measured by their intensity and magnitude.

Intensity

-Measure of how strong/hard the quake shakes the ground.

It’s seen from the effects the earthquake has on people, buildings and other structures.

It’s measured on the Mercalli Scale which uses a scale running from Roman i-xiii e.g.

I- description -imperceptible
V-rather strong-sleepers are awakened and there is swinging of objects.
VIII-destructive-gaping cracks in walls some brought down.
XII- major catastrophe-every building destroyed.

Magnitude

-Measure of amount of energy given off by an earthquake.

It’s measured on Ritcher Scale which ranges from 0-8.9.

Intensity values depend on how far a place is from epicentre.

The higher the scale the more severe the earthquake is.

Intensity I-magnitude 2
Intensity VIII-magnitude 6
Intensity XII-magnitude 8.5.

World Distribution of Earthquakes

Within the zones of major faulting e.g. Rift Valley.
In areas of Vulcanicity e.g. Oldonyo Lengai in Tanzania.
Along boundaries of tectonic plates e.g. Japan, Philippines, East Indies and west coast of north and South America.

Effects of Earthquakes

Can cause loss of life and property when buildings collapse burying people.
Disrupt transport and communication by vertically and laterally displacing land which disconnects pipelines, electricity lines, roads and railways.
Causes landslides which also cause loss of life and property and disrupts communication.
Causes raising and lowering of the sea floor and the coastal regions.
Cause huge sea waves called Tsunami which may flood the neighbouring coastal areas.
Trigger folding, Vulcanicity and fires.
Give off a lot of explosive energy more than an atomic bomb.
Cause fear and panic.
Hinder settlement as it is restricted to aseismic areas.
Cause violent motions of the earth’s surface.

MAP WORK

Map – representation of the whole or part of the earth’s surface drawn to scale.

Shows outline of objects on the ground
Drawn as if the drawer was above the ground
It shows details
Most of the features are indicated by symbols.

Picture: image of a real object.

Gives details in their visible shapes and sizes
Can be inform of free hand, drawing, painting or a photograph
Not drawn to scale

Plan: outline of something drawn to scale.

Also drawn as if a person was directly above the ground
It represents a very small place
The scale is large to show details e.g. house plan
Gives specific information

Types of Maps

Classified according to the purpose for which each map is drawn.

Topographical Maps: This shows selected natural physical features on a small portion of a country.

Atlas maps: this is a collection of maps in one volume.

Sketch maps: maps which are roughly drawn. A good sketch map should have the following characteristics:

neat and clear
title
frame
key
compass direction

Uses of Maps

Sketch maps are used to summarise information for easy reference.
Used for locating other countries.
Used for comparing sizes of countries.
For locating climatic regions of different parts of the world.
Give information on distribution of geographical phenomena e.g. vegetation on the earth’s surface.
Help travellers to find their way.
Used to calculate distance of a certain place.
Used to locate physical features like landforms.

Marginal Information

Information contained in the area surrounding the map.

Map name e.g. Yimbo.
Sheet title e.g. East Africa 1:50000 (Kenya).
grid system numbers
latitudes and longitudes
Compass direction with grid, true and magnetic north.
scales
key
publisher and copyright
Map identification
- Map series
- Sheet number or sheet index

Map Scales

A scale is a ratio of a distance on a map to a corresponding distance on the ground.

Types of Scales

Statement scale –expressed in words e.g. 1cm represents 1km, 1cm to 1km.

Representative Fraction (RF)-expressed as a fraction or ratio e.g. 1/200,000 or 1:200,000.

Linear scale-shown by a line which is subdivided into smaller units.

Conversion of Scales

Statement scale into RF

1cm rep 1km to RF

Multiply the number of kilometres by 100,000 (1km=100,000cm) i.e. 1×100000=100,000.

Statement scale is 1/100,000 or 1:100,000.

2cm rep 1km

Divide both sides by two to get 1cm rep ½ kilometres.

Multiply ½ by 100,000 to get 50,000.

RF is 1/50,000 or 1:50,000.

RF to Statement Scale

Divide the denominator by 100,000.

Write the scale in statement form.

Linear Scale to Statement Scale

Measure a unit distance off a linear scale e.g.
The distance is 4-3=1km which is represented by 2cm.
Use the methods in (1) and (2) above.

Given that the ground distance is 200km while the distance on map is 20cm calculate the scale.

Sizes of Scales

Small scales- show a large area of land on a small size of paper. They show limited details e.g. 1:250,000, 1:500,000, 1:1,000,000.
Medium scales- used to represent a relatively smaller area on a given size of paper e.g. 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:125,000.
Large scales-used to represent a small area of land on a given piece of paper. They show a lot of details e.g. 1:2,500, 1:10,000, 1:25000

Arranging Scales in Order

Ascending Order-smallest to largest

Descending Order-largest to smallest

(1)1/500,000

(3)1:25,000

(4)1/10,000

(2)1cm rep 500m

Uses of Scales

Estimating distances on maps
Measuring distances accurately-use dividers and ruler, piece of string or thread for curved distances or straight edge of paper.

E.g. calculate actual distance of a line 8.5cm long on a map using the following scales.

(i) 2cm rep 1km

(ii) 1:100,000

Calculation of areas-no. of full grid squares+ number of ½grid squares/2 or use of rectangles (l×b) or triangles (½ b×h).

Direction

-Course upon which something is pointing to.

Methods of Showing Direction

Traditional Methods

Use of Stars

-E.g. use of groups of stars called plough to find northern direction by locating the pole star and use of Southern Cross by using the brightest star which is over South Pole to find northern direction.

Use of Shadows

-E.g. morning, shadow of flag pole cast to your left you are facing north, etc.

Land Marks

-Using conspicuous features such as hills, buildings even roads to get direction.

Modern Methods

Land Marks
Compass Direction.

-Use of magnetic compass which has a needle which always points north.

It has 16 cardinal points and 4 are basic.

Bearing

–Expression of direction in degrees of an angle.

It’s measured from north in a clockwise direction.

Calculation of Bearing

Draw N-S line through observation point.

Join the two points. If it’s a feature the line should end at the centre of that feature.

Using a protractor measure the angle between the N-S line and the line joining the 2 points in a clockwise direction.

Bearing is expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds. 1◦=60’(min), 1 min=60” (sec)

The degrees are always expressed in 3 figures e.g. 030◦

Types of Norths

True North

-Position on the globe where all longitudes meet or the direction of N. Pole.

Grid North

-Point where Eastings meet at the N. Pole.

Magnetic North

-Point which the magnetic needle rests when left to swing freely.

Types of Bearing

Grid Bearing

-Bearing calculated from Grid North.

Join the two points on the topographical map using a line.
Measure the angle where the Eastings intersect the line joining the two points e.g. 030◦.

True Bearing

–Bearing calculated from True North. Its calculated when the type of bearing isn’t specified.

-E.g. from our compass diagram true bearing will be 30◦-1’=29◦59’

Magnetic Bearing

-Bearing calculated from Magnetic North.

Position of Magnetic North changes slightly every year.

Steps

Years which have elapsed × Annual change. (No need if annual change is negligible). E.g. from our compass diagram annual change =(2009-1991)×4.8’=18×4.8’’=86.4’’=1◦26.4’
Add to the angle between the grid and magnetic bearing 1.e. 1◦26.4’+2◦30’=3◦56.4’
Add to the Grid bearing (if change is towards E) or Subtract (if change is towards W). 30◦ +3◦ 56.4’=33◦4’

Location of Places

–Showing of position of a place or feature on a topographical map.

Methods

Use of Place Names

-Locating a feature by using the name of the place it’s at e.g. a river in Kisumu, Nakuru, etc or if it isn’t at a named place locate by the nearest name place e.g. a meander near Garissa town.

Use of Direction, Bearing and Distance

This is from a stated position e.g. Locate Nakuru from Nairobi.

Nakuru is 157km N.W of Nairobi.

Latitudes and Longitudes

The main longitudes are I.D.L and Greenwich /Prime Meridian.

The main lines of latitudes:

The equator/Great Circle (0◦) which is the longest.
Tropic of Cancer (23½◦N) of equator.
Tropic of Capricorn (23½◦) south of equator.
The Arctic Circle (66½◦N).
Antarctic Circle (66 ½ ◦ S).

They are marked at the margins. Latitude is stated first (N or S) and longitude later (E or W) e.g. X◦N Y◦E

Identify a place.
Identify the nearest numbered latitude and longitude.
Estimate to the nearest 1◦.

Grid Reference

Grid lines: network of lines on topographical maps.

-Numbered in small and large numbers and the large ones are used.

Eastings: N-S grid lines called so because they are numbered eastwards.

Northings: W-E grid lines called so because they are numbered northwards.

Grid reference is given in 4 figures or six figures. In 4 figure the nearest grid line is stated while the 6 figure is estimated in fractions by dividing the space between grid line into 10 equal parts.

Easting is stated first followed by northing.

In the example below the 4 figure grid references are:

A-6856
B-6856
C-6857

6 figure grid references are:

A-675555
B-680560
C-682568

Methods of Representing Relief on Topographical maps

Relief is the nature of landscape e.g. plain, plateau, valleys, hills, etc.

Spot Heights

-Points on map whose positions and heights have been determined by surveyors. They are shown by a dot and a figure e.g. (.1827).

Advantage-show actual heights
Disadvantage-can’t be used to identify landforms.

Trigonometrical Stations/Points

-Carefully chosen points carefully chosen and their altitude determined which —Are used as a basis for surveying an area.

They are marked on the ground by concrete pillar or slab.

They are indicated on topographical maps by:

Isohypes/Contours and Form Lines

A contour is a line on a map joining all points of the same height above sea level. They are browner in colour and have heights written on them.

Form lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of approximately the same height above sea level. They are less brown than contours and not all have values written on them.

Both contours and form lines are referred to as contours.

Contour/Vertical interval is the difference in height between any two successive contours.

Advantages of contours:

They show actual heights.
Can be used to identify land forms.

Pictorials

-Showing relief by drawing landforms at approximate positions where they are found e.g. mountains, hills, valleys, etc.

Disadvantages:

They obscure details behind them.
Don’t give height above sea level.
Limited variety of landforms can be accommodated.

Hachures

-Short lines drawn to represent direction of slope.

On steep land they are thick and close together.
On gentle slopes they are thin and wide apart.

Their disadvantage is that they can’t be drawn on flat land.

Hill Shading

-Showing relief by shading to show shadows where by steepest slopes which are list lit have darker shade while hill tops, surfaces of plateaus and plains and valley bottoms are well lit have lighter shade.

Layer Tinting

-Colouring or shading land within a certain range of altitude or using a single colour with varying tones where the colour gets darker with increasing altitude.

PHOTOGRAPH WORK

A photograph is an image of an object, person or scene recorded by a camera on a light sensitive film or paper.

Types of Photographs

Ground Photographs

-Taken from the ground. They are of 2 types:

Ground Horizontals- taken with the camera at the same level as the object. They are of 2 types.

Ground close ups/particular view photographs-taken from the ground with a camera focused on one particular object.

Ground General View Photographs-taken from the ground with camera focused on general scenery.

Ground Obliques-taken from the ground with a camera slanting/held at an angle.

Aerial Photographs

–Taken from the air e.g. from aircrafts, balloons or satellites. They are of 2 types:

Aerial Obliques-taken from the air with camera tilted towards the ground.

Vertical Aerial Photographs-taken from the air with the camera directly above the object or scenery.

Parts of a Photograph

Left back ground	Centre background	Right background
Left middle ground	Centre middle ground	Left middle ground
Left foreground	Centre foreground	Right foreground

Uses of Photographs

Used in learning geography because they bring unfamiliar features in the classroom enabling the students to understand them better.

Photographs showing vegetation and human activities can be used to deduce the climate of an area.

Aerial photographs show vital information on land use.

Photographs showing land forming processes help us to understand those processes.

Limitations in the Use of Photographs

Coloured photographs are generally expensive to produce.

Black and white photographs don’t show the real colours of objects or scenery e.g. it’s difficult to distinguish ripe coffee berries from green ones.

Some aerial photographs have objects which are far away and hence unclear which may lead to the wrong interpretation.

Vertical aerial photographs are difficult to interpret without special instruments like stereoscopes.

Photographs are difficult to interpret if they are brulled because it’s difficult to distinguish objects which look similar e.g. wheat and barley.

Interpretation of Photographs

-Means to explain the meaning of the objects or features on a photograph. It involves the following:

Determining the Title

Photographs show human activities, physical features, natural catastrophes etc e.g. nomadic pastoralism, drought, flooding, etc. when determining the title examine the photograph carefully and apply the knowledge you have learnt in geography.

Estimating Time

-In the tropics the shadows are short at noon and longest in the morning and afternoon.

If the camera is facing south and the shadow is cast to the right it’s in the morning and if cast to the left it’s in the afternoon.

Estimating Season

Dry season

Bright clear skies

Dry vegetation

harvesting

Light clothes e.g. shirts and T-shirts since temperature is high (also an indication of high temperature.

Rainy season

Rain clouds

Luxuriant vegetation

Young crops

Flowering plants

Weeding

Heavy clothing e.g. pullovers or jackets since temps are low (also an indication of cool season).

Determining Compass Direction

It it’s in the morning and the shadow of flag pole is cast to the left the photographer is facing north and if cast to the right he was facing south.

It it’s in the morning and the shadow is facing towards you the photographer was facing east and it taken in the afternoon and the shadow is facing towards you the photographer was facing west.

Interpretation of Physical Features on Photographs

Relief

Flat land

Rice crop
Irrigation
Combine harvesters
Swamps
Meanders
Oxbow lakes
Inselbergs (isolated hills)

Hilly/Mountainous landscape/Highland Area

Steep slopes

Terraced landscape

Tea, wheat crops which grow at high altitude

rapids

Water falls

Interlocking spurs

Drainage

Youthful Stage

Rapids

Waterfalls

Interlocking spurs

Middle Stage

meanders

oxbow lakes

Lower Stage

deltas
distributaries
meanders and oxbow lakes
flood plain

Vegetation

Natural

Indigenous species
Dense undergrowth
Trees grow haphazardly
Different species of trees
Not of the same height

Planted

Exotic species
In rows
Little undergrowth
Same species
Same heights

Tropical Rain Forests

Trees
Broad leaves
Umbrella shaped

Marshes

swamps

Savannah Grassland

Grass and short trees (woodland).

Desert Vegetation

Thorny leaves
Baobab and acacia
Scrub-land covered with shrubs and underdeveloped trees (shrubs).

Climate

High Temperatures and low rainfall

Sugar cane
Grass
Sisal
Scrub and bush land vegetation
Dense forests
Light clothes

Cool Temperature and High rainfall (Sufficient, Reliable and well distributed)

Tea
Coffee
Wheat
Dairy farming

Soils

Acidic and Volcanic Soils

Coffee
Tea

Clay Soils

Rice

Black Cotton Soils

Cotton
Rice

Loamy Soil

Horticultural crops

Human Activities and evidence

Settlement

-Group of dwellings where people live.

Rural Settlements

Semi permanent houses
Farming or fishing activity
Uneven distribution of settlements
Presence of villages

Urban Settlements

Permanent buildings
Storied buildings
Heavy traffic presence
Regular street patterns

Agriculture/Farming

Subsistence Farming

Temporary and permanent houses
Small pieces of land
Mixed cropping
Simple implements
Local and exotic breeds of livestock

Crop farming

Crops
People preparing land or weeding or Harvesting

Commercial Crop Farming

cash crops
machinery
feeder routes
processing factories

Plantation Farming

Single crop on extensive piece of land e.g. tea, coffee, etc.
Many labourers
Nucleated settlement within farms

Livestock Rearing

Nomadic Pastoralism

Cattle grazing in a grassland or semi-arid region

Daily Farming

Zero grazing
Cattle with big udders

Ranching

Paddocks
Wind mills

Mining

Quarry
Large open pits
Large excavators
Lorries carrying loads of rocks

Industrial Manufacturing

Buildings with large chimneys
People engaged in a processing activity such as Jua kali artisans.

Lumbering

People cutting trees using power saws
People loading timber into lorries
Logs pilled near a saw mill
Forests with stumps
Logs floating on a river

Transport

Motor transport

Vehicles on roads

Railway Transport

Railway line
Trains

Air Transport

Flat tarmacked piece of land
Aircraft

Water Transport

Boats
Ships
Ferries

Communication

Telephone lines
Telephone booths
Post office
Satellite masts
V and radio stations

Sketching Diagrams from Photographs

Draw a rectangle the same size as the photograph.
Divide it into squares using faint lines.
Subdivide the photograph into 9 sections.
Insert the features in their exact positions using simple lines being guided by the squares.
Label the important features e.g. vegetation, land use, prominent buildings, transport, and communication.
Give the sketch a suitable title.

Graphs

-2 dimensional drawings which show relationships between 2 types of data representing two items also called variables. These are dependent variable which is affected by the other e.g. temperature (on y axis) and independent variable whose change is not affected by the other e.g. altitude (on x axis).

Steps

Draw x and y axis.
Choose suitable scale to accommodate the highest and lowest value.
Plot the values accurately using faint dots.
Join the dots using curved line. If it’s a bar graph the dots should be at the middle of the top line. Years should also be at the middle. You should have also decided on the width of the bars.
In data without continuity e.g. crop production there should be gaps between bars and for one with continuity e.g. rainfall bars should not have gaps.
Draw vertical lines on either side of the dot then draw horizontal line to join them with the dot.
Shade uniformly if they are representing only one type of data and differently if representing one type of data.
In combined line and bar graph temperature figures are plotted on the right hand side of y-axis while rainfall on the left
Don’t start exactly at zero.
Include temperature and rainfall scales.
Start where the longest bar ends.

What a Well Drawn Graph Should Have

Title
Scale/scales
Labelled and marked x and y axis starting at zero.
Key if required e.g. in comparative bar graph.
Accurately plotted and lines, curves or bars properly drawn.

Simple Line graph

Advantages

Easy to construct
Easy to interpret
Easy to read/estimate exact values.
Shows trend or movement overtime.

Disadvantages

Doesn’t give a clear impression on the quantity of data.
May give false impression on the quantity especially when there was no production.
Poor choice of vertical scale may exaggerate fluctuations in values.
Difficult to find exact values by interpolation.

Simple Bar Graph/histogram

Advantages

Easy to construct.
Easy to interpret.
Easy to read.
Gives a clear visual impression on the quantity of data.

Disadvantages

Poor choice of vertical scale may cause exaggeration of bars.
Doesn’t show continuity/ variation of data overtime.
Unsuitable technique when values exist in continuity.
Not possible to obtain intermediate values from the graph.

Combined Line and bar Graph

Advantages

Easy to construct.

Easy to read.

It shows relationship between two sets of data.

Disadvantages

Difficult to choose suitable scale when values of variables differ by great magnitude.
Considerable variation of data represented by the line may cause the line the bars thus obscuring the relationship.
Doesn’t show relationship between the same sets of data of more than one place.

Temperature and Rainfall for Thika

Month	J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
Temp(◦c)	24	24	23	22	19	17	17	18	19	20	22	23
Rainfall(mm)	109	122	130	76	52	34	28	38	70	108	121	120

Analysis and Interpretation

The month with heaviest rainfall is May.
The month with lowest rainfall is July.
The hottest month was January and February.
The months with lowest temperature were June and July.

Crop Production in Kenya in the Years 2001 and 2002

crop	Amount in metric tonnes
	2001		2002
Tea	300,000	500,000
Coffee	120,000	80,000
wheat	120,000	150,000
Maize	250,000	400,000

Value of export Crops from Kenya (ksh million)

Crop	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001
Tea	24126	32971	33065	35150	34485
Coffee	16856	12817	12029	11707	7460
Horticulture	13752	14938	17641	21216	19846

If the data has large figures e.g. 195262 plot in 1000s=195, 184,988=185.

You can draw comparative/group/multiple line and bar graphs from the data.

Comparative/Group/Multiple Line Graph

Advantages

Simple to construct
Suitable when comparing trends or movements
Comparison of items is easy because the graphs are drawn using common axis
Its easy to read exact values from each graph

Disadvantages

Number of items which can be represented are limited
Crossing of lines may make interpretation and comparison difficult and confusing.
Total amount of variable cant be established at a glance.

Comparative Bar Graph

Advantages

Easy to construct
Easy to read and interpret
Easy to compare similar components within different bars.
Gives a good impression of totality.
Individual contribution made by each component is clearly seen.
Differences in quantity of components are clearly seen.

Disadvantages

Doesn’t show trend of components over time.
Not easy to compare components where bars are many
Not suitable for many components.

Divided Bars or Rectangles

Production of Sugarcane in 1000 tonnes of 5 major factories in Kenya

Factory	Production(ooo tonnes)	Length in cm
Sony	50	0.5
Nzoia	100	1
Chemilil	200	2
Muhoroni	250	2.5
Mumias	400	4
Total	1000	10

Reported Visitor Arrivals by Continent for the Year 2000

Continent	No. of visitors	Length of strip (cm)
Africa	153904	1.5
America	77271	0.8
Asia	58784	0.6
Europe	663906	6.6
Other	82672	0.8
Total		10.3

Look for a convenient scale say 1cm rep 100000 visitors

Draw a divided rectangle 10 cm long to represent the data.
Show your calculations.

-It should have the following:

Title
Different shades
Key
Width of 2cm

Analysis and Interpretation

-To get the meaning of

Factory leading in sugar production is Mumias.
The 2^ndleading is Muhoroni.
Factory with the lowest production of sugar is Sony.
Calculation of %s.

Advantages

Easy to construct
Easy to compare components because they are arranged in ascending or descending order.
Takes less space than when the data is presented using graphs.
Each component proportion to the total can easily be seen at a glance.

Disadvantages

Can’t be used for a large data.
Only one unit of measurement can be used.
Difficult to asses values of individual component
The visual impression isn’t as good as pie charts.

Exercise

Temperature and Rainfall for Kisumu

Month	J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
Temp(◦c)	19	20	20	18	20	19	19	18	18	18	18	18
Rainfall(mm)	18	38	66	127	114	84	112	104	69	56	38	31

Draw a bar graph to represent rainfall figures.
Calculate the mean monthly temperature for the place.
Calculate the mean annual temperature range.
calculate the annual rainfall totals.

Temp/Day	Mon	Tue	Wed	Thurs	Fri	Sat	Sun
Max ◦c	28	27	28	26	29	29	26
Min ◦c	18	18	20	16	22	21	19

Calculate the diurnal/daily temperature range for Tuesday.
Calculate the mean daily temperature for Sunday.
1. Suppose at 40 ◦c air can hold 60g/m3 of water vapour and the maximum vapour it can hold is 70g/m3. Calculate the relative humidity.
2. (a) Calculate the time at Lamu 70◦E when time at GWM is noon.

(b) Calculate the longitude of Watamu whose time is 6pm when time at GWM is 9am.

Students from a certain school obtained the following marks in their end of term geography examination.

74, 52, 48, 60, 48, 32, 80, 67 and 85.

Calculate the following:

Median
Mode
Mean
State their advantages and disadvantages.
1. (a) Calculate the scale given that the ground distance is 200km while the distance on the map is 20cm.

(b) A student measured the length of a road on a map from point A to B and found it to be 3.6 cm. Use a scale of 1:50000 calculate the actual/ground distance in km.

Students intend to carry out field study of a forest around their school.

State two ways in which they’d prepare themselves.
State 2 objectives they’d have formulated for their study.
List two problems they’d have encountered in the field.
State two follow up activities they would have after the field study.

CLIMATE

-Average weather conditions of a given place over a long period of time usually 30-35 years.

Factors Influencing Climate

Latitude

It influences temperature whereby low latitudes have high temperature and high latitudes have low temperature due to the angle at which the sun rays strike the earth and the distance travelled by the suns rays.
It also influences rainfall whereby places in the equator receive rainfall in two seasons when the sun is overhead there while northern and southern tropical areas receive rainfall when the position of the sun is overhead in those areas.

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

It’s a low pressure belt around equator where trade winds converge.

It influences rainfall in the following ways:

Places further from equator experience one rainy season when the sun is overhead and a long dry season when the sun is in the S. hemisphere.
Regions near equator have 2 seasons of heavy rainfall because they experience passage of ITCZ twice.

Altitude

It influences temperature whereby at low altitude temperature is high while at high altitude its lower due to the thickness of atmosphere determining the number of particles to store heat and distance from space where terrestrial radiation is lost.
It also influences rainfall whereby mountains on the path of rain winds receive Orographic rainfall and the windward slopes receive heavier rainfall than leeward slopes.

Distance from the Sea

It influences temperature whereby places in temperate regions near the sea experience low temperature during summer onshore winds blowing over cold ocean water and taking the cooling influence on adjacent land because the water is heated at a slower rate than land.
Places near the sea also experience higher temperatures during the winter or cool season due to sea breezes carrying warmer air to the land because water loses heat at a slower rate than land.
Temperatures in the interior of continents tend to be high in summer and very low in winter due to lack of marine influence.
It also influences rainfall whereby coastal regions receive a lot of rain when the winds are onshore and the continental interiors receive less rain mainly in summer because onshore winds will have dropped most of moisture along the way.

Ocean Currents

It influences temperature whereby coasts which are washed by warm ocean currents are warmer while those washed by cold ocean currents are cooler due to the onshore winds being either warmed or cooled and then taking the warmth or coolness to the land.
It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean currents experience heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are warmed by the current and made to hold on to moisture which they release on reaching the land.
The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand experience low rainfall as a result of moist winds being cooled and moisture in them condensed resulting in rain falling over the ocean thereby bringing little or no rain to the coastal areas. This is the cause of western margin deserts e.g. Kalahari and Namib deserts.

Aspect

-Direction of slope in relation to sunlight and the rain bearing winds. Its effect on temperature is more pronounced in the northern and southern hemisphere.

In the N and S hemispheres the slopes facing sun are warmer while those facing away are cooler.
The slopes in the direction of rain winds i.e. the windward slopes receive heavier relief rainfall than the leeward side.

Winds and Air Masses

Wind blowing from a warm region warms the region its passing over and if blowing from a cool region cools the region it’s passing over since wind is a medium of transfer of heat.

Sea breezes take cooling influence on land during hot afternoons.
Katabatic winds cause low night temperatures on valleys and foot of mountains.
Fohn and Chinook which are descending dry winds take dryness to the leeward sides of Alps and Rockies.

Winds influence rainfall in the following ways:

Anabatic winds cause afternoon showers on mountainous regions.
Moisture laden winds cause heavy rainfall.
Persistent dry winds cause desert like conditions in the area they pass over e.g. Harmattan winds from Sahara which blow over W. Africa.
Regions around large water bodies experience high rainfall because of the effect of land breezes.

Configuration of Coastline

Coastal regions across the path of moisture laden winds receive higher rainfall because winds deposit moisture on land e.g. Mombasa while those lying parallel to the path of those winds receive less rainfall because moisture is deposited on the sea e.g. Lamu.

Forests

Forested areas experience a micro climate whereby:

Temperature is lower due to shades of trees reducing solar insolation reaching the ground.
Rainfall is heavier due to high rate of evapotranspiration and friction between trees and rain bearing winds.

Human Activities

Man has caused deforestation in the process of creating room for settlement and agriculture which has caused drop in rainfall amounts leading to semi-arid conditions.
Man has constructed dams across rivers and done afforestation which has caused semi-arid regions to become wetland.
Gases especially co2 emitted from burning fossil fuels and chlorofluorocarbons layer cause global warming through the green house effect and destruction of ozone layer respectively.

The Climatic Regions of Kenya

Modified Equatorial Climate

-Experienced along the coast and along the coast from Somali-Tanzanian border and L. Victoria basin regions around the lake.

Along the Coast

Characteristics

High temperatures throughout the year mean annual about 27◦c.
Small mean annual range of temperature about 4◦c.
Hottest months are December and January.
Experiences rainfall throughout the year/ no real dry season.
Double maxima rainfall regime (2 rain seasons) in May and October.
High humidity due to high temperature causing high rates of evaporation and nearness to the sea.

Victoria Basin

Characteristics

Temperature is lower than the truly equatorial climate due to modifying influence of the lake (mean annual range between 22-26◦c).
There are no real dry months.
Heavy rainfall ranging from 1000-600mm.
Double maxima rainfall regime.
Receives convectional type of rainfall which falls mainly in the afternoons.
High relative humidity due to high temperature and nearness to the lake which is a source of moisture.

Modified Tropical Climate

-Experienced in central highlands E and W of R. Valley.

Characteristics

Mean annual temperatures averages between 17-24◦c.
Lower warmer slopes and cooler higher slopes due to modification by altitude.
Receives rainfall throughout the year (1000-2000mm).
Receives Orographic rainfall caused by S.E Trade Winds.
Double maxima rainfall regime in eastern highlands and single maximum in the W. highlands.
Humidity is moderate.

Tropical Continental/desert Climate

-Experienced in about ½ of Kenya in most of N, N.E, most of E and S Kenya.

Characteristics

High temperatures throughout the year with mean between22 and 27◦c.
Generally dry with less than 500mm of unreliable rainfall.
Large diurnal range of temperature.
The skies are generally clear.
Low humidity.
Temperature has been modified by relief in some areas e.g. Voi-25◦c and Garissa -28.5◦c.

Tropical Climate

-Experienced in Narok, S. Taita and Kwale region.

Characteristics

High temperatures (mean annual temp-16.5◦c).
Temperature is modified by relief in some areas e.g. Loita, Taita and Narok which has made the place suitable for human habitation.
Generally low rainfall amounts.
Rain falls in one season.
A long dry season lasting up to 6 months.

Tropical Northern Climate

-experienced in a small area in the N. W part of Kenya bordering Uganda.

Characteristics

High average temperatures.
Temperatures are modified in some places by altitude.
Low mean annual rainfall of about 850mm.
Rain falls mainly in June and September.
Experiences a long dry season of up to 6 months.

Desert Climate

-Experienced in central northern Kenya where there are pure deserts such as Chalbi, Karoli and Kaisut deserts.

Characteristics

Temperatures are very high throughout the year averaging 30◦c due to cloudless skies.
Very low rainfall of less than 250mm per year.
Characterised by diverging or descending winds which don’t bring any rain.
Night temperatures are extremely low.
Humidity is low.
Sandstorms are common occurrences.

World Climatic Regions

Classifications

Hot climates
Warm climates
Cool climates
very cold climates
Mountain climates
micro/local climates

Hot/Tropical Climates

-Experienced within the tropical latitudes.

-Subdivided into:

Equatorial climate
Tropical monsoon climate
Savannah climate/Sudan type
Tropical desert climate
Tropical marine climate

Equatorial climate

-Experienced in the following areas:

Amazon basin in S. America.
Along west coast of Africa from guinea to Cote d’ Ivoire.
Southern part of Nigeria through Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo to Zaire.
E Asia in Malaysia, Indonesia and a stretch between Burma and Vietnam.

Characteristics

High temperatures throughout the year (between 24-27◦c).
Temperature neither rises nor drops too low due to thick cloud cover all year round.
Heavy rainfall throughout the year (mean annual of about 2000mm).
Double maxima rainfall regime.
Experiences convectional rainfall in low lands and relief rainfall in areas of high relief.
High relative humidity of over 80% due to convergence of moist air masses and high evapotranspiration rates.
Low pressure all year round.
There are no seasons.

Tropical Monsoon Climate

It’s found in the following areas:

E Asia in parts of Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, S. china and Philippines.
Along the northern coastal region of Australia.

Characteristics

High mean annual temperatures of about 28◦c.
Seasonal reversal of winds.
Heavy rainfall when monsoon winds are onshore (600-1300mm) climate.
Rain falls in a few months and the rest of the year is dry due to influence of latitude.
Low pressure in summer when winds blow onshore.
High pressure in summer when winds blow offshore.
Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter.

Tropical Marine Climate

It’s found on windward slopes of islands and coastal areas on the east of continents under the influence of S.E Trade Winds in the following areas:

America in S. Mexico through Guatemala, Nikaragua and Panama.
coast of S. America.
Caribbean islands of Cuba, Haiti and Jamaica.
Coastlands of E. Africa from Kenya, Tanzania through Mozambique and E. Malagasy.

Characteristics

Summer temperatures are very high approximately 30◦c.
High rainfall totals in summer when winds are onshore (1000-2000mm).
Orographic and convectional rainfall in summer.
Dry winters due to winds being offshore.
High humidity due to coastal location.
Experiences tropical cyclones towards end of hot season.
Winters are cool (about 21◦c).

Tropical Continental/Savanna/ Sudan type

–The largest natural climatic region in Africa.

It’s found in the following areas:

In Africa it extends from Senegal through E. Africa to the northern part of s. Africa.
Western Madagascar.
A broad belt in N. Australia.
W and S.E of Amazon Basin called Llanos and Campos.

Characteristics

Higher temperatures of up to 32◦in hot season.
Large diurnal range of temperature in dry season.
Convectional rainfall in summer averaging 765mm annually.
High humidity during the hot wet season.
Low humidity in cooler drier months.
Prevailing winds are mainly trade winds.

Types of deserts

Erg – Sandy deserts with large amounts of deposited sand.
Hamada – Rocky deserts made of bare surfaces.
Reg – Rocky deserts covered with angular pebbles, gravels and boulders.
Hot continental interior deserts found on the interior of continents on the leeward sides of high mountains e.g. Sahara and Arabian Desert.
Coastal deserts of western margins characterised by offshore trade winds and cold ocean currents e.g. Atacama of S. America, Namib in Namibia and Arizona in U.S.A.
Mid latitude deserts of continental interiors with high summer and low winter like Gobi in C. Asia.

Ice and snow deserts of polar lands like Greenland and Antarctica desert. Tropical Desert Climate

-Found on the western coasts of continents washed by cold ocean currents.

They are the following:

Arabian Desert of the middle East
Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts in Africa.
Atacama Desert in S. America.

Mohave and Colorado deserts of U.S.A. and Mexican deserts in N and C America.

Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Israel and Afghanistan.
The great Australian desert in the greater western part of the continent.

Characteristics

High temperatures during the day and very low temperatures during the night due to high terrestrial radiation.
Large diurnal range of temperature.
Clear/ cloudless skies.
Receives less than 250mm of rainfall annually.
Rainfall is localised, short and torrential and accompanied by storms which cause flash floods.
Rain falls for a short period and the rest of the year or even several years are dry.
High wind velocity due to little frictional force.
Some areas experience temperatures below zero in winter with ice forming on the oasis.
Humidity is low and evaporation rate is high.
Sand storms are very common i.e. sand being blown through the air by the wind.

Warm Climates

They border tropical climates and they experience moderate temperatures lower than of tropical climates.

They are situated in the zone of divergence of trade winds and westeries (subtropical high pressure belt).

Subdivided into:

Warm temperate Western margin/Mediterranean Climate.
Warm Temperate Interior/continental Climate.
Warm temperate Eastern marginal Climate.
Warm temperate Deserts.

Warm Temperate Western Margin

-Also known as Mediterranean Climate.

-Found on the western margin or sides of continents in the following areas.

Southern Europe and N. Africa in the lands bordering Mediterranean Sea.
W tip of Africa around Cape Town.
Central Chile in S America.
W and S Australia.

Characteristics

Hot summers with temperatures of about 21◦c.
Mild winters with temperatures of about 10◦c.
Characterised by hot and cold local winds called Mistral and Sirocco.
There is high sunshine duration and intensity in summer.
Experiences cyclonic rainfall in winter when westeries are onshore.
Rainfall decreases inland.
Summers are dry due to trade winds blowing offshore.
There are distinct seasons i.e. summer, autumn, winter and spring.

Warm temperate Interior Climate

-Also called Steppe Type.

It’s found in the interior of continents in the following areas (grasslands):

Steppe Land of U.S.S.R.
Veldt of S Africa.
Prairie lands of Canada and U.S.A.
Pampas lands of Argentina.
Downs of Australia.

Characteristics

Warm short temperatures between 18-21◦c.
Long winters with extremely low temperatures due to continentality which can fall up to -20◦c.
Precipitation is received all the year round.
Most rainfall is received in summer and snow precipitation in winter.
Rainfall is moderate with annual mean of 500mm.
Summer rainfall is caused by convection and depressions.
There is high humidity in summer.

Warm temperate Eastern Margin climate

-Also known as China Type.

It’s experienced on the eastern margins of continents in the following areas.

E China and S. Japan.
E Australia.
S and S.E states of U.S.A.
America in S. Brazil, Uruguay, E. Paraguay and coast of Argentina.

Characteristics

Hot summers with a mean annual of about 26◦c.
Mild to cool winters due to marine influence and local winds (4-13◦c).
Receives rainfall throughout the year (about 1000mm).experiences hurricanes and typhoons.
Convectional rainfall is common in summer.
Rainfall is moderate between 760 and1500mm.

Warm Temperate Deserts

-Also known as Mid-Latitude Desert climate.

It’s experienced in the following areas:

Nevada and Utah states of U.S.A.
Pentagonia in S. America.
Gobi Desert extensive desert area of southern Mongolia and northern China and the largest desert in Asia.
Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.

Characteristics

High summer temperatures (27-37◦c).
Cold winters as low as -7◦c.
Very large diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
Low and unreliable rainfall due to great distance from the sea about 250 mm annually.
Most rainfall falls in late winter or early spring.

Cool Climates

They differ from warm climates by having definite seasonal variations in temperature.

Subdivided into:

Cool Temperate Western Margin
Cool Temperate Continental Interior
Cool Temperate Eastern Margin

Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate

–Also known as British Type.

It’s under coastal influence.

-Found in the following areas:

British Isles (Island)
Central and N.W Europe
W U.S.A. and British Columbia in Canada.
Chile
Tasmania in Australia

Characteristics

Warm summers (13-15◦c).
Cool winters (2-7◦c).
Small temperature range.
Well distributed rainfall throughout the year (760-2000mm).
Cyclonic rainfall in the coastal lands and relief rainfall in mountainous areas.
High humidity in winters.
Long summer days with irregular thunderstorms.
Convergence of sub-tropical and polar air masses.
Onshore westerly winds are dominant.

Cool Temperate Continental Interior Climate

-Also called Siberian type.

-Found in the following areas:

Alaska and most of Canada
Eurasia covering Sweden, Finland, Poland, Germany, across former U.S.S.R. up to Kamchatka Peninsular in the east.

Characteristics

Warm summers with temperatures of about 18◦c.
Generally short summers.
Extremely cold winter temperatures which go below 20◦c.
Long winters with long nights.
Precipitation is mainly in form of snow during winter (annual precipitation 400-500mm).
Convectional rainfall in summer is accompanied by thunderstorms.

Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate

It’s also known as Laurentian Type.

Areas:

U.S.A. and S Canada.
Argentina.
N & S Korea, N. China, C and N Japan and E. Siberia.

Characteristics

Long warm summers with temperatures of about 18◦c.

Cold winters (-40-0◦c).

Precipitation all year round (600-1000mm).

Snow precipitation in winter.

High humidity in summer.

Cold Climates

-Also known as Polar Desert Climates or Arctic and Antarctic Climates.

-Found beyond Arctic Circle i.e. 66 ½◦N and S of equator.

-Classified into Tundra and Polar Climates.

Tundra Climate

Areas:

Coast of N. America bordering Arctic Ocean.
N part of America from Alaska through Canada to Greenland.
From N coast of Scandinavia to the N.E of Russia.
Baffin Island.

Characteristics

Short cool summers with average temperatures of about 10◦c.
Long cold winters (-29 – -40◦c).
Continuous days in winter and summer for several days.
Low annual precipitation of about 250mm.
Precipitation in form of rain and snow in winter.

Polar Climate

-experienced at the poles in the interior of Iceland, Green land and Antarctica.

Characteristics

Temperature is permanently below freezing point.

There is permanent snow cover and ice on the ground (permafrost).

Snow storms (blizzards) are common.

Continuous winter nights and summer days with exception of equinox when sun rises above horizon.

Mountain Climates

-Experienced on high mountain ranges of the world.

Areas:

Kenya (5199)
Ruwenzori (5109)
Kilimanjaro (5895)
Everest (8848)
Atlas mountains in Africa
Rockies of N. America
Alps of Europe
Himalayas in Asia

Characteristics

Temperature decreases with increasing altitude.
Temperature ranges from cool to cold.
Experiences Orographic rainfall.
Rainfall increases with altitude up to 3000mm and starts to decrease because air is cold and hence has poor capacity to hold moisture.
Windward slopes are wetter than leeward slopes.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
Local winds are common and blow up the slope during the day and down slope at night.
In temperate regions slopes facing the equator are warmer than those facing the poles.
Atlas mountains in Africa
Rockies of N. America
Alps of Europe
Himalayas in Asia

Local/Micro Climates

Climate experienced within a small area which is slightly different compared to the general climate of the area.

It occurs on the immediate surroundings and within some phenomenon on the earth’s surface.

Micro-climates can be found in the following areas:

Within and around a forest
Experience low temperatures due to trees preventing solar insolation from reaching the ground.
Experiences high rainfall due to high rates of evapotranspiration.
Urban areas
Higher temperatures due to green house effect (situation where atmospheric gases absorb heat that is given off by the earth (terrestrial radiation) before its sent back to space causing the temperature of the lower atmosphere to increase.
Around man made lakes
Experience high convectional rainfall due to high moisture content.
Around natural lakes experiences land breezes which cause early morning showers and sea breezes which lower temperatures during the hot season.

Aridity and Desertification

Aridity-state of land being deficient of moisture leading to little or no vegetation.

Desertification-process in which desert like conditions slowly and steadily encroach on formerly productive agricultural land.

Causes of Aridity and Desertification

Low and unreliable rainfall below 250mm per annum causing little or no vegetation and absence of animal and biological life causing soil forming processes to be incomplete.
High temperatures which cause high rates of evaporation which exceed evaporation or low temperatures which reduces air capacity to hold moisture causing a place to receive little or no rain..
Where a place is washed by ocean currents causing moist onshore winds to cool and then drop moisture over the sea and reach the land as dry winds e.g. Kalahari when onshore westeries cross the cold Benguela Current.
Where relief barriers such as hills or mountains cause some areas to lie on the rain shadow hence rain winds drop most of their moisture on the windward side and they drop on the leeward side, are warmed and hold onto moisture causing dry conditions e.g. Kalahari and Namib on the rain shadow of Drakensberg mountains.
Location of some places very far from the sea causing them to be far removed from wet onshore winds e.g. Gobi Desert.
Where hot dry winds blow over a region causing drying effect on land e.g. Harmattan over West Africa.
Where cool air descends causing no rain because cool air has to rise before condensation takes place.

Human Activities

When people clear forests which causes runoff to exceed infiltration which interferes with the water cycle.
Keeping large number of animals which exceed the carrying capacity of land they eat vegetation leaving the land bear exposing the land to soil erosion.
Poor agricultural practices such as overcultivation, monoculture and slashing and burning which lead to soil erosion.

Industrialisation which releases green house gases such as co2 to the atmosphere which absorb more heat making the earths temperature to rise.

Reclamation of water logged areas which lowers the water table causing arid conditions to set in plants when plants can’t access ground water.

Poor irrigation methods when evaporation takes place and salt from below are brought to the surface and are deposited on the top soil making the soil salty and hence unable to support plants.

Effects of Aridity and Desertification

Infertile soils which support little or no vegetation.
Low agricultural production due to insufficient rainfall leading to famine.
Shortage of water for domestic and industrial use which may also lead to shutting down of my sons.
Migration of people from areas affected by aridity and desertification leading to population pressure and eventually conflicts.
Destruction of vegetation which exposes land to soil erosion.
Can lead to extinction of some plants and animal species causing loss of biodiversity.

Solutions to Aridity and Desertification

Afforestation and reafforestation because trees protect soil from erosion, increase run off and release moisture to the atmosphere leading to increased rainfall.
Adopting soil conservation measures such as terracing, contour ploughing, planting cover crops etc.
Rearing a number of animals which is proportional to the carrying capacity of land.
Irrigating dry lands.
Introduction of energy saving stoves to reduce demand for wood fuel which will reduce deforestation.
Use of alternative sources of energy which don’t pollute the environment e.g. solar and water.
Introducing drought resistant crops in the arid areas.
Controlling industrialisation by setting laws governing pollution.

Climate Change

-Establishment of a new climatic state.

-Continuous changes in climatic states such as temperature and precipitation over time.

Causes of Climate Change

Natural Causes

Variations in the Earths Orbital Characteristics

-Changing or earths orbital characteristics within 1000 years from elliptical (aphelion) to nearly circular (perihelion) when the earth is nearest to the sun and receives maximum solar energy and back to elliptical when the earth is farthest from the sun and receives least solar energy.

Variation in the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

-When natural rise in temperature cause carbon dioxide held up in cold ocean waters to be released to the atmosphere after oceans warmed.

Volcanic Eruptions
- When large quantities of volcanic ash and dust thrown out of the ground block some of the solar insolation from reaching the earths surface causing temperatures on the earths surface to drop for a short period.
- When sulphur dioxide given off during volcanic eruptions reacts with water vapour forming a bright layer within stratosphere reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface by reflecting some of it back which also lowers temperatures on the surface.
Variation in Solar Output

–changes in the amount of solar energy given off by the sun whereby at times its less causing drop of temperature on the earths surface and at others its gives off more causing rise in temperature on the surface.

Human Causes

Burning of fossil fuels in industries, transportation, electricity generation etc. which contributes 65% of additional co2 in the atmosphere which is the main green house gas.
Burning of vegetation e.g. in shifting cultivation and forest fires which also adds co2 in the atmosphere.
Clearing large tracts of forests foe agriculture, settlement etc. which reduces the main deposal system for co2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
industrial developments which add gases like methane, nitrous oxide and those containing chlorine and chlorofluorocarbons which damages ozone layer which filters a greater percentage of ultra violet radiation given off by the sun which causes the average temperatures on the earth to rise.

Consequences of Climate Change

Global warming due to green house effect by gases added in to the atmosphere and destruction of ozone layer.
Increased rainfall as a result of high temperatures causing high rates of evaporation causing wet areas to become wetter and dry areas to become drier.
Effect on agriculture by causing crop growing areas to shift to cooler altitudes and latitudes e.g. wheat growing areas of Canada shifting to the poles and causing dropping or failure of crop yields in area where temperatures have increased.
Water shortage when climate becomes drier causing less water to infiltrate underground and hence less water to feed rivers.
Submergence of coastal areas causing flooding when Antarctic and Arctic glaciers melt and water is added to the oceans.
Heat waves due to increased temperature which leads to death of people.
Receding and disappearance of ice caps on mountains e.g. Mt. Ruwenzori.
Abnormal growth of plants due to increased amounts of co2 causing increased rate of photosynthesis which may lead to increased yields of major crops, poor soils due to soils having to sustain high rates of plant growth.
increased levels of ultra violet radiation which causes human diseases such as skin cancer, lowering crop production by slowing photosynthesis and germination, lowering fish population by damaging plankton which fish eats and degradation of paint and plastics.

Solution to Climate Change

Afforestation and reafforestation.
Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of deforestation.
Use of alternative sources of energy which are environmentally friendly e.g. solar and water instead of fossil fuels.
Proper maintenance of vehicle to reduce emissions from their exhausts.
Use of public transport to reduce the amount of fossil fuel used and hence the amount of co2 added into the atmosphere.

VEGETATION

-Plant cover on the earths surface.

Types of Vegetation

Natural Vegetation

-Which grows by natural means of seed dispersal without interference and modification by man.

Semi- Natural/Derived Vegetation

-Natural vegetation which is in the process of recovering from interference by man.

Planted/Cultivated Vegetation

-Vegetation planted by people e.g. forests of exotic trees, trees in Agroforestry and plants used as hedges e.g. cypress.

Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of Vegetation

Topographical Factors

Altitude

Coniferous trees are found at high altitudes because they are adapted to cool conditions.
There is no vegetation on mountain tops because there are very low temperatures which inhibit plant growth.

Terrain

Gentle slopes which have deep and well drained soils are best suited for plant growth than steep slopes which have thin soils due to severe erosion and less soil water to sustain plant growth due to high runoff.
Flat areas have poor drainage hence are swampy and can only support swamp plants.

Aspect

There are a wide range of plants on the slope facing the sun and in the direction of rain bearing winds as they are warm and wetter. Grass lands are dominant on the leeward side because they are drier.

Drainage

There is a large variety of plants on well drained soils while water logged soils have swamp plants such as reeds and papyrus.

Climatic Factors

Temperature

Plants in warm areas are large in number and grow faster e.g. in the tropical lands. Also there are deciduous trees which shed leaves to reduce the rate of transpiration.
In areas with low temperatures there is slow growth of plants and coniferous forests are found there.

Precipitation

There are a large number of plants in areas with high precipitation and these areas are dominated by forests which are broad leaved to increase the rate of transpiration.
Areas with moderate rainfall are dominated by grasslands and those with little rainfall have scanty vegetation of scrub and desert types.

Sunlight

There is large number of plants in areas experiencing long sunshine duration.
There is little undergrowth in tropical rain forests because the canopy prevents sunlight from reaching the ground.

Wind

There is heavy rainfall in areas where warm moist blow to and hence a large number of plants which may be broad leaved to increase the surface area for transpiration.

Edaphic/Soil Factors

Fertile soils have a larger number of plants while infertile soils have scanty vegetation.
Soil pollution e.g. oil spillage cause drying up of plants.
Deep soils have deep rooted plants such as trees while shallow rooted soils have shallow rooted plants such as grasses and shrubs.

Biotic/Biological Factors

Living Organisms

Bacteria, earth warms and burrowing animals improve soil fertility resulting into more vegetation growth.
Insect and birds pollinate plants enhancing their propagation.
Bacteria and insects cause plant diseases of plants resulting in death of some e.g. aphids which affected cypress in late 80s.
Large herds of wild animals can destroy vegetation through overgrazing and can turn grasslands into deserts.

Human Activities

Clearing of natural vegetation for settlement, agriculture etc. can lead to desertification.
Bush fires such as burning grasslands for the grass to sprout can cause extinction of some plant species.
Overstocking can lead to overgrazing turning grasslands into deserts.
Rehabilitation of deforested areas can stop the spread of deserts.

Vegetation in Kenya

Forests

The area under forest is less than 7%.

The bulk is found in Central Highlands

Plateau Forests

It used to cover extensive areas around L. Victoria but today there are few patches around the lake in Maragoli, Kakamega, Kaimosi, Malava, Turbo and Tinderet forests.

They are tropical rain forests with tall trees standing among shorter trees intertwined with creepers.

Lowland Forests

-Found along the Kenyan coast.

The main types are:

Mangrove forests which grow in shallow waters and
Tropical rain forests in Shimba hills in Kwale District and Arabuko Sokoke in Kilifi.

Highland/Mountain Forests

-Found on the slopes of Mt. Kenya, Aberdare forests, Iveti, Mbooni, Kilala and Marsabit forests.

Indigenous hardwoods are olive, Meru oak, mvule, Elgon teak and camphor while indigenous softwoods are podocarpus and African pencil cedar and bamboo.

They have been planted with exotic hard wood trees e.g. eucalyptus and silver oak and exotic softwoods such as pines, cypress, fir and wattle.

Savanna

-Most widespread vegetation covering about 65% of the total area.

Wooded/Tree Grassland

-Found along the coastal strip and on the plateau bordering highlands east of rift Valley.

-Consists of grass of 1m mixed with thorny acacias.

Where rain decreases trees become fewer and shorter and the grassland becomes more open.

There are many large trees along water courses due to abundant moisture (riverine or gallerie forests).

The trees shed leaves during the dry season to reduce the loss of water by transpiration.

(b) Bushland and Thicket

–Covers about 48% of savannah.

-Found between coastal land and Machakos and extends into Kitui, Mwingi, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera districts.

-Consists of a mixture of thorny acacias and shorter thorny shrubs between forming thorn bush with gaps between bushes which are bare or covered by scattered varieties of grasses.

Plants are adapted by:

Having thin leaves and hard cuticle to reduce transpiration rate.
Baobab has large trunk to store water for use during long dry period.
Shedding of leaves to conserve water.

(c) Highland Grassland

–Found on the undulating slopes of grasslands.

-Grasses are such as red oat, wire, Manyatta and Kikuyu grass where forests have been cleared.

-Clover grows along kikuyu grass where rainfall is over 1000mm.

Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation

-Covers about 21% of Kenya.

It’s found on the parts of N.E and N Kenya including Marsabit and Turkana districts.

It receives insufficient rainfall of less than 380mm annually.

It has mainly scrub type of vegetation (covered with underdeveloped trees or shrubs). A shrub is a plant lower than a tree with a small woody stem branching near the ground.

The shrubs are up to 1m and grasses are up to 3m and in between there is bare ground.

Tree species are acacia and comiphora.

Real deserts hardly have any vegetation.

Adaptations plants (Xerophytes)

Some have thick leaves to store water.
Long tap roots to access water from rocks below.
Needle like leaves to conserve water.
Shedding of leaves to conserve water (deciduous).

Heath and Moorland

-Vegetation found towards the mountain tops.

At lower altitudes there is groundsel, lobelia and heather.
Where there is poor drainage there is mountain swamp vegetation referred to as bogs.
At high altitudes there is tussock grasses, flowering plants and alchemilla shrubs. This vegetation is adapted to cold windy conditions towards the summit.

Swamp Vegetation

-Vegetation found in areas with flat relief in wet areas along river courses and areas experiencing periodic flooding e.g. along the course of R. Tana, Lorian swamp in Isiolo, Wajir and Garissa and the mangrove belt along he coast.

Vegetation found there are marshes, grasses with smooth surfaces and long blades and papyrus which is dominant.

Vegetation Zones of the World

Forests

A forest is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowths covering large tracts of land.

Tropical Rain Forests

-Known as Selvas in S. America.

It’s found in the following areas:

Congo Basin
Amazon Basin
Western sides of India, Burma and Vietnam.
Coastal land of Queensland Australia.

Characteristics

Closely set trees with three distinct canopies.
There is less undergrowth on the forest floor due to light being obstructed by canopies.
Trees take long time to grow.
Trees have large trunks with buttress roots (radiating wall like roots).
Trees have broad leaves to increase the surface area for efficient transpiration due to high precipitation.
There is varied number of plants species over a small portion.
Trees are tall, have smooth stems and straight trunks.
Some trees are evergreen shedding a few leaves at a time while others shed leaves and are left bare.
Some trees are very heavy and don’t float on water.
Trees take very long time to mature between 70-100years.

Types of trees present are mahogany, ebony, ironwood, rose wood, camphor and Sapele.

Tree creepets and parasites are found around tall main trees.

Uses of tropical rain Forests

Trees are valuable sources of timber for furniture, building and construction.
Oil palms are for production of palm oil.
Cacao crops for production of cocoa beans used to make cocoa used to make chocolates and beverages.
Chicle from the bark of Zabote tree is used to make chewing gum.
Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.
Fibres from torquilla palm are used for making hats, mats, baskets and thatching materials.
Cinchona tree’s bark contains quinine used in malarial treatment.

Mangrove Forests

-Found in low lying muddy coasts of tropical seas with shallow salty waters.

Areas

Along the east coast of Africa.
Near the estuary of Amazon River in S. America.

Characteristics

Dominated by mangrove trees and 30 other species of trees.
Mangrove trees have special roots which are partly aerial to aid breathing. Some grow horizontally and then vertically downwards into mud while some grow horizontally in mud and bend upwards to aid breathing and others have net work of roots resembling stilts.

Uses of mangrove Forests

Mangrove trees provide tannin used for tanning leather.
Mangrove poles are used for building and construction because they are very strong.
Mangrove trees are also used for firewood.
Mangrove forests are habitats for marine life used for tourist attraction.

Tropical Monsoon Forests

Location

W and S coast of Mexico
parts of India, Bangladesh, Burma, Vietnam and Indonesia
Monsoon lands of Australia

Characteristics

Most trees shed leaves during dry season and grow during hot wet season.
Smaller number of tree species than tropical rain forests.
Tall species of trees rising up to 30m.
Trees don’t grow together.
Trees have more branches because of light penetrating at lower levels.
Denser undergrowth than tropical rain forests.
Particular species of trees dominate an area (pure/definite stands) e.g.

-Leak in Burma

-Sal in India

-Eucalyptus in Queensland Australia

-Bamboo in S.E Asia

Dominant tree species are leak, bamboo, acacia, camphor, ebony, Sapele and Pyinkaido.

Uses of tropical Monsoon Forests

Teak in Burma and Thailand is used for building houses and boats because it’s hard and resistant to termites.
Bamboo and rattan creeper are used for making furniture, baskets and weaving.
Young tender shoots of bamboo are consumed as vegetables.

Mediterranean Forests

Areas

Europe and N. Africa areas bordering Mediterranean Sea.
Around Cape Town on S.W end of Africa.
Central coast of California.
Around Perth in S.W Australia.

Characteristics

Forests are open woodlands.
Many trees are deciduous.
Some trees are evergreen e.g. oak
There is woody scrub vegetation in areas which are dry and with poor soils which is called marquis in France, Chaparral in California and Machia in Italy.
Many plants are sweet smelling (aromatic) e.g. rosemary, lavender, oleander, broom and myrtle.
Many trees are xerophytes e.g.
- Trees have long tap roots to reach the water deep below during long dry spells.
- Waxy leaves to reduce transpiration
- Storing water in their thick leaves or stems
- Small spiny leaves
Types of trees are olive, sweet chestnut, beech, cedar, cypress, sequoia, eucalyptus

Uses

Cork oak is used to make corks for bottling wine.
Olive tree fruits are used for cooking and extraction of olive oil.
Timber from sweet chest nut, beech, cedar, cypress and pine is used for building houses and making furniture.
Shrubs and grasses are used as pasture for goats.

Temperate Evergreen Forests

-Found in areas experiencing warm temperate eastern margin or China Climate.

Areas

Along Natal coast in S. Africa
china and S. Japan
E Australia
E and S. states of U.S.A.

Characteristics

Evergreen because of abundant rainfall throughout the year.
Most trees have broad leaves to increase the surface are for efficient transpiration.
Many evergreen trees are hardwoods.

Uses

Hard woods such as oak and iron wood are used for furniture and building materials.
Soft woods such as cypress and pines are used for furniture.
Wattle trunks are used in the coal mines of natal.
Bamboo is used for making furniture and building in China and Japan.
Walnuts provide nuts used for making chocolate.
Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.
Young shoots of bamboo are eaten as vegetables in china and Japan.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

-Found in areas experiencing cool temperate western marginal climate.

Location

and W. Europe.
Most of E. states of U.S.A.
Chile in S. America.

Characteristics

Trees are deciduous and shed leaves in autumn and become green in summer.
Individual species of trees are scattered and their density per unit area is small.
Trees are smaller in size.
Trees are broad leaved.
Most of the trees are hardwoods
There is rich undergrowth because of being fairly open.
Trees grow in pure stands in some regions and at others they are mixed.
Trees are easier to exploit than tropical hardwoods.

Uses

Hardwoods such as oak and birch are used for timber, wood fuel and charcoal.
Chestnut and walnut nuts are edible.
Oak tree fruits are used for feeding pigs.
Tung tree yields oil for making paint and furnish.
Maple sap is used for making maple syrup.

Trees include eucalyptus (blue gum), olive, birch, walnut, elm and ash.

Coniferous Forests

It’s dominant in cool climates. It’s known as Taiga and Boreal in Russia.

Location

coast of Canada.
Scandinavia across Russia to the Pacific coast.

Characteristics/of soft woods in Canada

Their seeds are cone shaped.
Most trees are softwoods and are light in weight.
Trees mature faster than hardwoods of tropical regions.
Trees have big proportion of stem compared to leaves.
Most tree species are evergreen with few shedding leaves e.g. larch and fir.
Tree species occur in big pure stands.
Very little undergrowth due to acidic humus from leaf fall.
Trees have straight trunks.
Trees mature after a long period of time (50-70 years) due to the cold conditions especially in winter.

Species of trees found here are pines, Fir, spruce, larch and Hemlock.

Adaptations

Needle-like leaves to reduce transpiration.
Leaves with tough waxy skin to protect them from winter cold.
Tree crowns are cone shaped and flexible crowns to allow snow to slide off to prevent it from accumulating on the branches.
Trees are evergreen to have maximum utilisation of sunlight during the short summers.
Flexible tree trunks to allow swaying so as to allow swaying so as not to break during strong winter winds.
Widely spread root system for maximum utilisation of moisture from top soil because sub soil is permanently frozen.

Used

Soft woods such as spruce, fir, pine and larch are used for construction, wood pulp used in paper manufacture.

Mixed Forests

-Found at the zone of transition between temperate deciduous and coniferous forests.

Location

Saskatchewan and Alberta provinces of Canada
Scottish regions in Europe
low lying Mediterranean regions

Characteristics

A mixture of broadleaved deciduous and coniferous trees.

Uses

Cedar and hazel are used for fencing posts.

Grazing activities are carried out where forests are open.

Softwoods such as spruce, fir and pine are used to make wood pulp used for paper manufacture.

Hardwoods such as oak and birch are valuable sources of timber, wood fuel and charcoal.

Maple tree syrup is used for making maple syrup.

Grasslands

-Found in climatic regions where a seasonal pattern occurs with a prolonged drought of about 5-7 months.

Tropical Grasslands/ Savanna

-Found in areas experiencing tropical continental climate.

Areas

N and S of Congo Basin.
Between Sahel and equatorial forests in E. Africa plateau.
E of Australian Desert.
Brazilian highlands

It’s divided into:

Open grasslands where grass is dominant and
Woodlands in areas which receive more rainfall.

Characteristics

Grasslands with widely spaced trees such as acacias.
Grasses die in dry season and sprout quickly when it rains.
Grasses are tall (up to 3m with stiff blades and elephant grass is tallest reaching up to 4m.
Trees are of medium size up to 13m
Tree crowns are umbrella shaped to provide shade around roots to reduce evaporation.
Most trees are deciduous and shed leaves during dry season.
Trees have small leaves and thick barks to reduce transpiration.
Trees have long tap roots to reach the water deep below during long dry spells.

Uses

Grass is for grazing and commercial ranching though it’s of low nutritional value due to lack of phosphorous.
Cereals e.g. wheat farming because the soil is rich in humus resulting from the grass cover.
Vegetation acts as soil cover to reduce soil erosion.
Homes of wild animals which attract tourists e.g. E. and C. African savannas.
Trees are habitats for bees which provide honey.
Some shrubs and herbs are used for medicine.
Trees such as acacia provide fuel wood and charcoal.

Temperate Grasslands

-Found in continental interiors of temperate grasslands where rainfall isn’t sufficient to sustain forests.

Location

The Prairies

Areas

-Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and neighbouring states of U.S.A.

Characteristics

Continuous tuft grass

Grasses are nutritious.

Grass is short

Grass is interspersed with bulbons and leguminous plants.

Grass is mixed in some areas with species such as stipa, buffalo and gamma grasses.

Tall grasses in areas with rainfall of over 500mm.

The Steppes

-Found in Eurasia- temperate interiors of Europe and Asia.

Characteristics

True Steppes-rich carpet of grass and some flowering plants.

Desert steppes-Coarse grass growing in tufts

-Grass doesn’t form a continuous cove on the ground.

-Short grass which grows very close to the ground.

The Pampas

-Found in Argentina.

Characteristics

Feather-like grass

Grass forms individual tussocks with patches of bare soil.

Forests are present in some areas due to increased moisture.

Xerophytic or drought resistant plants are present in some areas.

The Veldt

-Found in S. Africa.

Characteristics

Grasses are extensively spread.
There is little or no mixture of trees or shrubs.
There is a uniform cover of grass on high plateaus.

The Downs

-Found in Australia and New Zealand.

Characteristics

Tall grass mixed with trees.
Semi desert areas have patches of dominant grass.
Mixture of temperate and tropical grass species.
Grass is nutritious and nutritious for livestock.
Natural grasses of Argentina have been replaced by Alfalfa and in New Zealand British meadow grasses now dominate.

Uses of Temperate Grasslands

For grain cultivation e.g. wheat which requires as low as 325mm of rainfall.
For cultivation of other crops e.g. oil seeds, Soya beans, vegetables and millet and sorghum widely grown in the Veldt.
For livestock farming e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and horses. There are scientifically managed ranches called Estancias in Argentina.

Desert Vegetation

Tropical Desert Vegetation

-Found in tropical deserts.

Characteristics

Vegetation is present except in bare rock and sand covered areas.
There are more plants on oasis e.g. date palms and a variety of shrubs.
Some plants are succulent to have high water storage capacity.
Some have spines to protect them from animals.
Some have thorn-like leaves to reduce rate of transpiration.
Some have long roots to enable them to tap water from deeper parts of rocks.
Some shed leaves during dry season and grow new leaves during wet periods to reduce water loss.
Some are salt tolerant (halophytic) by having many water storing cells to counter soil salinity or alkalinity.

Temperate and Arctic Desert Vegetation

–Found in warm temperate deserts and arctic climates.

Characteristics

Grasses and woody plants.
Woody plants which are Xerophytic and halophytic.
Shrubs have shallow roots due to permafrost.
Plants flower and produce fruits within short wet season.
There is scarce vegetation in Tundra.
Plants present in arctic deserts are such as lichens, mosses and flowering plants such as anemones and marsh marigold.

Uses of Desert Vegetation

Bilberries in temperate deserts bear edible fruits.
Small trees are source of fuel foe Eskimos who live in arctic region.
Vegetation in tropical deserts is important in arresting sand dunes to prevent them from burying oasis and settlements.
In tropical deserts fringes vegetation is valuable food for animals.
Date palm is cultivated for its fruit.

Mountain Vegetation

–Vegetation found towards the top of the mountain.

Uses of Mountain Vegetation

Grasslands are used for grazing.
Alpine meadows in temperate regions provide summer grazing pastures.
Mountain forests provide timber, building materials, fuel wood and charcoal.
Mountain forests are habitats for wild animals e.g. elephants.
Mountain vegetation makes mountains to be water catchment areas.
Mountain forests help to purify air by absorbing carbon dioxide and providing oxygen.
Mountain vegetation is used for research.

Significance of Vegetation

Forests add beauty to country’s landscape.
Vegetation protects soil from erosion by wind and rainwater.
Vegetation partly decays forming humus making the soil fertile.
Some plants roots, barks and leaves are used for medicine.
Forests modify the climate of the surrounding area by increasing rainfall and reducing temperatures.
Some plants such as bamboo shoots and wild fruits are consumed as food.
Some fibrous plants such as sisal and jute are used for making ropes, sacks, mats, etc.
Latex from rubber tree is used for manufacture of rubber used in tire manufacture.

FORESTRY

Forestry is the science of developing and managing forests including cultivating them.

Type of Forests

Natural forests-which grow by natural means of seed dispersal.
Semi-natural/derived/cultivated forests-which is in the process of recovering from interference by man.
Planted/cultivated forests-which have been planted by man.
Indigenous forests-which are native to a region or which have grown in a region from the beginning.
Exotic forests-which have trees which have been introduced to a place from other countries.
Other types have been discussed in the chapter of vegetation.

Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of Forests

Temperature

High temperature causes fast growth of trees while low temperature causes slow growth.
Rain forests are found at low altitudes which are warmer while coniferous forests are found at high altitudes which are cooler.

Aspect

Dense forests are found on windward slopes of mountains because they are wetter than leeward slopes and they start at a lower level than on the leeward slopes.
In temperate region slopes facing equator have dense forests because they are warmer while those facing the poles have coniferous forests which are adapted to low temperatures.

Precipitation

There are dense forest where there is heavy precipitation while there is less forest cover consisting of stunted trees in areas with little precipitation.
Coniferous forest have cone-shaped crowns to allow snow to slide off so as not to accumulate on the branches and cause them to break off.

Soil

Deep soils support huge tropical trees while shallow soils support coniferous trees which have shallow and wide spread root system to be able to maximally utilise water on the top soil since the sub soil is permanently frozen.
Poor or infertile soils have stunted trees.

Human Activities

Deforestation and shifting cultivation- man has cleared forests to create room for agriculture settlement etc. which has reduced forest cover on the earth’s surface.
Afforestation and Agroforestry-man has planted trees in areas where they never existed establishing forests there.
Reafforestation-man has replanted forests which he has cleared with indigenous and exotic trees causing natural forests to become semi-natural/secondary or derived forests.

Importance of Forests to Kenya

Forests are water catchment areas which supports agriculture and H.E.P. generation.
Forests provide us with wood fuel e.g. firewood, charcoal and saw dust.
Forests prevent soil erosion by their roots binding the soil together, reducing run off thereby reducing incidents of flooding and dam siltation.
Forests are habitats of wild animals which are a tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange used to import goods and services and fund development projects.
Forests are a disposal system for carbon dioxide which they use in photosynthesis and release oxygen thereby purifying air and reducing global warming.
Forests increase soil fertility when leaves fall and rot forming humus.
Forests regulate the climate of an area by creating a micro climate causing heavy and frequent rain by evapotranspiration and lowering temperatures.
Forests are a source of timber for construction and furniture making.
Forests beautify the environment by flora (plants) and fauna (animals).

Some forest’s trees are a source of medicine.
Presence of forests has led to the development of infrastructure as roads have been constructed to make forests accessible.
Forests provide employment to people e.g. forest guards, forest officers, lumberjacks, carpenters and timber merchants.

Importance of Forest Products

Forests are a source of food e.g. fruits, honey, mushrooms and bamboo tender leaves which are used for vegetables.
Forests provide wood used for manufacture of paper, soft boards, ply wood etc.
Animals in forests are hunted for food, skins and horns.
Leaves of trees and forest undergrowth are used as livestock fodder.
Forests provide wood which is used in cottage industries for making carvings and wooden utensils which are sold locally and exported.
Forest flora and fauna are a rich reservoir for research.

Problems Facing Forestry in Kenya

Encroachment by people by clearing them to create room for agriculture and settlement, grazing etc. which puts some plants and animal species in danger of extinction.
Destruction especially of young trees by herbivorous wild animals such as elephants due to rapid increase in the population.
Destruction of huge tracts of forests by fires caused by poachers, honey harvesters etc. especially during the dry season.
Pests and diseases outbreak which can result in destruction of large tracts of land with valuable tree species e.g. there was an outbreak of aphids in 1980s which destroyed cypress.
Overexploitation whereby the trees are harvested at a higher rate than which they are being replaced naturally and also harvesting of immature trees.
Excision of forests e.g. by converting some parts of forests into private land, government land like Nyayo Tea Zones and public utilities like Agricultural Show Grounds which has resulted into reduction of the area under forests.
Poor management of forests e.g. clear cutting which may lead to harvesting of immature trees in future, government officials carrying out illegal logging and government in the past having not been strict in forest conservation of forests which led to destruction of large areas of forests.

Management and Conservation of Forests

Conservation of forests is protection of forests against interference and destruction by man while forest conservation is effective planning and control of forests and forest resources.

Conservation Measures

Creation of forest reserves to protect indigenous forests from extinction e.g. Mt. Kenya forest, Shimba Hills and Arabuko Sokoke.
Setting of forest guard posts in the forests to protect forests against illegal logging (tree felling).
Setting Nyayo Tea Zones to act as protective belts to prevent people from trespassing into the forests. They are also a source of employment and foreign exchange.
Afforestation and reafforestation.
Agroforestry (intercropping of various crops with trees) which:
- Supplies wood resources
- Provides animal fodder
- Provide food e.g. fruits e.g. mangoes and avocadoes for good health and nutrition
- Acts as wind breakers and
- Shade for crops.

Management Measures

Research to determine which tree species are suitable for which area and how to combat pests and diseases outbreak.
Carrying out public campaigns through mass media on the importance of forests.
Use of alternative sources of energy e.g. sun, wind, biogas and water to reduce the rate of tree felling.
Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of overexploitation of wood fuel.
Improvement on cutting practices by selective falling of trees and replanting more trees than those cut.
Control of pests and diseases which affect trees.

Importance of Forest Management and Conservation

Are a source of utility products e.g. firewood for fuel and food from fruits and nuts.
For ecological reasons in that they help in the following ways:
- To preserve flora and fauna
- It’s a water catchment area
- Moderating the flow of water reducing soil erosion and floods which also prevents siltation of dams.
For posterity i.e. so that the future generation will have forest resources available for their use.
Industrial reasons because forest products are used as raw materials in the industries such as furniture, paper making, etc.
Forests are important for scientific research such as on herbal medicine and genetic mapping of the species of plants and animals which haven’t been identified.

Softwood Forests in Kenya and Canada

Factors Favouring the Development of Softwood Forests

Kenya

Cool climate of Kenya highlands which enables coniferous forests to thrive e.g. Mt. Kenya and Aberdares.
Heavy rainfall received in Kenya highlands and low evaporation rates which supports forest growth.
Ruggedness and steepness of some parts of Kenya highlands making them unsuitable for settlement thereby leaving forests to thrive.
High demand for timber and wood products locally and outside the country which encourages tree farming.

Canada

Cool and cold climate which favours growth of coniferous forests.
Very low average temperatures in the interior which favours the growth of coniferous forests.
Ruggedness and steepness such as of British Columbia which discourages agriculture and settlement leaving forests to thrive.
Very low population density leaving a lot of land available for forests.
Heavy rainfall on the windward slopes of mountain ranges of British Columbia and low evaporation in the east giving sufficient moisture to sustain forests.

Mode of Exploitation

Kenya

Workers are transported daily to logging sites in Kenya while in Canada settlement is set for workers within forests.
Power saws are used in both countries to fell trees but axes are used to a limited extent in Kenya.
In Kenya transportation of logs is by tractors and lorries while in Canada rivers are widely used to transport logs by floating.
In both countries logging is systematic and it is done in blocks.

Factors Favouring Exploitation of Softwoods

Kenya

Doesn’t experience winter so logging can go on throughout the year.
Soft wood forests in Kenya are easier to exploit because trees are planted in rows unlike in Kenya where they are natural and trees grow haphazardly.
In Kenya forests are accessible throughout the year unlike in Canada where forests in the north are inaccessible during severe winter and ruggedness.
In Kenya logging can go on throughout the year because there is no winter.
Availability of water from R. Nzoia for pulp and paper manufacture at Webuye.
Ready market due to high demand for wood products locally and outside in COMESA.

Canada

Mild winters in British Columbia which makes it possible to transport logs throughout the year.
Availability of water from many rivers providing plenty of water for paper and pulp manufacture.
Cheap H.E.P. for factories from many rivers in Canada.
Cheap and efficient land and water transport system easing transport of logs to factories and to markets.
Coastal location of major producing areas making exportation of timber to U.S.A. and Japan easy.
High demand for forest products in the neighbouring U.S.A. and locally due to high purchasing power.
Existence of natural coniferous forests in pure stands (one tree species covering a large area) making exploitation easy.
Absence of undergrowth which makes exploitation easy (due to dead leaves resulting in acidic humus.

Planted soft Woods in Kenya

Planted in clear rows.
Clear cutting
Mature at the same time.

Products

In Kenya and Canada products are poles sawn timber, pulp, paper, block board, ply wood, clip board etc.

Economic Significance of Softwood Forests in both Countries

Provides employment to people e.g. lumberjacks, tree farmers and in timber related industries.
Has led to development of timber/wood related industries e.g. furniture, paper manufacture etc.
A foreign exchange earner when in Canada timber is exported to U.S.A. and when products in Kenya are exported to COMESA.
Saving some foreign exchange when the country produce wood products to cater for their needs on which they’d otherwise spend foreign exchange.
Infrastructural development when roads are constructed to ease transportation of logs to industries and products to markets.
Provide income to tree farmers.

Problems in Kenya and Canada

Forest fires which destroy large tracts of land where in Canada the greatest number of fires are caused by lighting while in Kenya they are caused by illegal loggers, poachers, etc.
Pests and diseases e.g. aphids which destroyed cypress in 1980s.
Overexploitation leading to soil erosion as trees takes long time to mature and provide sufficient cover to the soil after planting.
Canada’s trees take long time to mature (50-60 years due to severe winters which slow their growth. In Kenya they take 12-35 years.
In Canada there is problem of inaccessibility of forests in the northern part in winter and due to rugged terrain while in Kenya they are planted and easily accessible.

Comparison of softwood forests in Kenya and Canada

Similarities

Soft wood forests in both countries experience the problems of pests and diseases, fires, soil erosion and overexploitation.
Softwood forest products are similar e.g. sawn timber, wood pulp, paper, poles, etc.
Softwood forests in both countries grow in places with heavy rainfall, cool temperatures, heavy rainfall and rugged terrain.
Forest products earn foreign exchange in both countries.
Tree species are similar e.g. there is pine in both countries.

Differences

Species of trees differ e.g. in Kenya there is Kenya cedar and podo while in Canada there is Douglas fir and white pine.
Canada’s soft woods are mainly natural while Kenya’s are mostly planted.
Kenya’s softwood forests are found in highlands while Canada’s are found in lowlands due to cool temperatures.
Canada’s softwood forests cover large tracts of land than Kenya’s.
In Kenya softwood forests are propagated by afforestation while in Canada it’s by leaving some trees uncut so that they produce seeds to be dispersed naturally.
Canada’s softwood forests take longer to mature than Kenya’s due to severe winter temperatures.
Kenya’s softwood forests are planted in rows and easily exploitable unlike Canada’s which grow naturally and haphazardly.

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FORM ONE NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Chapter outline

1.1 Introduction.

1.2 Parts of a computer.

1.3 Classification of computers.

1.4 Development of computers.

1.5 Areas where computers are used.

6 The computer laboratory. 1.7 Practical hands on skills.

1.1 Introduction

In the past, people have used slow and unreliable methods to generate, send, receive and store information. However, today millions of people are using devices called computers to produce, share and store information. Before embarking on taking Computer Studies as a course, it will be necessary to ask the question: What is a computer?

Definition of a computer

A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input also referred to as data and transforms it under the influence of sets of special instructions called programs to produce the desired output referred to as information.

Data can be defined as raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user and may include: numbers, letters and symbols. Information is the processed data that is meaningful to the user. The computer is said to be electronic because it utilizes small electrical signals to process information.

Before 20th century, most information processing was done manually or by use of simple machines. Today, millions of people are using computers

In offices and at home to produce and store useful information about all Aspects of business, scientific research, government activities and Personal details. Together with other telecommunication facilities, computers have also become the fastest and most reliable means of communication. The integration of computers and, telecommunication facilities for the purpose of communication is what is referred to as information and communication technology (lCT).Computers come in different sizes and designs but the most common is a computer referred to as a personal computer (PC). Personal computers are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises and at home.

1.2 Parts of a computer

A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together in order to function as a single entity. A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices convicted to the system unit called peripheral devices. Examples of peripheral devices include; the monitor, the keyboard and the mouse.

The system unit

This is the part that houses the brain of the computer called the central processing unit (CPU). The system unit also houses other devices called drives. Drives are used to store, record and read data.

Figure 1.2 shows a tower style system unit.

Peripheral devices

Peripheral devices are connected to the system unit using special cables called data interface cables that carry data and information to and from the devices. The cables are attached to the system unit using connectors called ports. .

Peripheral. Devices may be arranged as shown in Figure 1.1 with the monitor resting on top of the system unit. Sometimes, the system unit may be made to stand alone (tower style) as the one in Figure 1.2.

The keyboard

It is the most common device that enables the user to enter data and instructions in the computer by pressing its keys.

The mouse

It is a device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer

By controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.

The monitor

The computer monitor or simply the screen is a television like device used for displaying output. It is called a monitor because it enables the user to monitor or see what is going on in the computer.

1.3

Classification of computers

Computers can be categorised according to:

Physical size and processing power.
Purpose.
Functionality.

Classification according to physical size and processing power

Computers can be classified into four main groups namely supercomputers, mainframe computers, minicomputers and microcomputers.

Supercomputers

They are the fastest, largest, most expensive and powerful computers available. They are able to perform many complex calculations in a fraction of a second. Because of their extreme weight, a supercomputer is kept in a special room. Due to their huge processing power supercomputers generate a lot of heat. Special cooling systems are therefore required. Sometimes the whole CPU is immersed in an aquarium like tank containing liquid fluorocarbon to provide cooling.

Supercomputers are mainly used for scientific research, which requires enormous calculations. Applications that justify use of supercomputers include aerodynamic design and simulation, petroleum research, defense and weapon analysis among others. Supercomputers are mainly found in developed countries such as in USA where they are used for advanced

Scientific research such as nuclear physics. Figure 1.3 shows an example of supercomputer.

Mainframe computers

They are less powerful and less expensive than the supercomputers. While supercomputers may be described as giant computers, the mainframes are said to be big in size. They are used for processing data and performing complex mathematical calculations. They have a large storage capacity and can support a variety of peripherals.

Mainframe computers handle all kinds of problems whether scientific or commercial. They are mostly found in government agencies, big organizations and companies such as banks, hospitals, airports etc. which Have large information processing needs. Figure 1.4 shows a picture of a mainframe computer.

Minicomputers

A minicomputer resembles the mainframe but is slightly smaller. Thus it is referred to as a small-scale mainframe computer. Although it supports fewer peripheral devices and is not as powerful and fast as the mainframe computer, it was developed as a cheaper alternative to the mainframes for smaller organizations. They are used mainly in scientific laboratories, research institutions, engineering plants and places where processing automation is required. They are well adapted for functions such as accounting, word processing, database management and specific industry applications. Figure 1.5 shows a picture of a minicomputer.

Microcomputer

A microcomputer is the smallest, cheapest and relatively least powerful type of computer. It is called a microcomputer because; its CPU is called a microprocessor, which is very small compared to that of a mini, mainframe or supercomputers. Microcomputers are also called personal computers (PC) because they are designed to be used by one person at a time.

Microcomputers are commonly used in training and learning institutions, small business enterprises, and communication centers among others. Today, the power of microcomputers has grown tremendously closing the gap that formerly existed and reserved for the minicomputers and the mainframes.

Technological advancement has seen the development of smaller and smaller microcomputers. The following are the various types of microcomputers in operation today arranged in descending order according to size.

The desktop computer

-Not portable. It is designed to be placed on Top of an office desk.

The laptop computer

-Portable like a briefcase. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap hence its name.

The palmtop e.g. personal digital assistant (PDA)

– Small enough to fit in the pocket and can he held in the palm when being used.

Classification according to purpose

Computers can be classified according to the tasks they perform either as general or special purpose computers.

General-purpose computers

General-purpose computers have been designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with appropriate programs. They are the most common types of computers in use today. Their flexibility enables them to be applied in a wide range of applications like document processing, performing calculations, accounting, data and information management among others.

Special purpose computers

Special purpose computers are designed to serve a specific purpose or to accomplish one particular task. Such computers can perform no other task except the one they were meant to do. This means that the set of instructions, which drive a special purpose computer, are limited in number at the time of manufacture. Examples of such computers include, robots used in a manufacturing industry production line, mobile phones for communication only and electronic calculators that carry out calculations only.

Since special purpose computers are dedicated to a single task, they can perform the task quickly and very efficiently.

Classification according to functionality

Computers can be classified according to the type of data they can process. Data can either be in discrete or continuous form. Discrete data which is also called digital data is one that can be represented as distinct values that do not have any transitional stages over time e.g. either 1 or O. Continuous data which is also called analog data can be represented as progressively changing values overtime. Computers can be classified as digital, analog or hybrid.

Digital computers

Digital computers process digital data only. Any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form. Most home appliances today are also digital in nature. For example to increase the volume of a digital television you simply press a button and it changes from 1 to 2, 3 If the same television is analog, it would have a knob

that you can continuously turn round or slide in a slot to increase or decrease the volume.

Analog computers

This refers to computers that process data that is analog in nature. Analog computers solve problems by measuring the amount of change that occurs in quantities like speed, temperature and pressure. An analog machine is usually a special purpose device that is dedicated to a single task. Analog computers are used in manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace, temperatures, and pressures. They are also used in other applications like in weather stations to record and process physical quantities e.g. wind, cloud speed, temperature etc.

Hybrid computers

Hybrid computers are designed to process both analog and digital data.

1.4 Development of computers

Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones and sticks to count and keep records. Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called abacus that could be used to calculate large figures. Abacii, are still in use even today. An abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with wires or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar as shown in Figure 1.8.

, 1+5=6

Each bead has a value of 5

Crossbar

Each bead has a value of 1 4+5=90+0=0

3+5=8

Fig. 1.8: Representing numbers using an abacus

8 How to represent a number using an abacus

Each bead in the lower row represents unitary values while the upper ones represent fives. To represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the crossbar represent zeros. The abacus in Figure 1.8 represents the number 6 908 (six thousand nine hundred and eight).

The first machine after the abacus that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modem computers was developed by an English mathematician called Charles Babbage and was named the analytical engine. After the death of Babbage in 1871 there was little improvement on his work until the 1930s. The first computer-like machine Mark 1 was designed by Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University in 1939. Mark 1 became operational in 1943. It weighed 5 tons and was 16 m long. Since then, rapid advancements in computing have been realized and can be categorised into five generations.

First generation computers (1940s to 1958)

These computers were very large in physical size and used thousands of

electronic gadgets called vacuum tubes or thermionic valves. These types of computers consumed a lot of power hence they constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated. Examples of such computers are the electronic numeric integrator and calculator (ENIAC) and the electronic discrete variable automatic computer (ED VA C).

Second generation computers (1958 -1964)

Computers in this generation operated using tiny, solid-state electronic devices called transistors that were much smaller than the vacuum tubes. These computers produced less heat, were much faster, smaller in size and more reliable than those made with vacuum tubes. Examples of second-generation computers include IBM 1401 and 7070, UNIVAC 1107, ATLAS LEO Mark III and Honeywell 200.

Third generation computers (1964 -1970)

The third generation computers used electronic devices called integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. An integrated circuit consists of thousands of small transistor circuits etched on a semiconductor called a silicon chip. The use of integrated circuit improved the processing speed and storage capacity of computers. Examples of third generation computers included smaller and less expensive minicomputers such as IBM 360 and ILL 19000 series.

Fourth generation computers (1970 to present)

51 From 1970, further technological improvement was done on the silicon chip design by compressing

more tiny circuits and transistors into even smaller space. This design produced what is called large scale integrated (LS1) and very large scale integrated (VLS1) circuits which were used in the innovation and technological development of the brain of the computer called the microprocessor. A microprocessor is a complete central processing unit (Processor) used in microcomputers. The result was development of very small computers with very high processing speed. The first microcomputer was called Apple 11 Other fourth generation computers included IBM 370 and 4300, Honeywell DPS-88 and Burroughs 7700.

Fifth generation computers

In this generation falls today’s computers that have very high processing power and speeds than their predecessors, and whose size is increasingly becoming smaller. These computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that mimic human intelligence often referred to as artificial intelligence.

A lot of research is being done to try and come up with a machine that can work without human intervention. One of the most successful developments in this field is the advent of computers that can help managers to make decisions and those that can offer critical expert services to users instead of relying on human professionals.

Areas where computers are used

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are used for data processing functions. Three of the advantages are:

Computers process data faster. The processing speed of a computer measured against other devices like typewriters and calculators is far much higher.
Computers are more accurate. As long as the correct instructions and data are entered, computers W produce more accurate results. They have the ability to handle numbers up to many decimal places without rounding off.
Computers are more efficient. A computer utilizes minimum resources, to process data as compared to human beings or other machines. For example computers require less effort to process repetitive tasks. In our day to day activities, we use computers in almost every aspect of our lives. The following are some of the areas where computers are used.

Supermarkets

Most retail stores use computers to help in the management of daily activities like stock control. The stock control system keeps account of what is in store, what is to be sold and what is out of stock. The management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are running out of stock and need reordering.

Offices

Computers have increased efficiency in offices by reducing the time and effort needed to access and receive information. Most modern office functions have been automated for faster message distribution and document processing.

Banks

Special cash dispensing machines called automated teller machines (ATM s) have enabled automation of cash deposit and withdrawal services. Efficiency has also been increased due to better record keeping and document processing brought about by computers.

Industries

Computers are being used to monitor and control. Industrial processes. The computer age has seen the wide use of remote controlled devices called robots. A robot is machine that works like a human being but performs tasks that are too unpleasant, dangerous, or complex and tedious to assign to human beings.

Hospitals

Computers are used to keep patients records in order to provide easy access to a patient s treatment and diagnosis history. Computerized medical devices are now being used to get a cross sectional view of the Patient s body that enables physicians to get proper. Diagnosis of the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy. Computers also control life support machines in intensive care units (lCU).

Transport

Computers are used to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town, aircraft navigation and to make reservations.

Communication

Integration of computers and telecommunication facilities has made message transmission and reception to be very fast and efficient. Because of the speed with which information can be transmitted around in the world using computers the world is said to have become a global village.

Law enforcement agencies

Information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.

Education

Computers are widely used in the teaching and learning process. Learning and teaching using computers is referred to as computer-aided learning (CAL) and computer aided teaching (CAT). For example experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics may be demonstrated using a special computer programs that can depict them on the screen through a process called simulation.

Domestic and entertainment

Computers can be used at home for recreational activities such as watching movies, playing music and computer games. They can also be used in storing personal information, calculating, keeping home budgets and for research in various fields.

Library services

In a computerized library, a computer enables library personnel to easily access and keep updated records of books and other library materials. Library users can also use computers to search for titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.

1.6 The computer laboratory

A computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers and to provide a safe conducive environment for teaching and learning of computer studies. The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory.

Security of computers, programs and other resources.
Reliability of the source of power.
The number of computers to be installed and the available floor space.
The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.

Safety precautions and practices in the computer

Laboratory

After the establishment of the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules and practices need to be observed in order to avoid’ accidental injury to the users, damage of computers or lack of a conducive environment for teaching and learning. The safety precautions and practices include:

Behavior in the computer laboratory

The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.

Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because smoke and dust contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause wearing of moving parts.
Avoid carrying food and beverages to the computer room. Food may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them. Liquids may spill into computer parts causing rusting or electrical defaults.
Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down peripheral devices.
At all times follow the correct procedure for starting and shutting down the computer to avoid loss of data and damage to computer Programs.
Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without permission and particularly when the computers power is still on.

Protection against fire

A computer room should have gaseous fire extinguishers like those filled with carbon dioxide. Water based or powder extinguishers should be avoided because they can cause damage to computer components.

Cables insulation

All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from busy pathways in the room. Lay them preferably along the wall in trunks. This avoids the danger of exposing the user to electric shock and power interruptions caused by stumbling on cables.

Stable power supply

Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power. Power from mains supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power surges or under voltage sometimes referred to as brownout. To protect the computer from being damaged due to power instabilities, avoid connecting it directly to the mains supply. Instead, connect it to a special device called un-interruptible power supply (UPS) then connect the UPS to the mains as shown below

The UPS charges when mains power is on and has power surge and. brownout protection capabilities. When the mains power goes off, it gives some sound alert (usually a beeping sound) to alert the user.

The UPS performs two main functions namely:

It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required Clean stable voltage by eliminating surges and brownouts.
It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of a sudden power failure hence allowing the user to store his/her work and shut down the computer using the correct procedure

To enable continuity of work even in the absence of mains power, organizations that give critical services like banks, schools and hospitals usually install a standby generator that automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Power from the generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the computer because it is also not stable.

NB: Generally speaking, devices that provide alternative source of power are usually referred to as power backups.

Burglar proofing

To deter unauthorized access to the computer room, it is important to implement the following controls.

Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows and roof in Case the roofing is weak.
Do not welcome strangers into the computer room.
Consider installing security alarms at strategic access points that would alert the security personnel in case of a break in.

Ventilation

There must be good air circulation in the computer room to avoid suffocation and overheating. Remember that both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Proper ventilation enables the computer to cool and hence, avoids damage to electronic parts that can be caused By overheating. Proper ventilation can be ensured by:

Ensuring that the room has enough ventilation points like windows.
Installing an air-conditioning system.
Avoiding overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.

Dust and dump control

a computer laboratory should be located away from excessive dust. The room should also be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust particles. Computers must remain covered using dust covers when not in use.

Humidity should be at an optimum of 50%. Humidity lower than this allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive electronic components. also high humidity of over 70% cause rusting of the metallic parts of the computer system. To prevent both high and low humidity place humidifiers in the room

Lighting

a well lit computer room prevents eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches, stress and fatigue. It is important to adjust the brightness of the computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable before using a computer to avoid damaging your eyes:

fit radiation filter screens. Which are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the eye. Avoid using a flickering monitor because this can cause extreme eyestrain that can damage eyesight.

Standard furniture

The table on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear the weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices. The chair for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest for one to sit upright as illustrated below to avoid muscle pains and backaches caused by poor posture. The seat must be high enough relative to the table for comfortable use of the hands on the keyboard and the eyes must be the same level as the top of the screen when the user is seated

Practical hands on skills

Starting-up (Booting) a computer

make sure that all the components are properly connected. The computer must be connected to an active power source.
Switch on the monitor first,
Switch on the system unit

When the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process of self-test and preparation for use. This process is called booting. There are two types of booting namely:

cold booting
warm booting.

Cold booting

This happens when the computer, originally off, is switched on by pressing the power button of the system unit.

The computer starts by checking all its components to determine whether they are functioning correctly and whether they are available for use. This process is called the power-on-self-test (POST). During this process, the monitor will display information showing the status of each device being tested. In case one of the devices is faulty or missing, this process will halt and a message alerting the user is displayed on the screen. The special program that directs the POST process is called the basic input output system (BIOS).

When the POST process is over, the computer displays a prompt message requesting one to start using it.

Some computers have programs that require a person to identify them selves by providing a user name and a password (a secret word given to the user) before it can allow one to use them. The process of providing such information is called logging on and it is a security measure meant to deter unauthorized users from using the computer.

Warm booting (restarting)

This happens when the computer, originally on, is forced to restart by pressing the restart button on the system unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard. It is also possible to warm boot a computer by using the restart command found in a special program called an operating system.

Shutting down a computer

It is important that the user follows the correct procedure of shutting down the computer at all times. If the procedure is not followed then loss of data, damage of programs and computer components may occur.

Procedure for shutting down a computer

Ensure that all the work has been properly stored. This process is called saving.
Close all programs that may be currently running.
If your computer is running on Microsoft Windows 98 or later versions then:

(a) Click the start button on the screen.

(b) Select the shut down command from the menu list.

(c) In the computer prompt that appears, select shut down then press the enter key on the keyboard. (d) After a few seconds the message IT IS NOW SAVE TO TURN OFF THE COMPUTER appears on the screen. Switch of the system unit then the monitor.

NB: Some system units switch themselves off automatically when you do steps 3 (a), (b) and (c) above.

Keyboard layout

The keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups as shown in Figure 1.11.

Alphanumeric keys

Keys are labeled with alphabetic letters A-Z, numbers arranged in a line 1,2, ……..0 respectively and symbols like:?,], % etc. This group also includes the following keys: cap lock, enter tab. space bar and backspace.

Caps lock key: Pressing this key let’s the user type in upper case-letters,(capitals) To switch back to lower case letters simply press the same key again.

Enter key (return key): Pressing this key forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line. A cursor is a blinking underscore (-) or a vertical beam (I) that shows where, the next character to be typed will appear. The enter key is also used to instruct .the computer to execute a command that has been selected on the screen.

Tab key: This key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line e.g. 10 mm, 20 mm etc.

The space bar: This bar creates a space between words during typing.

The backspace key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line.

Function keys

Function keys are usually located along the top of the keyboard. They are labeled FI, F2 up to FI2. They are used for tasks that occur frequently in various programs. For example pressing FI key in J most programs starts the HELP MENU.

Cursor movement and editing keys

Cursor movement keys are used to move the cursor on the screen. These keys are:

Arrow keys: Pressing the right or left arrow key moves the cursor one character to right or left respectively. Pressing the upward or downward arrow key moves the text cursor one line up or down respectively.

Page up and page down keys: Pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages. Pressing page down key moves the cursor down one page in case the document has many pages.

Home and end keys: Pressing home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line. Pressing end key moves the cursor to the end of the current line.

Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:

Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position.

Delete (Del) key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to right.

Special PC operation keys

These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys to give special instructions to the computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT and ESC keys.

Numeric keypad keys

The numeric keypad consists of a set of numbers 0 to 9 and the arithmetic signs like + (addition), (minus), * (multiplication) and / (division). They are located on the right hand side of the keyboard. The keypad is meant to help the user to rapidly enter numeric data. The numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when the, situated on the numeric keypad, is turned on.

Otherwise, they can be used as cursor movement and editing keys when num lock key is turned off. It is important to note that not all keyboards have the numeric keypad. For example portable computers may lack a separate numeric keypad due to size limitations.

Practical keyboard skills

TYPING RULES:

Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert Posture.
Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read Without strain.
Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home keys. These are keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. The home keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with the thumb on spacebar while those of the right hand are the apostrophe (‘) semicolon (;), L, K with the thumb on the spacebar.
Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the Ten fingers and that you press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g. to press Q, use the small finger on the left hand while to press J, use the index finger on the right hand.

Mouse skills

Mice (the plural of mouse) comes in various shapes, colors and designs. Today one can even get a mouse that uses wireless technology that is, it does not have a connection cable. Most mice have two buttons but some may have three. Figure 1.12 is an illustration of a mouse.

Using the mouse

When the mouse is made to slide on a flat surface, it controls a pointer on the screen, which is called a mouse pointer or a cursor. To make a selection, the pointer must be on the item that is to be selected. After selecting, the user can manipulate the item by pressing a mouse button

USING THE MOUSE:

Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.
Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two right-most fingers.
The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle finger rests on the right button.

NB: For left handed people, it is possible to change the mouse settings in order to comfortably hold it using the left hand.

Terminologies associated with the use of a mouse

Clicking: This means pressing and releasing the left mouse button once. A click often selects an object.

Double clicking: This means pressing the left button twice in quick succession. Double clicking usually opens a file or starts a program

Right clicking: Pressing the right hand side mouse button once displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This list of commands is called a shortcut menu or context sensitive menu. It is called a context sensitive menu because the commands on it apply to the right clicked item.

Drag and drop: This is whereby the user drags an item from one location on the screen to another. The procedure to accomplish this operation is as follows:

Point to the item you want to drag.
Press the left hand side mouse button and hold it down
Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen.
Finally release the mouse button and the item will be dropped in the new location.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Chapter outline

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Input devices

2.3 The central processing unit (CPU)

2.4 Output devices

2.5 Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices and media 2.6 Power and interface cables

2.7 Basic computer setup and cabling

2.8 Computer software

2.9 Criteria for selecting a computer system

Introduction

In the previous chapter, you were introduced to some of the parts or devices that make up a computer. However, a computer system requires more than just a collection of devices. The term system can be defined as a collection of independent entities that collectively work together to achieve a desired goal.

The systems approach to computing was borrowed from the social scientists who believe that all things can be viewed as being made up of small independent components(subsystems) that come together to form a bigger more complex system. For example, a school can be seen as a system with the students, teachers, accounts department and the administration as subsystems. The school system itself is a subsystem of the ministry of education! Therefore, the term computer system refers to a collection of entities that work together to process and manage information using computers. It is important to note that, systems exist whether computerized or manual. However, the computer is replacing many manual processes hence the need to study the idea of a computer system. For example, a document processing system in the secretary s office can be made more efficient by computerizing it.

A computer system consists of three main components namely the hardware, the software and the computer user (liveware). All the physical components both mechanical and electronic that make up a computer system such as the monitor, the system unit, keyboard and mouse etc. are called hardware. Software is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity that happens inside the computer during data processing operations. Human beings by themselves have the ability though limited, to process data and manage information. Computers have been designed to help human beings to enhance the efficiency of processing and managing information. It is the human being who issues commands to a computer depending on his or her needs.

The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped into four major categories namely input devices, central processing unit, output devices and storage devices.

Input devices

‘Data may be entered into a computer using keying devices such as the keyboard, or using pointing devices such the mouse, or by devices that automatically capture data from the source referred to as data capture devices e.g. scanners and digital cameras, or by voice recognition devices such as microphones. The main purpose of input devices is to convert the human readable data into electronic or machine readable form.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. This includes:

Keying devices such as the keyboard, keypad etc.
Pointing devices such as mouse, trackball etc.
Scanning and other data capture devices.
Speech recognition or voice input devices.
Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras.

Keying devices

Keyboard and keypad

These are the most common input devices. These devices enter data into a computer by typing. Apart from a few differences, a computer keyboard is similar to the typewriter keyboard. A keypad is a miniature (tiny) keyboard which is mostly used on small portable computers, calculators palm notes, mobile phones etc.

Pointing devices

These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen. Apart from the mouse, the other pointing devices include the trackball, joystick and light pen.

Trackball

A trackball works just like the mouse but instead of moving it on a flat surface, a ball fixed on its top is rolled using the index finger. As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen; one can then click its button to execute the selected command. Figure 2.1 shows a drawing of a trackball. The advantage of a trackball over the mouse is that it neither requires an extra space nor a flat surface for movement. Today some computers are coming with a track ball on top of a keyboard and a mouse.

Joystick

A joystick is an input device that looks like a car

gear lever which can be moved sideways, upwards or downwards to control the position of the cursor. Just like the mouse, it has a button which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in playing video games.

Light pen

A light pen is a hand held pen-like device that has a light sensitive point. A light pen can make selections, place images, draw and indicate dimensions by simply touching the screen. A light pen does not emit light ‘but instead, it reacts to the light emitted by the display using a photosensitive. detector at its base.

Scanning devices

These are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly. Scanners can be classified according to the technology they use to capture data. These are optical scanners and magnetic ink scanners.

Optical scanners

These types of scanners capture data using light. A special type of concentrated beam of light is passed over the object, image or text which needs to be entered into the computer. The scanner converts the data into digital form and then passes it to the computer for processing. There are three types of optical scanners:

Optical mark recognition (OMR)

These types of scanners detect marks made on a piece of paper using a soft pen or pencil. The reader scans the marks with a special type of light called infrared light. Where there are no marks, a strong light is reflected than where one exists. These types of scanners are used in marking multiple choice questions, questionnaires, selecting numbers in lottery tickets etc.

Optical bar recognition (OBR)

Bar codes are lines of different thickness that hold item information such as, country of manufacture, name of the manufacturer, and item code. The type of scanner used to read these bars is called a wand or a laser scanner. The interpretation is based on the width of the bars rather than their location. Figure 2.3 shows bar codes.

Optical character recognition (OCR) / image scanners

This is the most sophisticated type of scanner that operates like the human eye. It not only scans characters but also can scan real objects, pictures and drawings.

The most common type of this scanner is the flatbed scanner, Using this scanner, one can scan text, a real object or a picture by placing it on a glass plate exactly the way photocopy machine works. The text or a picture scanned is displayed on the screen or saved so that one can edit or print it.

Magnetic scanners

These types of scanners capture data by using magnetic technology. The data being read can either be in form of special magnetic characters or a continuous magnetic strip. The following are some of the common examples of magnetic scanners.

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)

MICR was developed to help banks process cheques. MICR allows special devices to read magnetic characters written in a special format. An example of MICR device is a cheque reader that reads the cheque number, and sends the details to the computer to be used in updating the customer s account.

Magnetic stripe recognition

A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a plastic card e.g. an automated teller machine card (ATM) and a credit card. An ATM card is used to get banking services without necessarily going to the counter, while a credit card allows the holder to get services in any centre where the card is acceptable. The amount spent is deducted from the holder’s bank account.

Speech recognition or voice input

Voice recognition is a type of input method where a microphone is used to enter data in form of spoken words into the computer. This method is mostly suitable for the handicapped especially those with impaired hands. Although this is a fast and easier method, it has some disadvantages.

It is complex to develop and it does not take care of speech related problem’ such as accents, inflections and tone. This implies that the device must learn the unique speech of an individual.

Touch screen, digitizers and digital cameras

Touch Screen

Touch screen input method utilises the technology of a touch sensitive screen. When the user touches the screen, the computer detects the position of the finger and responds accordingly. Touch screens are mostly used in public places like in banking halls, hotels, in airports (to provide guidance information) etc.

Digitisers

A digitiser or a graphic tablet is almost similar to a light pen but instead it has a graphic tablet on which the user writes on using a device similar to a pen, called a stylus. (Figure 2.6). As the stylus moves on the tablet, it s drawing is directly reflected on the screen. Digitisers are mostly used for architectural and engineering designs.

Digital cameras

A digital camera stores its images in digital form. These images can then be streamed (entered) directly into a computer for editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a special cable. As with the ordinary camera, there are two types of digitals cameras: One that can takes still images i.e. photographs and another that takes motion pictures (video).

The central processing unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) also known as the Processor is the most important component of the computer. It is actually regarded as the brain of the computer. This is so because all data processing and control operations are coordinated here. In microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit. It is mounted on a circuit board known as, the motherboard or the system board. The figure below shows the location where a processor called Cyrix is mounted on the motherboard.

The CPU has three different functional units called arithmetic and logic unit, control unit and the main memory.

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit is a unit of central processing unit where all arithmetic and logical operations are carried out. The basic arithmetic operations includes; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logic operations are based on the computer s capacity to compare two or more values. For example, it may compare whether a piece of data is greater than or less than, equal to or not equal to etc.

In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage locations called registers, which holds the data just before processing. It also holds the results after processing.

Control unit

Control unit coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input, storage and output operations. It determines which operation or instruction is to be executed next. To coordinate these activities, the control unit uses a system clock. The system clock sends electric signals as its means of communication, just like the way the traffic signals or a traffic officer does in a round about or junction to direct motorists and other road users. The number of pulses per second determines the speed of a microprocessor. The faster the clock pulses, the faster the CPU hence the faster the computer can process data.

Main memory (primary storage or working storage)

Main memory also known as primary storage provides storage location for data and instructions accessed by the control unit. Computer memory can be classified into read only memory (ROM) and random access memory (RAM).

Read only memory (ROM)

Read only memory is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi permanently. Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged for long periods of time e.g. booting instructions, special purpose computers and computerized fuel pumps instructions etc.

Depending on permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are four types of read only memory namely;

Mask read only memory: Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer, it cannot be changed.

Programmable read only memory (PROM): This allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it.

Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM): This has a transparent quartz window through which its contents, can be erased by exposing it to ultra violet (UV) light, and then reprogrammed for another use.

Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM): This type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. An example of EEPROM is the memory that stores the basic input/output system (BIOS).

Characteristics of read only memory (ROM) are;

One can only read its content but you cannot write on it unless it is

a special type of ROM.

It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off
Stores permanent or semi permanent instructions from the manufacturer called firmware. It can store semi permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be programmed according to the user s specification.

Random access memory (RAM)

This is the most common type of main memory. It is called random access memory (RAM) because; its content can be read directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored. As opposed to ROM, the content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the computer is turned off Therefore, before switching off the computer, it is important that one stores (saves) his/her work in a device that offers relatively permanent storage facility.

Characteristics of random access memory (RAM) are:

Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its content disappears when the computer is switched off.
Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.

Types of RAM

There are two types of-RAM namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). Static RAM is very fast compared to dynamic RAM and holds its content as long as there is power. Dynamic RAM on the other hand can only hold its content for a short while even when power is all. To maintain the content of dynamic RAM, the memory chip is designed in a way that its content is refreshed (automatically rewritten) severally per second. Static RAM is more expensive. It is mostly used to make special types of memories.

Special purpose memories

Apart from ROM and RAM there are several types of special purpose memories found insijkde the CPU or in the input and output devices. These memories are vital because they increase the overall performance of data and instructions moving in and out of the CPU. These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory.

Buffers

This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input or output device. Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices, buffers provide temporary storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or information to be output. For example since a printer cannot work at the speed of a CPU, the printer buffers temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other functions. Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

Registers

As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU. Examples of registers are:

An accumulator: This temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.

Instruction register: This temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form that CPU can understand it.

An address register: This temporarily holds next piece of data waiting to be processed.

Storage register: This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU and the main memory.

Cache Memory

Most modem processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called cache memory. The purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and instructions even faster than it would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow DRAM.

Memory capacities

Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is equivalent to a single character. Characters can be a number from 0 to 9, letters A to Z or a special symbo1. For example, a number like 2545 has four bytes while the words, My Home has seven bytes since, and the space between them has 1 byte.

Memory quantities can be expressed in;

Kilobytes (kB): Approximately one thousand bytes.(1024)
Megabytes (MB): Approximately one million bytes.
Gigabytes (GB): Approximately one billion bytes.
Terabytes: Approximately one trillion bytes.

Overall functional organization of the CPU

The arithmetic and logic unit, the control unit and the main memory use electrical pathways or links referred to as buses. There are three types of buses namely;

Control bus: This is the pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other parts of the system.

Address bus: This is the pathway used to locate the storage position in memory where the next instruction data to be processed is to be found.

Data bus: This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.

Figure 2.8 is a summary of the overall organisation of the CPU and how it controls other computer components.

Control unit

Instructions

Gives instructions to each

Instructions

device after interpreting

program instructions

Arithmetic and logic unit

Calculates and compares

data

Results of

Data to be

processing

processed

Input data

Main memory

Output data

I Input unit

Stores data and instructions to

Output unit I

be processed temporally.

Output to be

Data to be

stored

processed

Secondary storage devices

Stores data and instructions to

be processed permanently.

Fig. 2.8 Functional organisation of the CPU

Types of processors and their clock speeds

Processors

In 1971, a company called Intel that specialises in manufacturing central processing units managed to combine the arithmetic-logic unit and the control unit on a single tiny processor called microprocessor and called it Intel 4004. This microprocessor was used in electronic calculators. The first microprocessor to be used on microcomputers was called Intel 8086 developed in 1974. Since then, there has been a tremendous growth in microprocessor technology marked by great increase in processing capability and speed.

Until 1989, Intel corporation enjoyed monopoly in the field of microprocessor technology with her famous Intel processors. Since then other players joined in and started manufacturing cheaper alternatives. These include: Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Cyrix and Motorola companies

Processor clock speed

The speed at which a processor executes instructions is determined by its clock speed. System clock speed is measured in hertz’s. A hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles per second in a signal. Quantities of the clock speed can be expressed in;

Kilohertz (kHz): Approximately one thousand hertz’s.
Megahertz (MHz): Approximately one million hertz’s.
Gigahertz (GHz): Approximately one billion hertz’s.

There has been a tremendous growth in the processing capability and clock speed of microprocessors. From a speed lower than 4MHz, modem microcomputers can run at speeds higher 2GHz. Table 2.1 shows a summary of how microprocessors have evolved.

Processor	Description	Clock speed
Intel 8086	The two are almost identical and were used	4.7 MHz-I0
and 8088	with the first IBMPCs 8086 was an	MHz
	improvement of 8088.
Intel 80286	Provided increased performance over 8086.	6 MHz-20
	This was the processor that opened up the PCs	MHz
	to many users.
80386SX	Apart from Intel s 80286, AMD produced	33 MHz-40
and	their versions with copied greatly the Intel s.	MHz
80368DX	These were the first entry in the processor market.
80486SX	Provided over 100% better performance than	25 MHz-50
and	80386 and were the first upgradeable	MHz
80486DX	processors. AMD and Cyrix produced their version too.
Pentiums	Since 1992, Intel decided to coin their fifth	60 MHz-
(586) and	generation with the name Pentium instead of	presently
above	80586. Pent is a Latin word that means five.	Pentium IV
	Intel chose the word in order to distinguish its	with over 2.8
	80586 and above processors from AMD and	GHz
	Cyrix versions i.e. 5×86 and AMDK5
	respectively. Examples of Intel Pentium
	processor are Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX,
	Pentium II and currently Pentium IV at the
	time of writing this book.

Output devices

Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after the processing operations. There are two types of output devices namely the softcopy and the hardcopy output devices. Softcopy refers to the intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or through other output devices such as speakers. A hardcopy is a tangible output produced mostly on papers by devices such as printers.

Softcopy output devices.

Some of the softcopy output devices are;

Monitors

A monitor or a video display unit (VDU) is the most common output device. It displays information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the computer.

For a long time, monitors have been designed using a long tube called the cathode ray tube (CRT at emits light. The screen of a cathode ray tube is curved slightly outward forming a convex shape. However, new flat displays have come which do not use CRT technology. Flat display are more comfortable to use, portable and do not consume a lot of power compared to CRT. Figure 2.9 shows a CRT monitor and flat panel display monitor.

The sharpness or clarity of an image on the screen depends on the type of monitor being used. Monitors that display sharp clear images are said to have high resolution. The images on the screen are formed by small dots called picture elements (pixels). The higher the number of pixels per square centimeter the higher the resolution hence the clarity.

There are two types of monitors namely monochrome and colour monitors Monochrome monitors display images and text in only one colour mostly black and white. Colour monitors can display images and text in multiple colours. For a monitor to display information it must be connected to a separate piece of circuit board, plugged into the motherboard called the video card or graphics adapter. However, some motherboards have onboard video capability therefore there is no need for a video card.

Examples of graphic adapters are:

Monochrome display adapter (MDA): This was the first video card that was used in early computers. MDA displayed text only in one colour.

Hercules graphics card (HGC): One weakness of the original MDA display was that, it could not support images of any kind. Hercule graphic card supports monochrome images in addition to text.

Color graphics adapter (CGA): This can display text and images using up to 16 colours.

Enhanced graphics adapter (EGA): This is an improvement over colour graphic adapter but also displayed text and images using 16 colours.

Video graphics array (VGA): This offers at most 256 colours.

Super video graphics array (SVGA): This is an enhancement of video graphic array capabilities offering over 256 colours.

Small portable laptops, notebooks and even desktop PCs use flat-panel display. Common types of this display are:

Liquid crystal display (LCD): Liquid crystal displays do not display by emitting light of their own. Instead they have tiny liquid crystals that reflect light falling on them from the environment. Liquid crystal displays are widely used in watches, calculators, cell phones and digital cameras.

Electro luminescent (EL): These displays are an improvement on LCDs. Electro luminescent emits light when electrically charged. This makes them clear, sharper and easier to read.

Gas-plasma: These use a gas that emits light in the presence of electric current.

Thin film transistor (TFT): This is the latest technological advancement in displays. It provides high quality output than all the others.

Sound output

Speakers are used to output sound from a computer. Sound may be in form of music, warning, video, interactive communication with a computer etc.

Light-emitting diodes (LED)

These are light emitting components that display light when an electric current is passed through them. A good example is the red or green light displayed by the system unit to help the user know whether it is on or off. Mostly LEDs are used to give warnings the same way a motorist would use signals to indicate when he/she is overtaking or taking a turn.

LCD projectors project the output from the computer to a white board or wall.

Hardcopy output devices

The most common hard copy output devices are printers and plotters.

Printers

Printers produce a hard copy of information on papers. The quality of the hardcopy depends the printer s printing mechanism. There are two types of printers namely impact and non-impact printers.

Impact printers

The mechanism of impact printers is almost similar to that of an ordinary typewriter i.e. they produce characters by using special light hammers with characters or pins held on the printing head. To print, a paper is placed behind an ink ribbon. When the hammer strikes on the head, character mark is stamped. These printers are noisy and are mostly used to produce rough copies. The two widely used impact printers are dot matrix and daisy-wheel printers.

Dot matrix printers produce a hardcopy by arranging patterns of dots on the paper using pins held in the printing head. Figure 2.10 (a) shows an example of an impact printer. Figure 2.10 (b) shows print characters formed by a dot matrix printer.

a daisy-wheel printer has a wheel with petals on which characters are mounted. It is so called because it resembles a daisy flower. When printing, the wheel rotates allowing the petals to hit a ribbon with different characters as they are received from the computer.

Non-impact printers

These printers do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters on a piece of paper. They do not hammer the ribbon hence they are much quieter. The major non-impact printers are inkjet, thermal transfer and laser printers.

Inkjet printers

Inkjet printers form characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the charged ink particles into characters. Inkjets are cheap to buy but expensive to run because of the high cost of ink cartridges. Figure 2.12 shows an inkjet printer.

Thermal printers

Thermal printers use heat to transfer characters onto a piece of paper i.e. they bond characters onto a piece of paper by using hot pins which presses against a special ribbon. They are inexpensive alternative to inkjets.

Laser printers

Laser printers prints by passing a laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum. The laser beam draws the image on the drum by static electricity. An example of a laser printer is shown in Figure 2.13. The charged areas pick up the ink toner from a cartridge, and press it onto the paper. Although these printers are more expensive to buy, they are faster, and cheaper to run than the inkjets.

Plotters

A as shown in Figure 2.14, a plotter resembles a printer but specialises in producing big charts such as maps, pictures and drawings. They are mostly used for printing geographical, architectural and engineering drawings e.g. maps, advertisement posters to be placed on billboards, machine parts etc.

2.5. Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices and media

There is need to have an alternative long-term storage location for data and information other than the main memory. These alternative storage devices that are not part of the main memory are called secondary or auxiliary storage devices. These devices are not directly accessible by the cpu. Secondary storage devices that are not housed inside the system unit and hence can be carried around to be used with another computer are called removable storage devices and media. In order to read or store data from a storage media, a device called a drive is required.

Secondary storage devices can be classified according to the technology used to record data. The technology could be magnetic or optical. The data and instructions held in these devices must first be moved into RAM before processing.

Removable storage devices

Magnetic tapes

A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar (plastic-like) material coated with a thin layer of iron oxide. The tape resembles the music cassette used in home tape recorders.

In order to read/write data records on the tape, the tape must be inserted in a tape drive that rotates the tape allowing a read/write head to perform

5.1. the operation. Most computers today don t has tape drives because of the advent of better storage devices. Examples of magnetic tapes include: reel to reel tapes, cassette tapes and cartridge tapes.

Disadvantages of using magnetic tapes

Magnetic tapes are slow because of the linear storage of data records on the tape. This means that you have to access the proceeding records before you get the required.
There is a space between successive data records called inter-record gap (IRG), which results in wastage of storage space.

Magnetic disks

They have a magnetic disk platter that stores data. Examples of magnetic disks are floppy disks (diskettes), zip disks and jaz disk.

Floppy disks “

A floppy disk or simply a diskette is made up of a small flexible round disk coated with iron oxide. This disk is covered with a plastic protective case. Floppy disks are portable thus making them the most widely used type of secondary storage device.

Floppy disks are inserted in a floppy drive, which has a read-write head that runs over the magnetised spots that contain data. Floppy disks come in different sizes with different storage capacities. Initial floppy disks were large in size but with smaller storage capacities than the presently available 3t-inch which has a maximum storage capacity of about 1.44MB. Figures. 2.15 (a) shows a typical 3t-floppy diskette while Figure 2.15 (b) shows parts of floppy disk.

The structure of a floppy disk platter

If the protective plastic casing of a floppy disk is removed, a circular flexible disk, coated with magnetic material will be revealed. The surface of the disk is divided into tiny invisible concentric circles called tracks that store data. The tracks are further divided into units called sectors as shown in Figure 2.16.

Zip disks

These are high capacity disks that resemble the floppy disks. They are, however, slightly larger and thicker in size. A zip disk can hold as much as 250 MB. Zip disks mostly come with separate-portable external zip drive.

Jaz disks

These are small portable disks with high storage capacity of about 1 GB to 2GB. They are used for storing data that require large storage. Like jaz disk comes with a portable jaz drive. Figure 2.17 below shows jaz and zip disks and their drives.

Care of magnetic storage media

To care for magnetic media the following rules are to be observed.

Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields. This would erase the magnetically recorded data on the disk. Hence do not carry magnets to the computer room.
Keep magnetic media away from excessive heat because heat energy

weakens magnetic media s ability to store data.

Do not drop the disk on the ground.

Optical (laser) disks

These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam. A laser beam is a very strong concentrated light. The beam bums very tiny holes (pits) into a thin shiny surface to record data. Likewise a laser beam in the optical drive is also used to read, record data on the disk. The advantages of optical storage media are:

They store very large volumes of data.
Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than the

magnetic media.

Examples of optical storage disks include: LS-120 super disks (SD), compact disks (CDs), digital versatile disks (DVD), optical card and optical tape.

LS-120 super disk

This is a diskette that resembles the 3 ½-inch floppy disk but uses optical technology instead of magnetic technology to record data. It has greater capacity of storage and greater speed of data retrieval. The LS-120 drive can read and write both the 3 ½-inch, 1.44 MB floppy disk and the 120MB super disk. (Figure 2.18).

Fig. 2.18 Super disk and drive

Compact disks (CD)

Compact disks hold large quantities of data and information. One disk can hold as much as 700MB. They are mostly used to store data and information that requires a lot of space such as video clips, software, sounds etc. Figure 2.19 shows a compact disk.

Currently compact disks are available in three forms namely:

Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM): These are the type of compact disks which, when data is recorded on Them, one can neither change them, nor add anything on them. They are mostly used to store music recordings.

Compact disk-recordable (CD-R): These compact disks are initially blank but with a drive called CD- Writer, the user can record data, programs or information on it. However, once data has been written on it, one can only read but not change it.

Compact disk-rewritable (CD-RW): Unlike the CD-Rs, these types of compact disks allows the user to record, erase and rewrite new information just as one would with floppy disks.

NB: Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) because they allow the user to record data on them once but read the data as often as necessary.

Digital versatile disks (DVD’s)

Digital versatile disks also known as digital video disks resemble compact disks in every aspect but the only difference is that they have higher storage capacity of up to 17GB which is equivalent to approximately twenty six 640MB CDs. They are suitable for recording motion pictures such as video because they offer better sound and picture quality than the CDs.

Optical card

An optical card resembles the magnetic-ink character recognition card but instead of having a magnetic stripe, it has an optically recordable stripe that stores information. These types of cards are mostly used in banking and other business organisations to record customer details.

Optical tape

This is similar to a magnetic tape only that data is stored on it by using optical technology.

Current and emerging trends in laser technology

The advances in optical storage, digital video clips, voice and sound synthesis have formed the basis for modem multimedia technology exploited to develop multimedia computers. A multimedia computer does not only display text but can also allow the user to have sound playback and watch videos and pictures. A typical multimedia computer must have the following minimum requirements:

A video graphic array or higher super video graphic array (SVGA)

graphics card and monitor.

A sound card.
Compact disk or digital video disk drives.
32 MB RAM or higher. Lower memory is bottleneck to performance.

Today computers can be used to tune to any of the favorite FM or TV channels as long as an FM/TV card is installed in the computer.

Fixed storage media

These are the storage devices that are housed inside the personal computer s system unit. An example is the hard disk. However it is important to note that some hard disks especially those used in small computers such as laptops are removable.

The hard disk

The hard disk, also known as the Winchester disk is a sealed unit in which is shiny, rigid magnetic disks or platters that are arranged vertically on a common axis as shown in Figure 2.20.

How the hard disk stores data

Each disk has two read/write heads that read/record data on both sides. The surfaces of each disk are divided into tracks and sectors like those of a floppy disk. Tracks along the common axis forms an imaginary cylinder. Therefore the term cylinder is sometimes used to indicate the number of tracks on one surface of a platter. For example if you say that a hard disk has ten cylinders then each disk has ten tracks on one surface. If the disk has ten platters then one cylinder will have twenty tracks:

As the disk rotates, the read/write head moves in and out over the surface to record or read data.

Hard disks have gained widespread popularity because:

They provide permanent, cheap and large storage capacity that is rewritable. For example a computer can have one hard disk of 40 GB storage space.
They are very fast compared to other secondary s rage devices in terms of data transfer.

Care of the hard disk

Because of the high rotational speed of the disks, it is important to observe the following precautions to avoid permanent destruction to the hard disk also called disk crash.

Keep the disk away from smoke and dust. Dust and smoke particles can cause damage to the surface of the disk by scratching it as the head attempts to read data.
Switch off the computer using the correct procedure. This allows the read/write head to move off the disk surface before power is switched off. Improper procedure would risk heads crashing on rotating disks hence scratching them.

Emerging trends in storage devices

Because of need for vast storage prompted by today s massive data processing applications and need to carry a lot of information in easily portable storage devices, more advanced and reliable storage media are emerging. One good example is a storage device called the flash disk that is small in size (about 5 x 2 cm) but has capacity to store over 600MB ( equivalent to approximately 400 floppy disks! !). Figure 2.22 shows a diagram of a flash disk.

2.6

Power and interface cables

Power cables

Inside the system unit is a special power supply unit that supplies power to the motherboard and other internal devices. In order to connect the computer to the mains power outlet, you need power cables that link the power supply unit to the outlet.

Interface cables

All peripheral devices are connected to the motherboard hence to the CPU by special cables called interface cables. An interface cable is connected to the device on one end, and to the motherboard via ports on the other end.

The difference between the power cables and the interface cables is that the power cable supplies power to a component while interface cables transmit data signals.

There are different types of cables and parts namely;

Parallel cables and ports

Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously using a set of many conductors (wires). For example if a cable uses 8 conductors to transmit data at the same time, it is said to be an 8-bit parallel cable. The advantage of using such cables is that they transmit data faster over a short distance. These cables are mostly used to connect printers and removable storage drives like the zip drive. Figure 2.23 shows an illustration of a parallel port and cable.

Serial cables and ports

Unlike the parallel cables, serial cables transmit one bit at a time. Although they are slow, they are much more reliable than the parallel ports and therefore, their connector cables can be as long as 15 m. Serial cables are generally used to connect devices such as the mouse and some serial printers. Figure 2.24 shows a 9 and a 25 pin serial ports.

Universal serial bus (USS) cable and port

Universal serial bus is a new standard serial interface that is set to replace the conventional parallel and serial cables and ports. Currently most peripheral devices are coming with universal serial bus ports and interface cable. Although it transmits only I-bit at a time, it provides very high-speed and quality data transmission over distances of approximately 5 metres. USB supports a wide range of peripheral devices ranging from external storage drives to digital cameras. Figure 2.25 shows a USB port and its interface cable.

If a computer does not have a universal serial bus port, it can be bought and fitted on the motherboard.

Small computer systems interface (SCSI) cables and port

This port and interface cables transmit data in parallel but are faster than the parallel cables. Another advantage of the SCSI port is that one SCSI port allows us to connect up to eight peripheral devices.

Other ports and connectors. Other ports and connectors include;

5-pin DIN and 6-pin (PS/2) ports

Originally, most computers used the 5-pin DIN to connect a keyboard to the system unit but the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN also known as PS/2 interface port has almost replaced this technology. Currently most computers come with the PS/2 connector as the new standard to connect PS/2 mouse and keyboard. Figure 2.26 shows a 5-pin and PS/2 connectors

showing physical difference in size. I

Monitor ports

The two most common connectors used for monitors are the 9- Pin D and the I5-pin Hi-D connector as shown in Figure 2.27. They are called D-ports because they resemble letter D.

(Audio connectors

These are jack plugs found on a sound interface adapter used to connect speakers, microphone and other portable audio equipment.

2.7`

Basic computer setup and cabling

Having learnt about various devices and how they function, it is important to familiarise ourselves on how to setup a computer.

Before attempting to carry out any setup activity, observe the following precautions should be observed.

Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them.
Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance of the teacher.
Never work alone because you may need help in case of an emergency.
Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on the hands by touching an earthed metallic object and then wearing an anti-static wrist member. This is because your body can hold as much as 200 volts of static charge that can damage sensitive components on the motherboard.

Tools and other requirements

The tools and requirements include;

Different sizes and shapes of screwdrivers.
Anti-static wrist member.
Pliers with narrow nose.
Manufacturer s manuals for motherboard and other components.
Necessary software.
A dismantled system unit.
Peripheral devices.
Interface and power cables.
Any other as needed.

Connecting devices to the motherboard

The following are steps for connecting devices to the motherboard.

Step 1: Identifying motherboard slots and components. Before you connect any device to the motherboard, carefully study the manufacturer s manual in order to identify the components labeled in

Step 2: Connecting the hard disk, floppy drive and optical drive. These devices are connected to the motherboard using special ribbon cables like the one shown in Figure 2.30.

The following instructions should be observed while connecting the devices:

Wear antistatic wrist member to discharge any static charge on the body.
Check that a free drive bay exists to hold the disk drive.
Slide the disk into its bay and screw it into place.
Ensure that there is a free power connector from the power supply unit and connect it to the drive. Notice that it is designed to fit in its socket in only one direction.
Identify pin 1 as labeled on the drives socket and match it with the red or brown continuous line of the ribbon cable. Most cables will only fit in one direction.
Connect the cable both to the drive then to the motherboard.
Repeat this for all the drives.
If installation is complete replace the system unit cover.

Step 3: Connecting other peripheral devices

To connect a device to the system unit, you need to identify its port and interface cable.

Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct port and to the device if it is not already fixed permanently.
Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether power on-self test (POST) displays any error message.
A successful boot means that the computer was properly setup.

NB: If the computer is completely new, programs have to be copied (installed) on the hard disk.

2.8 Computer software

As mentioned earlier, the term software refers to a set of computer programs. Its function is to guide the computer in its operations. Software can be classified according to purpose or acquisition.

Classification according to purpose:

Computer software may primarily be designed to manage the hardware resources or to help the user accomplish specific tasks. Therefore software may be classified as either system or application software.

System software

System software performs a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resources to the user. These functions include:

Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly.
Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application programs.
Storing and retrieving files.
Performing a variety of system utility functions.

System software is further divided into:

Operating system. 2. Firmware.
Utility software. 4. Networking software.

The operating system

This is a set of complex programs that work together to control execution of user programs called applications and acts as a go between (interfaces) between the applications of the computer hardware. It manages input/output and storage operations in a computer. Examples of common operating systems are Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP, UNIX, Linux, Macintosh (Mac OS) and OS/2. What type of operating system software do you use in the computer laboratory?

Therefore the operating system is the main program on the computer system.

Firmware

Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is a combination of both the software and hardware recorded permanently on electronic chips. Usually, a firmware is a read-only memory chip that is mounted or plugged into the motherboard. Firmware may hold an operating system, utility programs, language processors etc.

Utility software

Utility software is a special program that performs commonly used services that make certain aspects of computing to go on more smoothly. Such services include sorting, copying, file handling, disk management etc. The two basic types of utility software are:

System-level utility software: These help the user to work with the operating system and its functions. For example, a utility software tells the user when he/she enters a wrong command and gives suggestions how the error can be corrected.
Application utility software: These make the use of an application program smoother and efficient. These utility programs are commonly purchased separately or may be part of an operating system.

Networking software

This type of software is mostly used to establish communication between two or more computers by linking them using a communication channel like cables to create a computer network. Networking software enables the exchange of data in a network as well as providing data security. Network software may come as independent software or integrated in an operating system. An example of networking software is novel Netware.

Application software

Application software, also called application packages are programs that are designed to help the user accomplish specific tasks.

.Table 2.2 gives examples and uses of common application packages

Software	Uses	Examples
Word processor	Typing documents like	Ms Word, Lotus
	letters.	WordPro, WordStar.
Spreadsheets	Manipulation of numeric data e.g. calculating budgets.	Ms Excel, Lotus 1 2 3
Desktop	Designing publications	Adobe PageMaker,
Publisher	like newspapers, books.	Ms publisher.
Computer aided	Technical drawing.	AutoCAD.
Design
Databases	Keeping records and	Ms Access, Dbase.
	files.
Graphics software	Creating and	Corel Draw,’ Adobe
	manipulating pictures.	Photoshop.

Table 2.2: Application packages

Classification according to acquisition

Generally computer programs can be classified according to how they are obtained as in-house developed software and standard software (Vendor off-the-shelf software).

In-house developed programs

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user s needs. For example, a bank may decide to manage its banking operations using a unique program developed by hired programmers. These programs are not available in the shops and once developed for one company or user may not address the needs of other users.

Standard software (Vendor off-the-shelf software)

These programs are developed by software engineers, packaged and then made available for purchase through a vendor, a distributor or directly from the developer. A developer may bundle more than one but closely related software into one package to form a suite or integrated software as opposed to single-purpose software. Examples of suites are Lotus

Suite, Microsoft-Office and Corel WordPerfect while those of single purpose are QuickBooks and Sage Line 50.

The word package is sometimes used to refer to these types of software that are packaged and sold by vendors.

Advantages of standard software over the in-house developed programs are:

They can easily be installed and run.
They are less expensive to acquire than the cost of developing in-house software.
They are readily available for almost any task.
Since they are thoroughly tested before they are released, chances of errors in them are rare.

They can easily be modified (customised) to meet specific user’s needs without involving expert programmers

Criteria for selecting a computer system

The task of determining a suitable computer system for an individual or organisation is not easy. A good computer system must meet all the requirements of the user. Therefore, before selecting the computer system to implement, it is advisable to do an analysis of all the requirements necessary in order to avoid acquiring a system that may disappoint the users.

Requirements analysis for selecting a computer system should cover the following:

Identifying all user requirements.
Evaluating hardware requirements that will meet the users needs.
Evaluating software requirements that will meet the users needs. The computer hardware and software to be acquired should therefore be able to meet all needs of the data processing environment that, they are intended for effectively.

Hardware considerations

Some factors considered when selecting computer hardware are;

Processor speed

The processing power and speed of a computer mainly depends on the processor speed. A good computer must have high processor speed. For example a few years ago, processors used to have speeds of less than 100 MHz. However, today s Pentium processors are operating at very high clock speeds of over 4 GHz.

Scientists and engineers are aiming at producing a processor that operates at terahertz (trillion hertz). However, it is important to buy a processor that suits ones need not necessarily the fastest.

Memory capacity

As earlier mentioned, primary memory, mainly random access memory (RAM) is measured in megabytes (MB). For example, a computer may have 32MB of RAM. Although, a computer may have a very fast processor, it may not perform as expected if it has low memory capacity. Because of the current multimedia driven applications, a good computer should have sufficient memory to handle the heavy applications that require a lot of memory space in order to run. A computer with at least 128 MB of RAM is recommended for most contemporary applications.

RAM is packaged as either dual in-line memory Module. (DIMM) or single in-line memory module (SIMM).

Therefore, before one buys a memory module for the computer the following factors have to be considered:

The type of module supported by the computer s motherboard.
Does the motherboard have an empty memory slot?
Will the module work well (be compatible) with the other existing modules on the motherboard?
What is the capacity of the module?

Warranty

A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction.

The most important consideration to make is whether the seller is ready to actually provide after sales services. On top of the actual cost of the item, most manufacturers and suppliers include a certain percentage charge to cover the warranty.

A good warranty should cover the following points:

Scope of cover for example six months, one year etc.
Callout response and liability agreement. For example how long should the supplier take to repair a fault or replace the product, and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service, at intervals etc.

Cost

The cost of a computer system depends on:

Its processing capability.
Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their equivalent clones. This is because of their reliability and good after sale services.
Its size. Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop equivalents because of the superior technology involved in manufacturing smaller components without losing performance abilities.

It is important to do a market survey from magazines, newspapers, and electronic media or visit a number of vendors to compare prices before purchasing a computer. Computer information and technology exhibitions also enlighten a buyer on current trends and costs.

Upgradeability and compatibility

When buying a computer, the best option would be to get one that can easily be upgraded to accommodate emergent technologies. For example some older computers cannot support large hard disks available in the market today hence, difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are no longer in circulation.

Portability

The size of electronic devices including computers has become a major consideration because smaller devices enhance mobility.

User needs

When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique needs of the user. For example if the users have special disability like inability to use their hands, consider buying input devices that capture data through voice input.

The user needs also determine the type of data that will be processed hence, the choice of the type of hardware most appropriate to satisfy the needs. For example in a supermarket a special computerized devise called a point of sale (POS) terminal is most suitable to record transactions.

Other considerations

Other considerations for selecting computer hardware are;

Monitor

Depending on preference, your choice for a monitor may depend on size, resolution and the technology used to make it. Currently flat panel displays have become a new market standard quickly replacing the cathode ray tube (CRT).

Multimedia capability

This is the combination of video, audio, text and images to provide an interactive, creative and effective way of producing and communicating information. A multimedia system should have speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and a SVGA monitor. It should also have software that supports multimedia capability.

Software considerations

Although one may have a good computer with the best hardware, the actual real determinant of a computer s value to the user is the software in it that can run to solve the day to day data and information processing needs.

The following factors should be considered when selecting software:

Authenticity

The term authenticity refers to genuineness, validity and or legitimacy of an item. When you acquire software from the vendor, make sure it is an original copy that is accompanied by the developer s license and certificate of authenticity. This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which is an offence.

Documentation

It refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having details on how to install, use and maintain the software. These include installation guide, maintenance guide and a user guide. This documentation enables the user to work with the software with minimum guidance.

User needs

The needs of the user determines the type of operating system and application programs that should be considered for acquisition. For example, if the user needs to type documents most often he/she would go for a word-processor.

People with special disability will require software that recognizes other forms of input like voice and natural sound. A good example is software used in mobile phones to store voice and allow the user to make a call by just calling a name instead of keying in the number.

Reliability and security

People are more comfortable with software that offers good security to confidential and private information.

User friendliness

One of the most important features normally considered when using a computer program is its user-friendliness. This is a measure of how easily the users can be able to operate the computer. Some programs are more user- friendlier than others. A lot of research and effort has been dedicated in trying to come up with more user-friendly software. The ease of use of a program will most likely influence whether the user will prefer it or not.

Cost

The cost of software is perhaps one of the most controversial issues that must be considered carefully. One cannot just go for software because it is cheap. Many other factors may force a person to buy far much more expensive software even with cheaper alternatives available. However it is illogical to buy expensive software if there is a reliable cheaper alternative that will meet ones needs.

In case the off- the-shelf software does not fit the needs of the users it would be advisable to develop in-house software solutions even though they may be a bit more expensive.

Compatibility and system configuration

Software compatibility refers to the ability of the computer to run the software depending on the system setup (configuration). For example some software may only run on a computer that has 32MB of RAM and above. Any computer with lower than this, will be said to be incompatible. It is important that one reads the installation guide and system requirements that comes with the software in order to avoid disappointment.

Portability

Portability in this aspect refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than one computer. Although, most software in the market today are portable some developers produce software which can be installed on one machine only. This means that if one has twenty computers, one should buy a license for each.

3.1 OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS)

Chapter outline

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Resources under operating systems control 3.3 Functions of an operating system

3.4 Types of operating systems

3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

3.6 How Windows organizes information

3.7 Managing files and folders

3.8 Disk management using Windows

3.9 Installing Windows operating system

Introduction

As mentioned earlier, an operating system is the main program that controls the execution of user applications and enables the user to access the hardware and software resources of the computer. In a data processing environment, the user sees a computer as a group of application programs that enables him/her to accomplish specific tasks. Application programs do not directly utilize the hardware devices. They send messages through the operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the hardware to perform a particular task. An operating system therefore, supervises all the other programs in the computer and manages access to the hardware as shown in Figure 3.1.

3.2

Resources under operating systems control

A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable movement, storage and processing of data and information. The resources or devices under the operating system control include: the processor, the main memory (RAM), input and output device and parts, secondary storage devices and communication devices.

The processor

The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks called processes. At anyone time several tasks may require processing hence creating competition. The operating system arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a particular task to allow the processor to service another one.

Main memory (RAM)

At anyone given time so many tasks may require the memory so that they can be accessed and processed by the computer. However, because memory is also a scarce resource, the operating system determines which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be sent back to secondary storage to wait.

Because the operating system is large and very important, it is usually installed on the hard disk but must be loaded to RAM during the booting process. Not all the operating system can fit in RAM so a small special part that contains the most necessary commands and procedures called the kernel is the one that is loaded.

Input/output devices and ports

In most cases, the operating system controls all data input and information output tasks. Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the operating system has to control the flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives it as information. It ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the right time. The operating system also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer e.g. printer port.

Secondary storage devices

The operating system manages the storage and retrieval of data on secondary storage devices. It also utilizes the free space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the computer by temporarily holding tasks

on it that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for some time.

Communication devices and ports

Communication in this case refers to how the various devices and programs in and out of the computer system send and receive messages from one another and from the processor. The operating system controls the overall communication process between various tasks and computers. External communication can be achieved by connecting an external device to a communication port using a communication medium like cables or even wireless communication.

3.3 Functions of an operating system The functions of an operating system are:

Job scheduling

The processor can only handle one task at a time. Therefore, the operating system has to determine which task will be processed first and makes sure that the one that is currently being processed is closely monitored to avoid wasting time in the processor. The criteria for selecting which task will come before the other depends on many factors. For example, the operating system may decide to process smaller tasks before larger ones.

Resource control and allocation

In order for the processor to be able to recognize and priorities the use and requests for resources, it gives each resource a unique identification number called an interrupt number. Hence when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher priority interrupt is granted control. This can be compared to the priority given to the presidential motorcade on a busy road.

Secondly, the operating system tries as much as possible to avoid a situation where a particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to release it for use by other tasks. When several tasks do this, an undesirable situation called deadlock occurs.

Therefore, resource control and allocation is a core operating system function because it determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time.

Input/output handling

Every computer has many input and output devices (I/O). Like a skilled traffic officer, the operating system coordinates between these various I/O and other peripheral devices such as auxiliary storage devices, making sure that data flows properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion. For example, when printing, the CPU directs its attention to the printing function. The operating system searches for the printer, chooses the correct one, translates the name for the CPU and finally the CPU sends the document to the printer. This then makes the CPU available for other activities.

Memory management

All data and instructions must be temporarily held in the main memory before and after processing. The operating system may organize the main memory into blocks of sizes called partitions. It constantly assigns main memory storage partitions to data and instructions. To access a piece of data or instruction, the operating system knows where to find each piece of data as long as the correct address of the partition is used.

Error handling

The operating system has many ways of alerting the user, of errors he or she makes. Many op rating system usually express what the error is, and where possible make suggestions on how to correct the error. The operating system does this by monitoring the status of the computer system and performing error checks on both hardware and the software.

Job sequencing

The operating system keeps a list of jobs or tasks currently being run and clocks them in and out of the processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make it easy for the processor to execute them and to know how and when to fetch instructions and data for each task.

Interrupt handling

An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. An external request causes the processor to stop executing the current task, and do something else before returning the control back to the program that was interrupted.

Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number called the interrupt request number (IRQ number). Fig 3.2 shows the devices assigned to IRQ numbers in Microsoft Windows.

3.4 Types of operating systems

Operating systems can be classified according to:

Number of tasks handled concurrently.
Number of users.
Human computer interface (HCI).

Classification according to tasks handled concurrently

Single program operating system

Single program operating system allows processing of only one user program in the main memory at a time. This means that the user can only run one interactive program at a time. Then the user must exit from the program before loading and running another program. An example of a single user operating system is MS DOS from Microsoft Corporation.

Multi tasking operating system

This type of operating system allows a single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one program at the same time. However, internally only one program is being executed at a time. The CPU switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for processing, executing statements from one program, and then from another using the concept of giving a time slice to each application. This switching of attention is so fast that it appears as if the programs are being executed simultaneously.

Classification according to number of users

Single user operating system

A single user operating system is designed for use by only one person. It cannot support more than one person and runs only one user application at a time.

Multi user operating system

Multi user or multi access operating system allows more than one user to interactively use the computer. It can be installed on a computer that is accessed by many people at the same time. Examples of such operating systems are UNIX, Novell and Windows NT/2000, Linux.

Classification according to interface

The term human computer interface refers to the method of interaction between the computer and the user and determines how easily the user can operate the computer. The underlying principle in operating system design is to make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out. This is the reason why a lot of time has been spent by software developers in trying to come up with user friendly interfaces.

Currently the three main types of human computer interface are:

Command line Interface

The user interacts with a computer by typing a command at the prompt found on a command line. A computer reads instructions from the command line and executes them. For a command to be more user friendly, the words used should be descriptive verbs e.g. print, copy etc. Unique abbreviations can also be used e.g. Del Ren Chkdsk etc.

For example, if you are using MS DOS operating system, you can copy a file called Fruits.Dat from a hard disk C to floppy disk A as follows: COPY C:\Fruits.Dat A:\

NB: The user must press the enter key for the command to be executed.

Examples of command line interface are the early versions of MS DOS, PC DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.

MS DOS Interface

Menu driven interface

This type of interface provides the user with a list of options to choose from. The interface therefore is suitable for beginners who may have difficulties recalling commands.

Some operating systems present the user with simple menus while others have sophisticated menus.

The user makes a selection `by typing any of the letters I, V, E, D or Q to activate a submenu.

A menu driven interface.

Later versions of DOS came with a menu driven interface called the DOS shell or DOS editor

The DOS shell

The graphical user interface (GUI)

This type of interface represents commands as small pictures on the screen called Icons. Icons can be selected to issue a command using a pointing device like a mouse. GUI has become a very common type of interface because of its user friendliness.

Examples of GUI based operating systems are OS/2 s Presentation Manager, Microsoft Windows, Linux and Apple Macintosh.

3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

When choosing an operating system for a computer, the following factors should be considered:

Hardware configuration or provision of the computer e.g. memory size, hard disk capacity, type of processor etc.
Basic design of the computer e.g. is it an IBM or IBM-Compatible, or an Apple computer.
Applications intended for the computer.
User friendliness or human computer interface i.e. is it command line based, menu driven or graphical user interface based.
Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based operating systems are very common.
Cost – how expensive is the operating system?
Reliability i.e. can it run without crashing or hanging i.e. stop responding to commands. .

3.6 How Windows organizes information

Introduction

Microsoft Corporation is a software company that specializes in the development of both operating systems and application programs. Some of its popular operating systems include; Windows 95, 98, 2000, NT, Millennium (Me) and XP. These operating systems have gained wide popularity with many PC users because of their friendly graphical user interface.

Other operating systems that rival Microsoft products include Linux, UNIX, Mac OS and OS/2.

NB: In order to understand how an operating system organizes information, this book cuts across four versions of Windows i.e. Windows 95, 98, Me and XP, by giving standardized procedures that are common to all. However because it is hard to cater for the small differences in the four versions, the book provides a common procedure of carrying out Tasks. However, extra details on specific versions are discussed in appendices L II and III.

The good thing about all the versions of Windows discussed in this book is that once you acquire basic skills in using one version, you can easily transfer the same to other versions.

Some common features in Windows operating systems:

They all have similar user interface
Ability to handle long file names. As opposed to MS DOS which can handle a maximum of eleven characters, Windows 95 and later versions accept file names of up to 255 characters including spaces.
Various versions of Windows operating systems automatically accept a new hardware once it is connected to the computer. This feature is referred to as plug and play {PnP}.
They all support multiple tasks and multiple users.

Windows manages data and information stored on secondary storage devices by organizing it into easily accessible units called files and folders.

Files

A file is a collection of related data or information stored in one location and given a unique name that enables the operating system to identify it during storage and retrieval process. Every file has details that indicate the following:

A unique name and an optional set of maximum three characters called an extension e.g. a file named JUNE.DOC has JUNE as the name and DOC as the extension. The file name and the extension are separated by a period (.). The extension usually suggests the type of information held by the file e.g. DOC suggests that it is a document file created in an application program called Microsoft Word.

Its size and date of creation.

There are two types of files namely; system file and application files.

System files

These of files contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer. For example, all hardware devices are tested and made ready (initialised) during boot up by having the computer read information

From special system files. These files in Windows would have name extensions like .sys, .ini and .dll. An example of a system file is system.ini

Application files

They are also called program files because they hold programs or application files. They may have extensions such as .exe.

The following list gives some common file name extensions and suggests the type of information that could be held in the file.

Extensions Type of information

DAT Data files

EXE Executable file that starts an application

TXT Text files

DOC Document file

When naming files, it is important to give meaningful names and extensions that suggest its content. For example when saving a letter written to John, give it a name such as Johnletter. The name extension is automatically added by the application being used.

Folders

A folder or a directory is a named storage area where the user can store related files to enable easy access. Like with an ordinary file cabinet, a folder is meant to help the user divide a large storage media into small manageable storage locations.

Subfolders

A large folder may be divided into smaller units called subfolders. Therefore, a subfolder or subdirectory is folder/directory within another folder/directory.

In Windows, folders and subfolder icons mostly appear in yellow color while file icons are mostly white with a fold at the top right hand corner

Storage media

When saving a file or creating a folder, identify a storage location, which is more reliable and sufficient. For example, if a file or folder requires more than 1.44MB of storage space, you can not use a 1.44MB 3 inch. floppy disk instead use a storage media with larger space.

Windows desktop

Once you switch on the computer, Windows is automatically loaded into the main memory and a mostly empty screen called the desktop appears. This shows that the computer is ready for use.

Some versions of Windows e.g. Windows XP, prompt the user to press Ctrl +Alt +Delete to gain access to desktop features through a process called Log on.

Desktop features

On the desktop are icons and a long thin bar called the task bar. Figure 3.8 shows a Windows Me desktop.

Icons

Icons are mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse. Some of the common icons on the desktop are My Computer; Recycle bin, Internet Explorer, and My Documents.

The task bar

The taskbar enables the user to easily switch between different programs and documents (tasks) that are currently running.

Whenever the user starts a program or opens a file, its button appears on the taskbar and stays there until the user exits from the program see Figure 3.9. You can switch between various programs and documents in Windows by clicking these buttons. This process is called multi tasking.

The taskbar has at least three main parts.

Start button: The leftmost button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start menu.

Task manager: This is the plain stripe that displays buttons of all currently running tasks. The task manager of Figure 3.9 shows OPERATING SYSTE is the currently running task

System tray: This is at the right most part of the taskbar. It has icons of tasks running in the background put are not displayed on the screen. Examples are the time and calendar, an antivirus program, volume control etc. To display such a task, simply double click its icon.

The start menu

When you click the start button, a list of choices appear called the start

menu. The items on the menu may vary depending on the version of Windows you are using. Figure 3.10 (a) and (b) shows Windows Me and Windows XP start menus respectively. From careful study of the figures, you will notice slight variations but most commands on the menu items remain the same.

Programs

This menu displays a list of all programs installed in the computer. The menu has a small solid arrow. When you point at it, another list of menus called a sidekick menu will be displayed as shown in Figure 3.10 (a) and (b).

Documents / my recent documents

Documents menu in Windows 95, 98 and me or my recent documents in Windows XP lists the last fifteen recently accessed files. You can open any of the listed files from a storage device by clicking its name provided that the device is accessible.

Settings / control Panel

Settings menu in Windows 95,98 and Me or the control panel in Windows XP provides tools which the user can use to maintain and make changes to the computer setup. It is important not to tamper with this menu because you may interfere with the computer functionality.

Find / search

Find in Windows 95,98,and Me or Search in XP helps the user to search for a file or folder in case the user forgets its name or location.

Help / help and support

The help command on the start menu, displays detailed information on how to use the operating system and solve some computer related problems in case of the computer fails to function properly.

Run

It enables the user to:

Install programs on the hard disk.
Open files and folders from a storage location.
Run programs from removable media without necessarily installing it on the hard disk.

Log on / log off

Log on is a security measure that restricts unauthorized uses from accessing computer resources. It prompts for a user name and password in order to gain access. After using the computer, log off the computer before leaving.

Shutdown

This menu lets the user shut down, restart the computer, or restart in MS-DOS mode. Windows Me and Windows XP do not have MS-DOS in their shut down dialog box, see appendix II and III.

Every time you finish using the computer you must first shut it down before turning it off. To do this you need to:

Click the start button
Point and click shutdown a prompt for Windows 98 will appear.
If you want to shut down, click the shutdown button
Finally, click ok or simply press enter
Wait for the computer to display a message, It is now save to turn off . Some computers automatically switch themselves off once you click ok.

3.7

Managing files and folders

To manipulate files and folders, you can either use My Computer icon from the desktop or Windows explorer from the start menu. Each in its own way lets you see how storage devices or locations, files and folders are arranged. These tools also enable the user to manipulate files and folders.

Windows explorer

Windows explorer lets the user display the drives and folders in a hierarchy or tree structure. The computer tree is an up side down structure with the highest level being the root. The explorer divides the window into two panes. The left pane displays a tree of drives and folders while the right pane displays a list of files and sub folders contained in a particular open drive or folder.

To display the Windows explorer in some versions of Windows like 95/98 carry out the following procedure:

Click the start button then
Point to the programs menu
From the Programs go to the sidekick menu, click windows explorer

An explorer window such as the one shown in Figure 3.12 will be displayed.

NB: In some operating systems, Windows explorer command may not necessarily be located on the program s menu. The other method of displaying the explorer window is to:

Right click’ my computer icon on the desktop.
Point and left click explorer from the shortcut menu.

This method of displaying the explorer window has been adopted as the standard way of displaying the explorer window throughout this book to take care of various versions of Windows operating systems.

In Figure 3.12, the highest item in the tree is the desktop then followed by My Computer. If you observe keenly, you will notice that some items have a small box on their left with a plus or minus sign inside. If an item has the plus sign on its left, it contains other lower level items e.g. My Documents folder in the above figure, has subfolders inside. To display the subfolders, click the plus sign and the sign will change to minus meaning that all subfolders in that level have been displayed. You can reduce (collapse) the tree by clicking minus sign.

Using My computer

Double clicking on my computer icon, gives you a graphical view of what is inside the computer. This includes the drives, the control panel and other resources as shown in Figure 3.13 (a).

To display files and folders from a particular drive proceed as follows:

Double click a drive icon. A window appears displaying files and folders stored in the root of the drive in question. The root is considered to be the highest level of the directory tree where all directories/folders start.
Double click a folder to display its contents.
Double click the hard disk (drive C). Its content will be displayed as shown in Figure 3.13 (b).
From this window you can start manipulating your files and folders.

Creating a new folder

There will be times when the user would want to create new folders. Say, for instance, when working on a detailed project that has multiple files. It is advisable that all related files be kept together in one folder. To create a new folder proceeds as follows:

Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new folder.
From the File menu, click New then click Folder as shown in Figure 3.14 (a). Anew folder with a temporary name New folder appears in the explorer window as shown in Figure 3.14 (b).
Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press Enter key or click the icon once.

NB: To create a subfolder, follow the steps above but select a folder as the location. To open a folder proceeds as follows:

Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
From the folder tree on the left pane, click the plus sign against the storage location that contains the file or folder you wish to open.
From the folder tree, select the folder. Its contents will be displayed on the right pane.

Creating a new file .

Depending on the programs installed in your computer, you can create files of different types such as drawings, text document etc. To create a new text document proceed as follows.

Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new file.
From the File Menu, point new
Select text document from a list of available applications and an icon with a temporary name appears in the explorer window.
Type a new name for the new file to replace the temporary name and press enter key.

NB: In Windows, file names can contain up to 255 characters, including spaces but, with no special symbols such as \ /: *? < > I.

The application Window

In order to enter data in the new file just created above, you have to open it in its application program. This can be done by double clicking the file icon. A rectangular area called an application window appears on the screen as shown in Figure 3.15.

Parts of a Window

Title bar

This is a bar across the top of the window that displays the name of the current application program or task.

On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons namely:

Minimize button: It reduces a window by pressing a button which is placed on the taskbar.

The restore/maximize button: It stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to its original size.

The close button: It is used to exit an application.

Menu bar

Menu bar provides a list of commands that can be used to manipulate a task. For example, to save a document, click file and then save.

Too/bars

These are buttons arranged in a row that are shortcuts to menu commands.

Work area

This is the working area where you can create your documents.

Status bar

This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the application window that acts as a communication link between the user and the operating system. Such interactive activities include saving, opening a file, printing, cursor position etc.

Scroll buttons and arrows

Scrolling is the moving up, down, left or right of a document window on the screen if it is too large to fit. Scroll buttons and arrows are horizontal and vertical buttons at the borders of a window used to scroll through long document.

Saving changes to a file

After typing the content of the file in the work area, click file and then Click save Otherwise, if the file will be saved with a different name or location then:

Click file and then save as
From the resulting Save As dialog box, select where the document is to be saved then type its name
Click the save button.

Renaming files or folders

Renaming refers to changing the previous name to a new name.

To rename a file or a folder proceed as follows:

Using My Computer icon display the Explorer window.
From the folder tree on the left pane, select the file or folder to be renamed.

From the file menu, click rename
Type the new name, and then presenter key.

Deleting files and folders

In Windows, when you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporarily held in a special folder called the Recycle bin from which it can be restored if necessary.

The recycle bin is a default icon on the desktop therefore it cannot be removed.

Warning

One should not attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
Items deleted from removable storage are not held in the recycle bin and are completely lost.

To delete a file or folder proceed as follows:

Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
From the folder tree on the left pane, select the item that is to be deleted.
On the File menu, click delete
A message appears on the screen asking whether you actually want to delete the item.
Confirm by clicking yes

Restoring deleted files and folders

To restore a file or folder from the recycle bin to its original location proceed as follows:

Double click the recycle bin icon.
Select the deleted item (or items) to be restored.
Click file then restore

Emptying the recycle bin

To completely discard files and folders you deleted, you need to empty the Recycle Bin. Deleted items take up the same amount of disk space they occupied before you deleted them. To free up that disk space occupied, you have to empty the bin.

To empty the recycling bin proceed as follows

Double-click the recycle bin on desktop.
Choose empty recycle bin from the File menu.
Click yes when prompted to confirm deletion of the files.

NB: You can also delete selected items in the recycle bin by clicking file then delete

Copying and moving files and folders

Cut or copy commands are used to move or create a duplicate of an item respectively. When you cut or copy an item, it is temporarily held in temporary storage location known as the clipboard. To copy a file or folder:

Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
On the edit menu, click copy
Select the drive or folder where you want the item to be copied.
From the edit menu click paste Information or item is pasted to a new location

Copy progress dialog will be displayed on the screen as shown in Figure 3.16 below

To move a file or a folder proceed as follows:

Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
On the edit menu click cut.
Select the drive or folder where you want the item moved.
From the edit menu click paste.
Move progress dialog will be displayed on the screen similar to that of copying in Figure 3.16 but with the word moving in the title bar.

Sorting files and folder

Sorting means arranging files and folders in a particular order either alphabetically or by size or date of last modification or creation. Widows automatically sorts files and folders into alphabetic order but the user can choose to arrange them otherwise. For example Figure. 3.17 show how to sort by name. Notice that a dot appears next to name to show that it is selected.

Manipulate files and folders using the shortcut menu

When you right click an item, a shortcut menu is displayed which provides commands commonly used to manipulate the item.

To copy, move, delete or rename an item proceed as follows:

Right-click the file or folder to display its context sensitive menu.
From the shortcut menu, left click the appropriate command i.e.

(a) To copy or move, right click the destination location then click paste

(b) To delete, simply click delete Command.

Manipulate files and folders by drag and drop

Another easier method of handling files and folders is drag and drop. This is done as follows:

To copy a file or folder, hold down the CTRL key while you drag the icon of the file to a new location.
To move files from one location to another on the same drive but in a different folder, simply press down the Mouse button and drag the item to the new location.
To delete any file or folder drag it into the recycle bin.
To copy file or folder from one disk to another, simply drag the item to the destination drive icon e.g. from drive C to 31/2-floppy disk.
To move an item, hold down the Shift key while you drag it to new location.

Selecting multiple files and folders

If you want to manipulate multiple files or folders at a go, you can select them by clicking each item while you hold down the control (CTRL) or SHIFT key.

If you want to select all files in an open folder, click edit then select all. This will highlight all files in the folder. To manipulate the selected items, use the menu bar or the shortcut.

Searching for files and folders

To search for a specific file ‘or folder proceed as follows:

From the start menu, click find /search Figure 3.18 shows a

Windows 98 find dialog box.

Type the name of the file and the location to look in respectively.
click find now button

3.8

Disk management using Windows

Windows operating system provides the user with tools that help him/her to manage storage devices and media. It is important to have a routine check of all the storage devices otherwise one may end up losing very vital data and programs.

Warning: Do not attempt these operations on disks without the guidance of the teacher. It is preferable to use the floppy disk rather than the hard disk to perform these operations because some of them can easily lead to loss of data and information stored on the hard disk.

Formatting disks

Before using a floppy disk, it must be formatted. Formatting is the process of preparing a new disk for use by imprinting empty sectors and tracks on the surface of the disk so that the operating system can recognize and be able to access it. Most diskettes today are sold readily formatted. Each operating system has its own special way of formatting a disk that may make the disk not to be read by another operating system. To format a new floppy disk proceed as follows:

Put a new unformatted disk into the floppy drive.
Double click my computer icon.
Right click the icon labeled 3 1/2-floppy (A:) then select: Format.
Select the disk capacity e.g. 1.44MB, format type i.e. either quick erase or full
Give the diskettes an internal name (label).
Click start to begin formatting.
Once the process is over, click Close.

Scanning a storage device for problems

Windows has a disk management tool called the scan disk that helps the user check up and repair minor storage problems, such as lost storage locations, or damaged surface. To scan a storage device the following is done:

Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the computer.
Right click a drive icon e.g. 31/2-floppy disk (A:).
From the shortcut menu, click properties then click Tools tab, to display a dialog box
Click the check now button
A prompt appears requesting the user to specify scandisk options like whether errors found should be corrected automatically.
Once scan disk is complete, Windows will give a summary statistics on errors encountered if any.

Using disk defragmenter to rearrange storage media content

Disk defragmenter is a tool that is used to rearrange scattered folders and files on a storage media in order to speed up access to files and folders. This enables the read/write head not to waste time looking for the same item all over the disk. Figure 3.20 shows a disk before and after defragmentation. Notice that the fragmented disk has related data elements spread all over it but the defragmented one has related data consolidated close to each other.

To start disk defragmentation proceed as follows:

1.Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the computer.

Right click a drive icon e.g. 3 1/2-floppy disk (A:).
From the shortcut menu, click properties then click tools tab
From the dialog box displayed, defragment now button
From the dialog box displayed, click defragment a process status bar is displayed.
Wait for the process to complete then close the defragmenter.

Compressing the storage media

Windows provides the user with two compression tools namely, compression agent and DriveSpace. Compressing storage media contents to fit in smaller space helps to create more free space on the media.

DriveSpace can use the free space on an uncompressed drive to create. a new, empty compressed drive called a host. To compress a disk proceed as follows:

Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the computer.
Right click a drive icon e.g. 3 1/2-floppy disk (A:)

3.From the shortcut menu, properties If you are using windows XP select the Compress drive to save disk space, check box then click ok as shown in Figure 3.21 (a). If using windows 98 click the compression tab then click compress drive button. (Figure 3.21 (b))

In confirm attribute changes, select the option, you want

NB: If you are using Windows 95/ 98, click the start button, point to programs, accessories, then system tools and select compression agent or DriveSpace.

From the compress dialog box, click drive then compress

Scanning for viruses

A computer virus is a program written by malicious persons aimed at conducting unwanted operations like damaging disks and data. Severe virus attack can result in system failure. There are literally thousands of these evil programs that can get into a computer via infected floppies or even via electronic mail and the Internet.

Cleaning infected storage devices

To guard a computer against virus attack, special programs called antivirus software such as Norton Antivirus, PC-cillin or McAfee should be installed on the computer. These programs can check your system for thousands of known viruses and eradicate them. To scan for viruses the following is done:

Double click my computer
Right click a drive icon.
From the shortcut menu displayed, select the name of the anti-virus program e.g. Scan with Norton Antivirus.
Follow the instructions displayed by the anti-virus program to start scanning.

Backing up Data

Windows comes with a utility called backup. It enables the user to create copies of data and programs (on separate storage device) to avoid losing important data and program files in case the storage device or the computer fails. It is good practice to keep backups away from the computer room to ensure security of the information in case of a calamity such as fire. To create a back up proceed as follows:

Click the start-button, point to programs, accessories, system tools then click backup
If a welcome to Microsoft Backup dialog box appears, click ok to close it.
In the Microsoft Backup dialog box, select the files and/or folders you want to backup by placing checkmarks next to their names. When all the files in a folder are selected, it will appear gray.
Follow the on screen instructions to accomplish the operation.

Restoring backed up data

To restore backed up data proceed as follows:

In the main backup window, choose there store tab.
Select the back up files to restore, choose next step and follow the Instructions on the screen. The backed up data will be restored.

The startup (Boot up) disk

Suppose the hard disk is seriously damaged, and the computer cannot start Windows. The only other option available would be to start the computer using a startup disk that has booting instructions. The start up disk is usually a floppy disk that was created using the operating system.

To create a startup disk

Double click my computer: icon, then the control panel
In the control panel double click add/remove programs.
In the Add/Remove programs dialog box, click startup disk, then create disk.
The startup disk creation progress will be displayed as shown in Figure 3.22.

To boot up a computer using the start up disk insert it in the floppy drive then switch on the computer. The computer reads the boot up instructions from the diskette then displays a command prompt such as A:> – that enables the user to type commands. The commands help the user diagnose the problems that might have led to boot failure.

Partitioning a disk

Partitioning a disk refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two or more partitions called logical drives. A logical drive is a drive that can be accessed as if it is a separate disk but in actual sense, it is a partition of one large physical disk.

Reasons for partitioning a disk The reasons are:

When the user intends to install more than one operating systems on the same disk. Install each on a separate partition.
For purposes of backup on the same disk but different partitions so that if one partition fails, the other will still be working.

Partitioning process

To create partitions, you must have a startup or bootab1e diskette and proceed as follows.

Before you switch on the computer, insert the system disk into the floppy disk drive.
Switch on the computer and let it boot to A: > prompt.
Type FDISK command at the prompt and press the enter key.
A prompt Do you wish to enable large disk support (YIN) appears. Press Y to enable the computer to support large capacity hard disks of 500MB and above otherwise press N.
From the menu displayed, Choose 1 (Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive) as shown in Figure 3.23.
From the sub menu displayed:

(a) Choose option 1 to create primary DOS partition that will be treated at the bootab1e disk or drive C.

(b) Choose option 2 to create extended (other) DOS partitions.

Once you finish partitioning the disk, reboot the computer for the changes to be effected then format the drives created. If you do not format the drives, the computer will not be able to access the storage media.

NB: You can also use the other FDISK options to display partition information or Delete partitions.

3.9 Installing Windows operating system

Installing Windows 98

Because the operating system is the supervisor for all the other computer programs it must be installed into the computer s hard disk before installing any other program.

The term installation refers to the process of copying program files onto the hard disk. Installation differs from copy paste process in that it is specifically meant to copy executable files in a format that allows the computer to run the program.

To correctly install an operating system, carefully study the manufacturer s documentation (manuals) in order to get the correct information on installation procedures and system requirements. For example to install Windows 98, Microsoft recommends that a computer should have the following minimum requirements:

At least 486-66MHz Processor.
At least 16 MB of RAM.
At least 170MB of free hard disk space.
A CD-ROM drive because Windows 98 comes a CD-ROM.

This configuration would work but a Pentium I and a machine with

32MB of RAM and above would be much better.

Installation process

In order to install Windows 98 on a computer that does not have an operating system, the user must have a Windows 98 Startup disk. This disk gives the user options for loading with or without the CD-ROM support.

Because Windows 98 comes on a CD-ROM, you must boot the computer With CD-ROM support in order for the computer to recognise the CD-ROM drive.

A successful boot displays the prompt; A :> -‘ Then

Type the drive letter that represents the CD-ROM drive at the prompt e.g. A :\> D: then press the enter key.

The prompt should change to the letter that was typed to represent the CD drive e.g. D: \>

This means that the computer is able to read whatever is in the CD-ROM drive.

Type SETUPEXE e.g. D :\> SETUP then press the enter key.

First Setup scans the available disks for errors and if an error is encountered, it is fixed but if it is more serious, the setup process is halted.

After this, the setup program (Wizard) asks you a few questions, gets you accept the license agreement and enter the product key. See Figure 3.24.

The rest of the installation is automated. All you need to do is just relax and let the wizard complete the installation task.

Troubleshooting Windows related problems

The term troubleshooting refers to the process of diagnosing and trying to fix (resolve) hardware or software related problems. When using

113

Windows, you may experience some problems such as;

Failure to load the operating system during the booting process. 2. The computer hangs (stops responding) now and then.
Abnormal restarting.
Displaying a blue screen with a message such as Fatal exception

error has occurred etc.

These problems may be due to one of the following reasons:

There may be hardware conflict or incompatibility caused by interrupt request (IRQ) or missing Widows device drivers such as

Himem.sys (device drivers in Windows that helps in allocation of main memory)

There was a problem in the installation process e.g. missing system files that could not be copied due to a damaged installation disk.
There may be a problem with your hard disk boot sector either due to virus infection or damage.
Insufficient system memory.
Corrupted system Windows registry. Registry is a database where Windows stores its configuration information such as system hardware, installed programs, and property settings.
Due to interrupt request conflict i.e. if two devices are sharing a common interrupt request number.

To resolve these problems you need to:

Study the troubleshooting guide that comes with the operating system
During the booting process, hold down the F8 key on the keyboard in order to get the start-up options from which you can choose to start the computer in safe mode or display the command prompt.

This will help you to check whether the problem is due to disk failure or corrupted registry. With safe mode, you can establish whether the problem is due to corrupted system registry or failed devices. If the registry has failed, the computer will prompt you to reinstall the registry backup. If the problem is due to disk failure, start the computer using the start-up disk and type Scandisk C: at the command prompt. Scandisk will establish whether the failure is due to bad file or directory structure or damaged disk surface.

Use the device manager found in System properties dialog box to check on the devices that are causing problems. You get system properties dialog box by right clicking my computer then properties

Reinstall the operating system if the problems above persist. In case the problem is beyond repair.

APPENDIX I

Beyond basics

Arranging multiple application Windows on the desktop One of the biggest advantages of multitasking is that one can open and work with several applications. One may wish to arrange open Windows either, side by side (Tile) or one on top of another (Cascade).

Tiling windows

Tile horizontally

This arranges all running programs one below the other as shown in Figure AI.I. The program in focus will have its title bar highlighted. To switch to another program, simply click its title bar. To tile horizontally:

Right click the task bar
Click tile windows horizontally

Fig. A 1.1: Tiling horizontally

Tile vertically

Applications can be arranged down the screen beside each other as shown

in Figure AI.2. To tile vertically:

Right click the task bar
Click tile windows vertically

Undoing tile

You can undo tiling by right clicking the from the shortcut menu.

then click

Cascading

Each window is placed on top of the other with the active program being foremost as shown in Figure A1.3. To cascade:

Right click the task bar.
Click cascade windows

Undoing Cascade

You can undo cascade by right clicking the taskbar, then click undo cascade from the shortcut menu.

Customising common features in Windows 98

Customising the desktop

Windows lets the user change desktop appearance and display.

To customise the desktop, right click the desktop to display properties dialog box as shown in Figure A.1.4 and make the appropriate changes by clicking each tab.

The background

To set the background

Click the back ground tab
In Wallpaper list, select a wallpaper pattern.
Click on tile to cover entire screen with small wallpaper images or stretch to fill the wallpaper with one large image or center to let the wallpaper occupy only the centre of the desktop.
Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box,
Click ok to effect the changes and close the dialog box.

Setting the screen saver

If the screen saver is set, it starts playing on the screen if the computer is left idle for a set period of time.

To set a screen saver:

Click the screen saver tab
Select a screen saver style from the screen saver list
click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box,
click ok to effect the changes and close the dialog box.

NB: To clear the screen saver press the mouse button or any keyboard key.

Changing the screen appearance

This will change the appearance of Windows items such as icon size, border colours, highlights etc.

To change the screen appearance:

Click the appearance tab
From the schemes list box, select the color scheme such as rose, storm, Windows standard etc.
From the items list box, select the item that the scheme will apply to i.e. icon, desktop, menu bars etc.
Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box,
Click ok to effect the changes and close the dialog box.

Set Windows items effects

With Windows 98, the user can change icon type as well as visual effects of most of items such size of icons, animate windows, and menus among others. To set Windows effects:

Web

With Windows 98 you can customise the desktop by integrating the Web

features on it. You can also turn the Web elements into desktop elements and update them at any time, this is done by:

Click the web tab to apply web effects on the desktop.
Check view my active desktop as a web
Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box.
Click ok to effect the changes and close the dialog box.

Setting display colours and resolution

The clarity of an object depends on color intensity and resolution of the display unit.

To change color and resolution settings

Click the Settings tab.
From colours list box, select the calibration e.g. 256 colours.
Use the slide button to adjust the screen resolutions e.g. 800 x 600 pixels.
Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box.
Click o.K. to effect the changes and close the dialog box.

Setting date and time

To set date and time:

Click the start button, point to settings then click control panel alternatively double click the Clock on the system tray.
In the control panel, double-click date/time icon.
Adjust date and time accordingly.

Mouse settings

To change the default mouse button, double click speed and the pointer appearance to set a mouse:

Click the, Start button, point to Settings then; control panel.
In the control panel, double click the mouse icon.
Change the mouse properties the click ok.

APPENDIX III

Windows Xp desktop feature

They re some slight changes on how some icons appear and their labeling on the desktop as shown to enhance security, the user has to log on by pressing Ctrl + Alt + Del keys in order to use the computer resources.

The start menu

The start menu layout is slightly different from that of Windows 95, 98 and Me. The start button displays a pane divided into two. The control panel has replaced the settings menu while the shut down and log off commands can be accessed on the start menu as shown in Figure A3.2

Changing desktop properties

To change desktop properties:

Right click a blank area on the desktop.
From the shortcut menu, click properties to display the desktop properties dialog as shown in Figure A3.3.
To change a property, select a tab associated to the property then make the necessary changes. For example to change the desktop’ background, select the desktop tab as shown and choose a background.

Shutting down the computer

Simply click the start button to display the shut down dialog box similar to the one shown in FigureA3.4. As with Windows Me, in XP one cannot also restart in MS DOS mode. New commands such as log off Administrator and Hibernate have been introduced.

APPENDIX IV

Glossary

Access time: The length of time needed to write or read data from storage.

Application package: It is a program that is used in processing user specific needs sometimes called off-the-shelf or canned programs.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): A part of the central processing unit that performs computations and makes comparisons as instructed.

Artificial intelligence (AI): A field of computer technology in which researchers and electronic product developers concentrate on developing computers that imitates human intelligence.

Bits (binary digits): Since digital computers and computer accessories circuitry represent data as a pattern of on and off state of electric current, a bit is a 1 or a 0 used to represent the two states respectively.

Byte: A group of bits used to store a single character. A byte usually consists of seven or eight bits, which the computer handles as a unit.

Central processing unit (CPU): This is the brain of a computer, which apart from performing processing tasks; it controls all other activities of a computer system.

Computer hardware: The physical computer equipment one can see and touch. Such equipment includes the system unit, input devices, storage devices and output devices.

Computer program: A set of instructions that direct the computer what tasks to perform and how to perform it. These instructions are specially written using a computer programming language.

Computer software: See computer program

Computer system: A computer system refers not only to the physically attached devices to the computer but also to software and the user.

Control unit: The part of the CPU that interprets the instructions and controls all the operations in a computer system. The control unit monitors on the input, storage, the arithmetic and logic operations, and the output operations to have the instructions carried out.

Data: This are the raw facts represented by numeric, alphabetic characters and special symbols that are processed into information by the computer.

Data processing: The varied activities performed to convert data into useful information.

Desktop publishing: The process of designing and creating professional documents such as books, magazines, brochures and cards using specialised software such as PageMaker, which instructs the computer to size, insert, graphics as well as print a document.

Direct access: The ability to go directly to the storage location for the particular data required for processing, without having to search through all the records from the beginning of the file.

Drive: Devices used to read and/or write (store) data on a storage media.

Electronic mail (e-mail): A type of mail system that uses computers and the telecommunication facilities to transmit messages. Messages may be in the form of letters, memos, reports, or graphic displays.

Electronic spreadsheet: Computer software that has rows and columns used for doing a number of calculations and forecasting future trends.

Floppy disk: A floppy disk or simply a diskette is made up of a small flexible disk coated with iron oxide. This disk is covered with a plastic protective case. It is portable thus making it the most common type of storage device used with microcomputers.

Hard copy: Hardcopy refers to the tangible output produced mostly on a piece of paper by devices such as printers and plotters.

Hard disk: Also referred to as a hard drive or a Winchester disk, is a sealed unit in which are shiny, metallic disk platters and read/write heads that reads and records data on the disks.

Information processing cycle: The full set of operations that take place, from collection of input data to the availability of output (information).

Input: A collection of raw data at the start of information processing cycle.

Input/output (I/O) devices: Devices used for entering data to be processed and for reporting the results of processing.

Integrated circuits: Thousands of small circuits etched on a silicon chip. As these circuits are made more and more compact, they are called Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale integrated (VLSI) circuits.

Menu: A program s list of user choices or possible actions usually shown on the screen. Choices are usually expressed in simple language statements for ease of use.

Microcomputer: The name given to a small, low cost computer system with a microprocessor as its brain. A microcomputer can perform input, processing, storage and retrieval, and output operations rapidly, accurately, automatically, and economically despite its relatively small physical size.

Microprocessor: A complete central processing unit of a computer placed on a single Large-Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits chip.

Minicomputer: A computer having a smaller capacity for both primary and secondary storage than medium size and large size mainframe computers.

Networks: Communication systems that connect computers, terminals, and other electronic office equipment for the purpose of efficient communication and sharing of resources.

Operating system: This is a complex program that is responsible for controlling processing operations in a computer system. It handles input, output, storage and running of other user programs. Examples of common Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows 95/9812000/XP, UNIX and Linux, Apple Mac OS etc.

127

Optical disk: These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam (a very strong concentrated light). The beam bums the thin shiny reflective surface to record data.

Output: Useful information available at the end of the information processing cycle.

Plotter: One type of graphics printer used to provide hard copy of graphical output. The output appears in such forms as multicolored charts, graphs, diagrams and maps.

Random-Access Memory (RAM): A type of main memory that holds data and information temporarily before and after processing. It is called random access memory because the data contained in each storage address can be directly retrieved without regard for the sequence in which it was, stored.

Read-Only Memory (ROM): The other type of main memory with data or instructions permanently or semi permanently recorded in it. This means that no new data can be transferred in to ROM during processing. ROM is used to store program instructions that the computer always needs to operate. ‘

Robotics: The use of robots controlled by computer to perform work ordinarily done by human beings. Robots usually have computer controlled arms and a control camera placed inside that enables it recognise different objects.

Scanner: An input device that captures data from source documents and objects.

Semiconductor: An electronic component consisting of small chips of silicon on which integrated and support circuits are etched. It is used for developing microprocessors, primary and other electronic components.

Storage: The storing of data and information for future us. The length of time the data is stored can vary from less than a second to months or even years.

Supercomputer: The largest, fast, and most expensive type of computer available. They can perform hundreds of millions of complex scientific calculations in a second.

Utility program: A collection of instructions designed to make common processing operations run smoothly.

Volatile memory: The term applied to semi-conductor memory because its content is lost when the electric current is turned off. The content must be stored on an auxiliary storage if it is to be used again.

Word processing: The processing of textual data to produce documents such as letters, reports, manuals, catalogs, newspapers, magazines, books or other documents.

FORM TWO NOTES

WORD PROCESSORS

Chapter outline

Definition of word processor.
Purpose of word processing.
Using a word processing package (Microsoft word).

1.4 Editing and formatting a document.

1.5 Creating and editing a table.

1.6 Mail merge document.

7 Inserting graphics.

1.8 Printing a document.

Definition of a word processor

What is a word processor?

A word processor is an application software that enables a person to create, save, edit, format and print text documents. Word processing is the act of using a word processor.

Examples of word processors

Examples of word processors include, Microsoft Word, Corel WordPerfect, WordStar, Lotus WordPro and many others.

A word processor has a number of advantages over he type writer that include:

A document can be stored in the computer for future reference in computer files that do not occupy physical space like the one on paper. This creates a paperless document-processing environment.
Typing using a word processor is easier and more efficient because some actions are automated. For example, word-wrap feature automatically takes the cursor to the beginning of the next line once you reach the end of the current. Another automatic features common in most word processors is automatic insertion of a new page after reaching the end of the current page.
Most word processors have special editing tools such as spelling and grammar checkers and thesaurus that help the user to easily Correct grammar and spelling mistakes. A thesaurus helps to find a word or phrase with similar meanings.
With insert and type over modes available in most word processors, one can easily insert or replace a word or a phrase without affecting the structure and neatness of the document.
Word processors have superior document formatting Formatting refers to the art of making the document more attractive and appealing to the eye. Such features include, underlining, boldfacing, italicization, applying different colors etc.
While a typewriter may require that we retype the entire document when we want many copies, with a word processor, printing lets you produce as many copies per session as needed.
Using the cut, copy and paste commands, you can incorporate other text without having to retype it.

Basic word processing features and concepts

They allow the user to create a file, save it and open it again and again for reuse, editing or formatting.
They have almost similar document windows with the following Features:

(a) Most are designed to look like a piece of paper with a few

(b) Most of the screen is blank before typing of text.

(d) There is a status bar or line that provides the user with current status information such as saving operation, the name of the file in use, the current page, the current imaginary horizontal-line and column cursor position.

(e) Word wrap: The feature that automatically moves a word or cursor to the beginning of the next line if it does not fit at the end of the current line.

(g) Scrolling: This is the vertical movement of text document on the screen. We can scroll through a text document using the up or do n arrow keys, page up and page down keys and also using, a mouse in windows based word processors.

(h) Help: Sometimes we get lost, confused or need more information on how to use an application. Help contains instruction, tips, pointers, explanations and guidance. You can get help by either pressing F 1 on the keyboard or clicking Help from the menu.

(i) Editing Modes: Word processors have two editing modes, insert and type over mode. In insert mode, every character typed between words, lines or characters is placed at the cursor position. This pushes all the text in front of the cursor away without deleting it. However in type over mode every character typed deletes what was there before and replaces it with new text at the cursor position.

Nearly all word processors have a spelling checker, thesaurus (Dictionary of synonyms) and grammar checker.
They provide for the use of headers and footers, indexing, footnotes and references, typefaces (fonts) and character set.
Most word processors have ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs.

Mostly, word processors are used for writing letters, reports, projects, books, essays, memos curriculum vitae etc.

Factors to consider when choosing a word processor The choice of a word processor depend on:

The type of operating system. For example, most microcomputers are currently running on Windows based operating system such as Microsoft Windows. This means that you should consider acquiring a graphical user interface based Word Processor,
Its user-friendliness, i.e. ease of use.
Its formatting and editing features. They should be good and varied.

Using a word processing package Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word is one of the components of Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office is integrated software with a number of interrelated programs. The programs include Microsoft Word, a spreadsheet called Microsoft Excel, and a database management system called Microsoft Access, communication software called Microsoft Outlook, and a presentation package called Microsoft PowerPoint among others.

Although there are several versions of Microsoft Word, the most common are Word 97, Word 2000, WordXP and Word 2003. These versions of Microsoft Word are found in Microsoft Office 97, 2000, XP and 2003 suites respectively.

Starting Microsoft Word

There are a number of ways you can start Microsoft Word. However the

Simplest is by using programs start menu.

Starting Microsoft Word from the start menu

Click the start button.
Point to programs/ all programs if you are using Windows XP
Click from the programs menu

Microsoft Word screen layout

Once you start Microsoft Word, it provides you with a blank document window referred to as the new document template where you can create your document.

However you may need to use other specialised templates such as Faxes and letters, Memos and Web page. How? Click File then select New from the menu. The New dialog box in Figure 1.3 that appears enables a person to select a template by activating templates tab then double clicking its icon.

With Windows multitasking capability, you can have more than one document window at the same time sharing one application window. However, each document window will have its own title bar but both will share other facilities like the menu bar of the application window.

However only one document window will be visible on the desktop at a time while others remains minimized or covered. This window is referred to as the active document window. To switch between document windows, click their buttons on the taskbar.

Parts of a window

Title bar

A title bar is mostly a blue strip at the top of the window that displays the title of the currently running application or task. However it is possible to change the color of the title bar using the display properties.

The title bar also enables the user to move the window around the desktop. This is possible by pointing to it then dragging using the mouse.

On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons called minimize, restore/ maximize and the close buttons.

The minimize button reduces a window to become a button on the taskbar.

The restore/maximize button stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to its original size respectively.

The close button is used to close and exit a window.

Menu bar

Provides a drop down list of commands that one can use to perform a task. Examples are File, Exit, Window and Help. Figure 1.4 shows the File drop down menu.

Too/bars

These are rows of buttons or icons that represent commands. The command buttons are shortcuts to the same commands you can access from the menu bar. There are various toolbars available in Microsoft Word but the most common are the Standard and Formatting toolbars (Figure 1.5 and 1.6)

To see what other commands are, just point to the icon on the toolbar and a text tip will be displayed showing the function of the icon.

Most of these commands will be discussed later.

Hiding and displaying the toolbars

Click the View menu option.
Position the pointer on Toolbars.
Click the type of tool bar required to select it.

Selected toolbars have ticks or check marks next to them as shown in Figure 1.7.

Rulers

Microsoft Word provides the user with vertical and horizontal on screen rulers that helps the user position text or objects in the right position.

If the ruler is not visible on the screen, then display it using the following procedure.

Click the View menu option.
On the drop down menu that appears, click Ruler. A check mark or tick will appear next to it showing that the ruler is displayed on the screen.

Work area

This is the working area where you can enter text or graphical objects. All windows based application programs provide the user with a unique working area suited to that particular application.

Status bar

This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the screen that acts as a communication link between the user and the program. It displays interactive activities like saving, opening, background printing, cursor position etc.

Scroll bars/button_ and scroll arrows

Scroll bars or buttons are horizontal and vertical bars on the borders of a window that the user drags to scroll upward, downwards, to the right or left of a document. Scroll arrows are arrows at the end of the scroll bars that the user clicks instead of dragging the scroll button. Using scroll bars or arrows is equivalent to using the arrow keys on the keyboard

Running the program

Creating a document

When you start a new document, you will see a blinking vertical bar called an insertion pointer. You can move your insertion pointer by using the arrow keys or the mouse.

In case you are in Microsoft Word and you want to create another new document, you should proceed as follows:

Click the File menu,
Choose new, from the resulting dialog box, click Blank Document Or select template by clicking any template’s tab
Click the OK button.

Saving a new document

From the file menu, click save or Save As or simply click the save Button on the Standard toolbar. The difference between save and save as is that although both give the save as dialog box when saving for the first time, Save allows the user to save document without the opportunity to change the file name or the location. Figure 1.9 below shows a save as dialog box.

2.In the file name box, type a unique name for the document

3.Select a the location or drive you want to save in, by clicking the down arrow on the right of save in list box,

4.To save the file in a different format or type such as Word 6.0, Word for Macintosh etc. click the down arrow on the right of Save as type list box and choose a file type.

5.Click the save button. The file will automatically be saved as a Microsoft Word document.

Opening an existing document

1.From the file menu, click Open command or on the Standard toolbar, click the Open button. Alternatively press Ctrl + 0 key combination on the keyboard. The Open dialog box shown appears.

2.Select a drive or folder where the file is saved.

3.In the file name box, type or select the name of the document you want to open.

4.Click the open button

To open a document created in another program, click the file format you want in the files of type box, and then double click the document name in the folder list. You can also use wildcards in the file name box for example, type *. Document to find Microsoft Word files.

NB: Microsoft Word keeps a list of shortcut links to recently used files on the file drop down menu. If the list of recently used documents is not displayed, you can configure Microsoft Word to be displaying them by doing the following:

Click the Tools then Options command. This displays the options Dialog box.
On the general tab, select the recently used file list check box as Shown in Figure 1.11.

Protecting a document with a password

A password is a combination of characters that prevents other users from opening and changing a document without permission. If a document is protected by a password, only the person who knows the password can open the document or edit it.

To save a document with a password

Create or open the document you want to protect
From the file menu, choose Save As.
Click the down arrow on the Tools button in the save as dialog box
Click General options.
Type in a password in the password to open. This prompts the user to enter password when opening a document.
Type in a password in the password to modify. This prevents the user from making changes to a document unless the user enters the correct password.
Finally click OK.

Closing a document

Closing a document means unloading the current active document from memory so that the user can create or open another without necessarily exiting from Word.

To close a document:

Click the File menu.
Choose Close.

Exiting from Word

To exit from Word, make sure all open documents are saved.
Click File menu,
Click Exit command.

NB: You can exit from Microsoft Word by pressing Alt + F4 keys or by double clicking the application icon at the left most comer of the title bar. If you have not saved any of the open documents, Microsoft Word prompts you to save the document first.

1.4

Editing and formatting a document

Editing

Editing refers to making necessary changes to an existing document. Apart from manual editing using delete, insert and overtype/overwrite commands, Microsoft Word provides the user with inbuilt tools such as the spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus, undo and re-do, find and replace etc.

Block operations

Selecting (highlighting) a block of text

The purpose of selecting text is to enable the user perform a number of editing or formatting operations on the selected block of text. Microsoft Word presents the user with a number of ways for selecting a block of text. You can either select a block of text using the mouse or keyboard.

Selecting with a mouse

To select a word, place the insertion pointer on the word then, double Click it.
To select a sentence, positions the mouse pointer at the left margin until it changes to a right arrow, and then click once.
To select a paragraph, place the pointer at the beginning or end of the paragraph. Notice that the pointer changes to I-beam. Now drag the I-beam over the text to be selected and release the mouse button at the end of the text you wish to work on.

Selecting with the keyboard

To select one word, move the insertion pointer to the beginning or End of the word then press Shift+Ctrl+Right or left arrow.
To select one line, press Shift+Up or Shift+Down arrow key. Alternatively, move the insertion point to the end or beginning of The line then press Shift+Home or end keys respectively.

3.To select an entire page; press Shift+Page Down or Shift+Page Up. 4. To select the entire document, press Ctrl+A or place the cursor at the beginning of the document then press Shift+Ctrl+End.

Deleting text

To delete a character or a word from the right to the left, place the insertion pointer on the right of the word then press the backspace key.
To delete a character to the right of the cursor position, place the Insertion pointer on the left of the word then press the Delete key.

To delete a block of text

Highlight the text to be deleted.
Press the Delete key.

Restoring deleted text

To restore text that has just been deleted in the current word processing session: click the Edit menu, then the Undo command

Copying and moving text and objects

Copying means creating a duplicate of text or an object while moving means changing the position of text or an object in a document. In Microsoft Word, you can copy or move a block of text.

To copy a block of text:

Highlight the text,
Click Edit, then Copy or simply click the Copy button on the standard Toolbar.
Position the insertion pointer where you want to copy the text,
Click Edit then Paste or simply click the Paste button on the standard toolbar.

NB: To use the keyboard shortcut keys, press Ctrl + C to copy, then Ctrl + V to paste

To move text and objects

Highlight the text,
Click Edit, then Cut or simply click the Cut button (whose icon is a Pair of scissors) from the standard toolbar.
Position the insertion pointer where you want the text to be placed,
Click Edit then Paste or click the Paste button on the standard toolbar.

NB: To use the keyboard shortcut keys, press Ctrl + X to cut, then Ctrl + V to paste

Typing modes

There are two typing modes in a word processor that assist the user in typing or editing text documents. These are:

Insert mode.
Overtype/typeover mode.

Insert mode

This is the default mode in most word processors. In this case when text is inserted between words or characters it pushes the existing text away without replacing it.

Typeover mode.

In this case, when text is typed between existing words or characters, the new text automatically replaces the existing text by deleting it. To switch between typeover and insert mode, simply press the insert key on the keyboard or double click the OVR label on the status bar.

Find and replace

When you need to search for a word or phrase in a large document, use the Find command. In case you wish to replace a word or phrase, use the Replace option.

Find

Click Edit menu, then click Find command. The find dialog box appears.
Type the text or phrase you want to search for then click FindNext
Step 2 can be repeated if you wish to find other occurrences of the same word or phrase. Click OK when a message appears telling you that Microsoft Word has finished searching the document. Click Cancel to close the dialog box.

NB: You can use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+F to find. Some search options:

You can specify search options by clicking the more buttons to display them. They include:

Match case: This identifies only text that matches in case with that in the find what box e.g. it will not find the word DEEN if you typed deen and selected the match case option.
Whole Word: Searches for a word or phrase that is whole. If it is part of another word it will not be found, e.g. the word ever will not be found in words like however, whenever during the search.
Use wildcards: Wildcards are special symbols such as * and? That are used to represent a set of words with certain characters in common e.g. names like Jeff, Joe, Jane can be represented using a wildcard as J* which means all names starting with J.
Like: Searches for words, which are similar in pronunciation e.g., fare and fair.

Replace command

Click Edit menu then Replace command. The dialog box appears.

Type the name you want to replace in the Find what box and the one that will replace it in the Replace with box. Click the Find next button to find the next occurrence of the word then click Replace button to replace it. To replace all the occurrences of the word in the document at once, click the Replace all button.

Proofreading

Proofreading refers to checking whether the document has typographical or grammar errors. Microsoft Word has tools for proofreading e.g. spelling and grammar checker, Thesaurus, Autocomplete and Autocorrect.

Spelling and grammar checker

The spelling and grammar checker is an inbuilt tool that helps the user to correct spelling errors and incorrect grammar structures. However, the checker can only recognise errors of those words whose correct spelling is in its dictionaries. A correctly spelt word used wrongly cannot be detected hence the document should be proofread just before and after printing. To check the accuracy of spelling and grammar:

Click Tools menu option.
Click Spelling and grammar on the drop down menu. The spelling

And grammar checker dialog box appears as shown in Figure 1.14.

Words that do not match in the custom dictionary are highlighted for correction. The lower plane of the dialog box suggests to the user with a list of suggested correct words.

Either choose one of the following buttons:

(a) Change to correct only the highlighted incorrect word.

(b) Change all to correct all the occurrences of the misspelled word.

(c) Ignore to retain the highlighted and continue. For example, although a word like jembe may not be in the custom dictionary, in the Kenyan context, the word is acceptable therefore if highlighted, click Ignore.

(d) Ignore all to retain all the occurrences of the same word or phrase in the document from another language e.g. a Kiswahili

(e) Click Add to add the word into the custom dictionary.

In case you want to undo the changes made, click on the Undo button at the lower bottom of the spelling and grammar dialog box.

NB: You can close the spelling and grammar dialog box even if the process is not complete by choosing Close.

Using the thesaurus

This is an editing tool that helps the user find words or phrases with similar meaning (synonyms) or opposite meaning (antonyms) to the one selected.

To use the Thesaurus:

Select a word or a phrase.
Click Tools, and then point to Language.
Click Thesaurus to see Figure 1.15 displayed on the screen.
For synonyms, under the heading Replace with Synonym, choose an alternative word phrase you intend to use as replacement for the selected text.
To replace a word or a phrase with an antonym, select the word or phrase with antonym enclosed in brackets.
Click Replace.

Autocomplete The auto complete feature displays a complete word when the user types the first few characters of the word. This enables the user to type faster by simply accepting the suggested word if indeed he/she intend to type it. To accept the suggestion, simply press the Enter key, and continue typing other word or phrases

The figure shows an auto text that automatically completes Dear sir or Madam text entries.

To turn auto complete on/off

Click Insert menu and point to Auto text. A dropdown list is displayed.
Click AutoText.
Select or clear the Show AutoComplete tip for AutoText and dates Check box
Type in an Auto text in the Enter AutoText entries here text box then Click Add.
Click Close.

Autocorrect

The auto correct feature automatically detects wrongly spelled or capitalised words and replaces them with the correct word. However, the settings of auto correct are user defined e.g. if a person keeps on typing the word certain as certain, set the auto correct feature to replace the later with the former. Figure 1.18 shows the auto correct feature.

To turn auto correct on/off

Click Tools menu, then AutoCorrect.
To turn on the spelling checker corrections, select the Replace text as you type check box, and then select the Automatically use suggestions from the spelling checker check box.
To turn off the spelling checker corrections, click Automatically use suggestions from the spelling checker check Box at the bottom of the dialog box
Click OK to close the dialog box.

Undo and redo

Undo: It reverses the last command that was issued in Order to revert back to the previous state. To undo, click Edit then Undo command.

Redo: It does the last undone action. To redo, click Edit, then Redo Command.

Formatting a document

Formatting refers to applying various styles or features to enhance the document’s appearance. You can format text, a paragraph or a page.

Text formatting

Text formatting refers to features such as changing fonts (type, style and size of characters), changing text color, underlining, bolding Italicising etc. You can use either the formatting tools bar or the Format menu to underline, bold, etc.

To format existing text using the format menu

Highlight the text to be formatted
From Format menu, click the Font command. A dialog box with all Text formatting features is displayed
To change font type and size, where necessary scroll down the Font list box then click the font required, for example Verdana font style would appears as Verdana. To increase the font size, where necessary, scroll down the Size list box and select the required size e.g. 12 points (pt). A point is 1/72 of an inch in height. 72 points i.e. 72/72 is equivalent to 1 inch For example “Verdana” is in Times New Roman 16 points and “Verdana” is in Verdana 16 points.
Bolding text: Bolding makes the selected text appear darker than the rest of the text. To bold text:

Activate the font dialog box.
From the font dialog box, select Bold.

Underline text: Underlining refers to placing a line at the base or bottom of a word or a phrase. To underline:

(a) Activate the font dialog box.

(b) Click the down arrow at the right of Underline style and select. The underline style required e.g. single, double, dashed etc.

Italicising text: To italicise is to make the text slant forward.

(a) To italicise activate the font dialog box.

(b) Click Italic.

Changing the font color: In most cases, the font default color is black. However you can change the font color for example to red, green, blue etc. To change the font color,

(a) Activate the font dialog box

(b) Click the down arrow at the right of font color list box and

Select the color of your choice.

Using formatting toolbar

As mentioned earlier, the formatting toolbar lets the user easily format text by clicking the required format button. To format some text, highlight it first then click a command on the toolbar.

For example to bold text, highlight it then click then bolding command (B) on the formatting toolbar.

Paragraph formatting

Text alignment

Text alignment refers to how text is lined up on the page relative to the left, right or center of the page. There are four ways in which text can be aligned namely left aligned, centered, right aligned and justified.

Left alignment

Lines of text are lined up evenly along the left margin but unevenly at The right margin. This is the default alignment. To align left,

Highlight your text.
Simply click the left alignment button. Alternatively click format, Paragraph. And select left from the alignment list box as shown in Figure 1.20.
Click OK. To apply the choice.

Right alignment

This is opposite of left alignment. Lines of text are lined up evenly along the right margin but unevenly at the left margin. To align right,

Highlight your text
Simply click the right alignment button. Alternatively click Format, Paragraph. select Rigl1t from alignment list box, then click OK..

Center alignment

The lines of text are centered unevenly between the left and right margins.

To center text,

Highlight your text,
Simply click the Center, button. Alternatively click format, paragraph,

Select centered from alignment list box, then click OK.

Justification

Lines of text are arranged evenly along the left and right margin.

To justify text,

Highlight your text
Simply click the Justify alignment button. Alternatively click Format,

Paragraph, select Justify from Alignment list box, then click OK.

Change case

When typing a text, there are a number of cases the user may intend to apply in order to create contrast within the text. These are:

Sentence case: All the first characters in a sentence are in uppercase (Capitalised).
Lowercase: All characters appear in lowercase.
Uppercase: All characters appear in uppercase.
Title case: All the first characters of each word in a sentence appear in uppercase.
Toggle case: It changes upper cases to lowercases and vice versa.

Figure 1.21 shows a dialog box for change case.

To change case in an existing text;

Highlight the text.
From the format menu, click Change case.
From change case dialog box, select the case type to be applied.
Click OK.

Drop caps

There are times when you wish to attract the reader’s attention by making the first character in a sentence large, taking more space in the next line. Such kind of a character is said to be “dropped”.

To apply drop cap;

Highlight the first character in the sentence
From the Format menu, click Drop Cap. Drop cap dialog box appears
Click Dropped or In Margin
Select font in case you wish to apply a certain font to the dropped Cap
Specify the number of lines to drop.
Click OK

Indenting paragraphs

Indentation refers to moving the text away from the margin. You can indent the first sentence in a paragraph (first line), the whole paragraph (full indent) or the rest of the text except the first line (hanging indentations).

First line indent

Select the paragraph to be indented
From the format menu click paragraph. Paragraph properties dialog box appears
Click the down arrow in the list box under Special and select First Line.
Specify by how far the paragraph is to be indented from the margin

In the by text box

Click OK to apply the indent and close the dialog box. The paragraph will be indented

NB: You can also indent the first line by positioning the cursor at the beginning of the paragraph then press the Tab key.

Hanging Indent

Select the paragraph to be indented
From format menu, click Paragraph.
Click the down arrow in the list box under Special and select Hanging. 4. Specify by how far the paragraph is to be indented from the margin In the by text box
Click OK to apply the indent and close the dialog box. The paragraph will be indented

Full indent

Select the paragraph to be indented or position the cursor anywhere in the paragraph
From the formatting tool bars, click the Increase or Decrease indent Button

Setting tabs

Tabs are used to indent the first line of a paragraph or create columnar data. By default the tab stop is set at 0.5 of an inch. To change the default setting:

From the format menu, click Tabs
Enter a new value for tab stop in the Tab stop Position box.
Choose the type of tab either left, center or right.
If need be specify the Tab leader option
Click the Set button then OK.

Setting tabs using the ruler

The easiest way to set tabs is by using the ruler. On the left comer of the horizontal ruler is a tab alignment button that lets the user select the type of tab. Figure 1.28 shows various tab alignment buttons, while Table 1.1 gives an explanation of each button.

To set the tab using the ruler;

Click on the tab button to choose the required tab type. Notice that the tab type keeps on changing as you click the tab button.
Set the tab stop by clicking where you want it to be on the ruler.
Drag the tab stop

Button	Name	Purpose
	Left tab	Text is left aligned
	Center tab	Text is centered
	Bar tab	Inserts a vertical line at
		Tab stop and align text to
		The right of the line
.	Decimal tab	Text is aligned at decimal
.		Character
	Right tab	Text is right aligned

Table 1.1 Examples of tabs

Line and character spacing

Line spacing refers to the vertical distance between lines of text. The default line spacing is single spacing. This type of spacing accommodates the characters in a text leaving a small extra space between lines. Character spacing on the other hand refers to the space between the characters in the text.

To change line spacing:

Highlight the text,
From format menu, click Paragraph to display the paragraph dialog Box.
Click the down arrow from the Line Spacing list box and select the Type of spacing required e.g. double, 1.5, at least etc.
Click OK to effect the changes. To change character spacing:
Highlight the text
From Format menu, click Font.
Click the Character Spacing tab
Adjust the spacing as required
Click OK.

Bullets and numbering

Bullets and numbers are used to mark steps in a procedure or items in a list.

To apply bullets and numbers in a list:

Select the list.
From the Format menu, click Bullets and numbering. A dialog box appears.
Do one of the following;

(a) To apply bullets, click the Bulleted tab.

(b) To apply independent numbers click the Numbered tab.

Click OK to effect the changes and close the dialog box.

Section breaks

A break is used to identify where a section, a column or a page ends and the beginning of next. This allows the user to apply more than one paragraph or page format in the same document especially when it comes to page layout, size, different margins etc.

To insert a section break

Position the text cursor in the document where the break is to be inserted.
Click Insert then. Break.
From the Break dialog box select the type of section break to insert e.g. page break.
Click OK.

Formatting pages

Inserting page breaks

A page break identifies the end of one page and the beginning of the next. NofQ1ally, Word automatically inserts a new page after the current. One is full. However, there may be a need to start a new page even if the. Current one is not full.

To insert page breaks:

Position the pointer where the break is to be inserted.
Click Insert then Break.
From the Break dialog box
Click Page break then OK.

Creating columns

To, create columns on existing text:

Highlight the text
From Format menu, click Columns to display the dialog box
In the columns dialog box, select the number of columns or type in the Number of columns text box
In the Width and spacing boxes, specify the column widths and space between columns
Click OK

Page setup

Page setup options let the user specify the size of the margins, paper size, paper source and layout.

Setting margins

Margins are blank spaces around the edges of the page. Only text and objects inside the margins are printable.

To set up margins:

Click the File menu then Page setup. Page setup dialog box appears
Click the Margins tab.
Enter the values for the left, right, top and bottom margins in the respective boxes.
Click OK.

Setting the paper size

By default, the paper size may be either Letter or A4. An A4 paper has dimensions 210 mm x 297 mm

To specify a different paper size

From the File menu click Page setup
In the page setup dialog box click the Paper size tab.
Select the size of paper required from the paper size list. If your size is different from the ones provided, click Custom size and enter dimensions in the height and width boxes.
Click OK.

Specifying page orientation

The term page orientation refers to the positioning of the page in relation to the text. The two available orientations are:

Portrait: text and graphics are printed with the longest side vertically upright. For example, on an A4 piece of paper, the 210 mm edges are at the bottom and top.

Landscape: With landscape, text and graphical objects are placed with the longest side of the page placed horizontally and the lines of text printed parallel. For example, to create a timetable on an A4 page, the 297 mm side should be horizontal.

To select the orientation:

From File menu, choose Page setup.
Click on the Paper size tab and a dialog box comes on the screen.
Select the orientation required then clicks the OK button.

Page layout

This option lets the user specify how text will be placed on the page from the margins. By default, text starts from the top margin.

To change the layout

From File menu, choose Page setup. The dialog box Appears.
Click on the Layout tab.
From the Vertical alignment tab, select the alignment required then click OK.

Inserting headers and footers

Headers, footers and page numbers make it easy to locate information. Headers are few words placed at the top of every page while footers appear at the bottom. To insert headers and footers:

Click on the. Headers and Footers from the View menu
In the text boxes that appear, type a header using the top text box or a footer using the bottom text box or even both if you are to insert both a header and footer.

Inserting page numbers

To give your document page numbers:

From the Insert menu, click Page numbers to display the dialog box
In the Position box, specify where you want the page numbers to be inserted.
In the alignment box, specify whether the number is to be on the right, left, center, inside or outside
Use the Format button to choose the number format, i.e. 1,2,3,…, A,B, C etc. You can start from any page number by using Start at box

Creating and editing tables

Creating tables

A table is a feature in Microsoft Word made up of rows and columns that is used to organise and enhance display of information.

Creating a new table

. .

You can create a table either by using the Insert Table command from tables menu, or by using Draw Table tool that resembles a pencil to create more complex tables.

To create a table using the insert table command;

Click Tables menu, position the pointer on Insert, then click Table
In the Insert table dialog box displayed, specify the number of rows and columns.
Click OK. The table will be displayed on the screen and you can start entering data in it.

NB: You can insert a table by clicking the table button on the standard toolbar, then drag to select the number of rows and columns.

To create a table using the drawing tool:

Click Tables menu, then Draw table or simply click the Draw table button from the standard toolbar. The mouse pointer changes to a pencil symbol
Drag the pointer to draw the outline of the table
Fill in the table with rows and columns by dragging the pointer as you would draw using an ordinary pencil.

Formatting and editing a table

Inserting rows and columns

To insert a row:

Place the cursor where you want to insert a row
Click Table, point Insert then click Row above or Row below.

To insert a column:

Place the cursor where you want to insert a column
Click Table, point Insert then click Column to left then Column to the Right.

Adjusting the column width:

Position the mouse pointer on the row or column boundary until the mouse pointer changes to an arrowed cross.
Drag the boundary to the required size.

Deleting rows, column or cells

Select the rows or columns to be deleted.
From Table menu, point Delete, then Columns, Rows or Cells.

Merging cells in a table

This refers to combining more than one cell in a table. To merge cells:

Select cells to be merged
From Tables, click Merge cells.

Splitting cells in a table

This refers to subdividing a cell or cells into more cells. To split cells:

Select cells to be split
From Tables, click Split cells. A dialog box appears that lets you specify the number of rows and columns that the selected cells will be split.

Formatting table borders and shading

Word provides the user with automatic formatting feature that lets you choose border styles and shading.

To format a table:

From Table menu, click Table AutoFormat.
In the formats list box, select the format you want. Note that the format you choose applies to borders, shading font and colour.
Click Ok to apply the effects.

NB: You can also format a table by using the table’s toolbar. If the toolbar is not displayed, click view point to toolbars then click tables and Borders.

Table conversions

With convert feature in Microsoft Word, you can convert a table to lines of text and vice versa.

To convert a table to text

Select the entire table or row and columns you want to convert to text.
From table menu, point to convert then click table to text. A dialog box is displayed that requires you to specify how the text will be separated after conversion
In the separate text with box enter or select the character to be used as a separator.
Click ok

To convert text to table:

Select the text that you want to convert to a table.
From table menu, point convert then click text to table .A dialog box is displayed that requires you to specify the number of rows and of columns
From Separate text at, specify whether the table will be defined by paragraphs, commas, Tabs or other characters.
Click OK. .

Importing tables

Microsoft Word lets you import tables from other applications or an existing file. To import a table,

Click the Insert menu then Objects. A dialog box appears
From the Object type select the type of object to insert e.g. Adobe table.
The program in which the table was created in starts and lets you choose a table from it and return back to Microsoft Word. Alternatively click Create from file. This lets you browse for a file that contains the table you wish to insert.
Click OK to insert the table.

Performing arithmetic calculations in a table

It is possible to perform mathematical calculations such as sum, product and count, if a table has numerical figures.

To perform calculations:

Click the cell in which you want the result to be placed.
From the Table menu, click Formula. A formula dialog box is displayed.
Type the formula you want or select from the Paste function box. For example, to add figures in a row or column, click SUM. The function in Table 1.2 below that calculates the total is =SUM(ABOVE). The word “ABOVE”. in brackets is called the argument of the formula and tells Microsoft Word which cells in the table are to be worked on.

Sorting

In Microsoft Word you can sort a list of text, numbers and dates in ascending or descending order.

To sort a list or table:

Highlight the text list or table you want to sort.
From the Table menu, click Son.
Select the type of data to be used when sorting i.e. Text, Number or Date.
Click either Ascending or decending
Click OK.

Mail merge document

Mail merge is the process of generating personalised letters or documents by combining a main document, e.g. a letter, with an existing data source such as the address book. Therefore in mail merge, the three files created are:

The primary file (main document)
The secondary file (Data source)
Merged file

To create the main document,

1 From the file menu, select New to create a new document. You can also open or retrieve an existing document.

On the Tools menu, click mail merge to display a dialog box.

3 Click create button, to select the type of document needed e.g. form .letters. Select the active window as the main document this means that the currently running document will be the form letter that will be later merged with a data source to produce individualised letters.

The next step is now to create a data source.

Click Get Data. To use an existing list of names and addresses, click

Open Data. Source To use existing addresses from an electronic address book, click on Use Address Book. To create a new list of names and addresses, first choose the necessary fields from the create data source box then save the record structure. A message appears asking you whether you want to edit the data source or the main document choose one then the Next.

With the main document open, spot the mail merge toolbar on the screen. Position the text cursor where you want to insert merge fields. Use the insert field’s button to insert merge fields in the document

Merging the document

Once you finish inserting merge fields from the data source in the main document, you are now ready to merge. There are several merge options:

To merge to a new document

Click the Merge to new document icon on the mail merge toolbar.

Merging to printer

Click the .Merge to printer, icon on the mail merge toolbar. Before you merge to a printer or other device, you may want to preview the appearance of the merged documents. For example, you can preview the merged documents one at a time. You can also collect the merged documents into a new document, so you can review and personalise the documents.

Preview merged documents

Before you print the documents, ensure that you’ve inserted merge fields in the main document and selected a data source. To preview, click anywhere in the main document, and then click View Merged Data on the Mail Merge toolbar.

Microsoft Word displays information from the first data record in place of the merge fields.

Send merged documents via e-mail or fax

Click the merge button on the Mail merge toolbar Select e-mail or fax in the merge to box. Click the Setup button to specify the e-mail addresses or faxing number then click the merge button. The internet connection wizard starts and if your computer is properly configured, the mail merged document will be sent.

Inserting graphics

Working with graphics

The term graphics refers to non-text images generated by a compute! This includes photographs, drawings and graphs. Graphics present information in a form that is easy to understand.

You can insert a graphical object from Microsoft Clip Gallery, a scanner or by using drawing tools available in Microsoft Word.

Inserting a clip art or a picture from clip gallery:

Position the insertion pointer where you want your object to be inserted,
On the insert menu, point to picture then click clipart Click on the tabs to select on the category of objects i.e. clip art, pictures, sound or videos. See Figure 1.42.
Double click on the object you want or click it once then click the insert button.
Use the object place holders to resize your object. If you place the mouse pointer on one of these holders, it turns into a two headed arrow, hold down the mouse button and drag to increase or reduce the object size
Click anywhere outside the object to remove the holders.
To move you object to another position, click inside the object. The pointer turns into an arrowhead cross. Hold down the mouse button and drag your image to a new location.

Fig. 1.42: A clip art image

Inserting an image from a scanner

The computer must be connected to a scanner to complete this procedure. A scanner is a data capture device that transforms a hand copy or real graphical object into digital form.

To scan an object:

Position the insertion pointer where you want your picture to appear,
from the insert menu, point to Picture and then click from scanner or Camera.
To scan, follow the instructions that come with your scanner.
When the image appears on the screen you can edit and format it as required the same way you would with a clipart.

Inserting a picture from another file

Position the insertion pointer where you want your picture placed,
From the insert menu, point to Picture, then click “From file
Locate the file that contain the image you want to insert eg from your floppy disk, from a compact disk etc.
Select the object you want to insert

5 Then click the Insert button.

6 When the image appears on the screen you can edit and format it as required the same way you would with a clipart.

Editing and formatting pictures

To format or edit a picture:

Microsoft Word provides the user with a picture editing toolbar that lets you adjust the brightness, contrast, change it to black and white or grayscale and crop the image. Cropping refers to hiding the unwanted details so that they do not come out when printing.

To display the picture toolbar, click on View menu, point to toolbars then select Picture. The picture toolbar has buttons that enable a person to format a picture to format a picture, click it to select it then use the commands on the picture toolbar.

Drawing an object using MS Word drawing tools

Microsoft Word provides the user with basic drawing tools such as polygons, lines, a circle, stars and banners, call outs and many others. If the drawings toolbar is not displayed, click on View menu, toolbars then click on Drawing. The toolbar will be displayed which a button has labeled Auto shapes, an arrow, a line, square and a circle

To draw a line, a circle an arrow or a rectangle:

Click on the appropriate shape button. The pointer changes to a plus sign.
Place the pointer where you want to draw that shape and drag to the required size.

To draw an object using the Auto shapes:

Click the Auto shapes button. A menu is displayed showing categories of shapes you can choose from
Point to the category required then select the type of object you wish to draw
Place the pointer where you want to draw that shape and drag to the required size.

Editing and formatting a drawn object

You can resize, move, fill color and change the drawing outline.

To resize or move a drawing.

Click anywhere inside it. The place holders appear.
To move it, hold down the mouse button and drag.
To resize it, place the pointer at one of the place holders and drag.

To fill the object with color and fill effects:

1 Click the object. The place holders appear.

2 Click the down arrow of fill color button, the one that looks like a bucket pouring ink.

3 Select the color you want applied. To fill the drawing with texture, gradient or pattern, click the Effects button. From the resulting dialog box, select the appropriate fill effect.

Printing a document

Printing in Microsoft Word

Because the main purpose of any word processor is to prepare documents for printing, this cannot be accomplished without a printer. The choice of a printer depends on the quality of hardcopy desired. Before you print, it is very important that you preview you document to confirm that no details are outside the printable area and that the document layout is okay.

Using print preview

In Microsoft Word, to view your document before printing proceed as follows:

From file menu, select print preview the mouse pointer changes into a symbol that resembles a magnifying glass. You can click on the mouse button inside the document to increase or reduce the size of the view.
Click the close button or Esc key to return to your document.

To print:

From file menu click on print A dialog box appears where you can specify:

The type of the printer installed in your computer other than the default printer.
Whether to print the whole document or a range in the Page range box,

Click OK to start printing.

SPREADSHEETS MS-EXCEL

Chapter outline

2.1 Definition of spreadsheet

2.2 Components of a spreadsheet

2.3 Application areas of a spreadsheet

2.4 Creating a worksheet/workbook using Microsoft Excel

2.5 Cell data types

Cell referencing
7 Basic functions and formulae

2.8 Editing a worksheet

2.9 Worksheet formattin2.10 Data management

2.11 Charts/graphs

2.12 Printing worksheets

2.1 Definition of a spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is essentially a ledger sheet that lets you enter, edit and manipulate numeric data. There are two types of spreadsheets namely:

The manual spreadsheet.
The electronic spreadsheet.

A manual spreadsheet is the most commonly used type by book keepers as a ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns on which various amounts of money are entered manually using a pen or pencil. You can visit your bursar’s office and request to see a ledger sheet.

An electronic spreadsheet on the other hand is prepared using a computer program that enables the user to enter values in rows and columns similar to the ones of the manual spreadsheet and to manipulate them mathematically using formulae. ‘

In this book, the word spreadsheet shall be used to refer to the electronic spreadsheet. ‘.

Advantages of Using Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Spreadsheet

The electronic spreadsheet utilizes the powerful aspects of the computer like speed, accuracy and efficiency to enable the user quickly accomplish tasks.
The electronic spreadsheet offers a larger virtual sheet for data entry and manipulation. For example the largest paper ledger you can get is one that does not exceed 30 columns and 51 rows while with an electronic spreadsheet, the least ledger has at least 255 columns and 255 rows!
The electronic spreadsheet utilizes the large storage space on computer storage devices to save and retrieve documents.
The electronic spreadsheet enables the user to produce neat work because the traditional paper, pencil, rubber and calculator are put aside. All the work is edited on the screen and a final clean copy is printed. With a handwritten spreadsheet, neatness and legibility depends on the writer’s hand writing skills.
Electronic spreadsheets have better document formatting capabilities. 6. Electronic spreadsheets have inbuilt formulae called functions that enable the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
An electronic spreadsheet automatically adjusts the result of a formula if the values in worksheet are changed. This is called the automatic recalculation feature. For a manual sheet, changing one value means rubbing the result and writing the correct one again.

Examples of spreadsheets

VisiCalc: This was the first type of spreadsheet to be developed for personal computers.
Lotus 1-2-3: This is integrated software with spreadsheet module graphs and database. 3. Microsoft Excel
VP-Planner etc.

In this book, the spreadsheet that will be considered in details is Microsoft Excel.

Components of a spreadsheet

A spreadsheet has three components

Worksheet. /
Database.
Graphs.

Worksheet

This is the component in which data values are entered. It is made up of rows and columns. The intersection between a row and a column is called a cell. A row is a horizontal arrangement of cells while a column is a vertical arrangement of cells. Each row is labeled with a number while each column is labeled with a letter as shown in the Figure 2.1. Each cell is referenced using the column label followed by the row label e.g. cell B3 has the value 20. A group of many worksheets make up a workbook.

A B C D E F

1
2
3	20
4
5		I

Fig. 2.1: A Worksheet

Database

Data values can be entered in the cells of the spreadsheet and managed by special Excel features found on the Data menu. These features were incorporated in Excel but they actually belong to database management software. One of such feature is filtering records, using forms, calculating subtotals, data validation pivot tables and pivot chart reports.

If the data values for the same entity (related values) are entered on the same row, they form a record. Hence a worksheet can be manipulated to some extent as a database that has data records entered in it. Figure 2.2 shows a worksheet having two records, Joy and Jeff.

A B c D EF1

1	Name	IDNo.	Age	Nationality
2	Joy	123445	25	Kenyan
3	Jeff	125675	35	Ugandan
4

Fig. 2.2: A spreadsheet with records

NB: A spreadsheet file is structured in such a way that it can be visualised as a table of records. That is why such a ‘file can be imported into a database program as will be discusses later in databases.

Graphs

A graph is a pictorial representation of the base data on a worksheet. Most spreadsheets refer to graphs as charts. A chart enables the user to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a simple easy to understand format. Examples of charts are pie charts, line charts and bar charts. As shall be discussed later, it is easy to generate charts when working with a spreadsheet program. Figure 2.3 shows an example of a pie chart.

2.3 Application areas of a spreadsheet

Statistical analysis

Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to save steps when developing complex statistical or engineering analyses. The user is usually expected to provide the appropriate data and parameters for each analysis. The statistical tool then uses appropriate automated statistical or engineering functions and then displays results in an output table. Some of the tools generate charts in addition to the output tables.

Because most of these tools are complex, the user needs to have the statistical background knowledge before attempting to use the tools. Examples of some simple statistical functions include the following:

Average: This is used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
Median: This is used to return the value in the middle of a set of values.

For example a set of values may be composed of:

10 20 30 40 50 60.

The average of the set is 35 and its median is also 35. The median is found by taking the average of the two numbers at the centre of the set, in this case 30 and 40.

Accounting

Many accountants find the spreadsheet a useful tool to use in recording daily transactions and keeping of financial records. Spreadsheets provide a user friendly environment for financial management and they come with inbuilt functions that make accounting tasks easier. For example, the spreadsheet can be used by accountants to do the following:

To track the value of assets over time (depreciation and appreciation)
To calculate profits
To prepare budgets

Other formula like sum, average, product etc. enables the accountant to carry out his daily work without any problem.

Data management

A spreadsheet enables neat arrangement of data into tabular structure. Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. However, when data is on different worksheets, the worksheets can be linked to enhance accessibility.

Data management functions include sorting, filtering (displaying only the required items) and using forms to enter and view records.

Spreadsheets enable the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data and records.

Forecasting (“What if” analysis)

The automatic recalculation feature enables the use of “What if’ analysis technique. This involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula to see the difference the change would make on the result of the calculation. For example, a formula to calculate a company’s profit, margin may be as follows:

Profit =, (Total units sold x sale price) – (Total units bought x cost price) – Operating ‘expenses.

A sales manager in the company c n ask the following question: What if sales increase by 20%, how much profit wills the company make? The manager substitutes the total units sold value with one that is 20% higher and the spreadsheet automatically displays the new profit. A traditional analysis method would require a different work sheet to be prepared. Therefore, this method can be used for financial forecasting, budgeting, stock portfolio analysis, cost analysis, cash flow etc.

Creating a worksheet/workbook using Microsoft Excel

To start Microsoft Excel, click Start button, point to Programs and then select Microsoft Excel from the programs menu This procedure may vary slightly depending on the version of Excel you are using or the computer’s hardware and software configuration.

The Windows environment allows a person to place shortcuts to a program’s executable (.exe) file in various places like the desktop. If the Excel shortcut is on the desktop, simply double click it to start the application.

The Microsoft Excel application window opens as shown in the Figure 2.5. Make sure that you can be able to identify all the labeled parts of the Microsoft Excel application window.

The Microsoft Excel application window

The Microsoft Excel application window is made up of the following components:

Title bar: It has the title of the application and control buttons for minimising, maximising and closing the application

The menu bar: It displays a list of menu options e.g. File, Edit, View etc. Clicking one of them displays a menu that has commands which can be selected in order to manipulate data in the spreadsheet. ‘

Tool bars: The most common of these are the standard and formatting toolbars. The most important thing is to be able to identify each toolbar by its icons. The standard toolbar has shortcuts to some of the most commonly used menu commands like print, copy, paste and save. The formatting toolbar has shortcuts to the commonly used commands found on the format menu option

Formula bar: This is one of the most important components of the Microsoft Excel application window. It enables the user to enter or edit a formula or data in a cell. You can identify the formula bar because it has an equal sign (or fx). The name box to the left of the formula bar displays the position of the cell in which data or a formula is being entered which is also called the current cell. If the formula bar is not available, click on View menu then select Formula bars. A check mark appears on the left of the selected item to show that it is now displayed on the screen.

Cell pointer: It marks the position of the current cell or the insertion point. It is special cursors that is rectangular in shape and makes the current cell appear as if it has darker boundaries.

The Worksheet: Consists of cells, rows and columns. Data is entered here for manipulation.

Status bar: It shows the processing state of the application. For example, on its left is the word Ready which shows that the spreadsheet is ready to receive user commands. ‘

Worksheet labels: These are usually of the format Sheet 1, Sheet 2 etc. A workbook may have several sheets. It is also possible to rename the sheets by right clicking on the labels then choosing rename command from the shortcut menu that appears. The active sheet (one being used) has its label appearing lighter in colour than the rest. To move to a particular sheet in the workbook, simply click its sheet label.

Vertical and horizontal scroll bars: Clicking the arrows at their ends moves the worksheet vertically and horizontally on the screen respectively.

Worksheet layout

The worksheet has the following components: Cells: An intersection between a row and a column.

Rows: Horizontal arrangement of cells. Columns: Vertical arrangement of cells.

Range: Is a group of rectangular cells that can be selected and manipulated as a block.

Navigating the Microsoft Excel screen

Click cell D5. Notice that the cell pointer immediately moves to the cell and the name box reads D 5. Typing on the keyboard now inserts entries in cell D5 as long as the pointer is still there.
Click letter A that heads the first column. Notice that the whole column is highlighted.
Double click cell EIO. Notice that the text cursor forms in the cell and you can now type characters inside the cell. Also the status bar will now read enter which means that Microsoft Excel expects you to enter a value in the cell.
Click the down arrow on the vertical scroll bar. The worksheet moves upwards on the screen. The opposite happens when you click the up arrow on the vertical scroll bar.
Click the right button on the horizontal scroll bar. The worksheet moves to the left. The opposite happens when you click the left button on the horizontal scroll bar.
Press the right arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one column to the right on the same row. This can also be done by pressing the Tab key once.
Press the left arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell moves one column to the left on the same row. Pressing gives the same results.

Press the up arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one row up on the same column.
Press the down arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one row down on the same column.
Press the end key. The status bar will display the message “END”. If you press the right arrow key, the cell pointer will move right to the last cell on the row. If the left up or down keys were to be pressed instead, the cell pointer would move to the last cell to the left, top or bottom respectively.

Pressing Ctr1+Home moves the cell pointer to the first cell of the worksheet i.e. cell AI.

Creating a worksheet

At its simplest level, creating a worksheet consists of starting the spreadsheet program and entering data in the cells of the current worksheet. , However, a person can decide to create a worksheet either using the general format or from a specially preformatted spreadsheet document called a template.

Using the general format

When a spreadsheet program is running it will present the user with a new blank screen of rows and columns. The user can enter data in this worksheet and save it as a newly created worksheet. If this is not available then click File menu option and select the new command. The dialog box shown in Figure 2.8 will be displayed on the screen. On the General tab, double click the workbook icon. Enter data in the new worksheet created.

Using a template

Click File menu option then new command. On the spreadsheets solutions tab, double click the template that you wish to create. Figure 2.9 below shows some examples of templates that may be present for selection.

NB: If the template was saved previously on the hard disk, it will open as a new worksheet with all the preformatted features present allowing the user to enter some data. However, some templates may require the original program installation disk in order to be able to use them because they may not have been copied to the hard disk during program installation.

Editing a cell entry

Editing a cell means changing the contents of the cell. Before the contents in a cell can be. Changed, the cell must be selected by making it the current cell.

To edit a cell entry proceeds as follows:

.1. Move the cell pointer to the cell you wish to edit.

Double click the formula bar for the text cursor to appear in the bar. The status bar message changes to edit
Use the keyboard to delete and add contents to the formula bar then press enter key to apply. Click the save button on the standard toolbar to save the edited changes.

Selecting a range

As you have experienced with the previous two examples, working with one item at a time is tedious and time consuming. Using a range saves time when working with a large .amount of data.

A range is a rectangular arrangement of cells specified by the address of its top left and bottom right cells, ‘separated by a colon (:) ego Range AI:CIO is as shown in Figure 2.10.

Selecting multiple ranges

When using a mouse, you can select more than one range without removing the highlight from the previous. To do this:

Hold down the Shift key or the Ctrl key while you click on the row header of the second range you want to highlight. What happens? Do you notice the difference when holding down the shift and the ctrl keys?

Shift key will cause all columns/rows between the selected and the newly clicked cell to be highlighted.
Ctrl selects individually clicked cells or range.

Hiding rows/columns

You can hide some rows or columns in order to see some details, which do not fit, on the screen. To do this:

Highlight the columns/rows you want to hide
Click format menu, point on row or column and click hide command.

Saving a worksheet

To save a worksheet, one has to save the workbook in which it belongs with a unique name on a storage device like a hard disk. The procedure below can be used to save a workbook:

Click File menu option then select Save as’ command. Alternatively, click the save command on the standard toolbar. The save as dialog appears
Select the location in which your workbook will be saved in the Save in box then type a unique name for the workbook in the File name box. Make sure that the option Microsoft Excel Workbook is selected under the save as type box.
Click the Save button to save.

Retrieving a saved workbook

This means opening a workbook that was previously saved.

Click File menu option then the Open command. Notice that the Open command has three dots (called ellipsis) indicating that a dialog box will open, as the user is required to provide additional information. Alternatively just click the Open command on the standard toolbar. The open dialog box appears on the screen.
Click the Look in drop down list arrow and select the drive or folder where the workbook was saved. For example, if you saved in a diskette, insert it in the floppy drive then select 3 1/2-floppy (A:). A list of folders and files in the drive will appear in the list box.
Double click the icon of the workbook you want and the worksheet will be displayed in the Microsoft Excel window. Notice that the cell pointer is in the same cell it was in when the worksheet was last Saved.

Closing a worksheet

Click File then Close command. This closes the worksheet but does not

Close the Excel spreadsheet program. Alternatively, click the; close button of the worksheet window

Exiting from the spreadsheet

Click File then Exit command. This closes not only the worksheet but also the spreadsheet program as well. Alternatively click the close button of the main application window.

Cell data types

There are four basic types of data used with spreadsheets:

Labels
Values,
Formulae
Functions.

Labels

Any text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell are viewed as labels by the spreadsheet program. Labels are used as row or column headings usually to describe the contents of the row or column. For example, if a column will have names of people, the column header can be NAMES. Sometimes, numbers can be formatted so that they can be used as labels. To achieve this add an apostrophe just before the most significant digit in the number. For example, the number 1990 will be treated as numeric. if typed in a cell but’ 1990 will be treated as a label.

Labels are aligned to the left of the cell and cannot be manipulated mathematically.

Values

. ,

These are numbers that can be manipulated mathematically. They may include currency, date, numbers (0-9), special symbols or text that can be manipulated mathematically by the spreadsheet.

Formulae

These are user designed mathematical expressions that create a relationship between cells and return a value in a chosen cell. In Microsoft Excel, a formula must start with an equal sign. For example, the formula

=B3+D4 adds the contents ofB3 and D4 and returns the sum value in the current cell.

Excel formulae use cell addresses and the arithmetical operators like plus (+) for addition, minus (-) for subtraction, asterisk (*) for multiplication and forward slash (I) for division.

Using cell addresses, also called referencing, enables Microsoft Excel to keep calculations accurate and automatically recalculates results of a formula in case the value in a referenced cell is changed. This is called automatic recalculation.

Functions

These are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of having to create a new one each time a calculation has to be carried out Microsoft Excel has many of these formulae that cover the most common types of calculations performed by spreadsheets. To add the contents of cell B3 and D4 the sum function can be used as shown below:

= Sum (B3:D4)

2.6

Cell referencing

A cell reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on the worksheet and shows Microsoft Excel where to look for the values or data needed to use in a formula. With references, you can use data contained in different cells of a worksheet in one formula or use the value from one cell in several different formulae.

By default, Microsoft Excel uses the A 1 cell referencing style. This means that a cell is identified by its column label followed by the row number. However, the Rl Cl referencing style can be used. In this case, the cell is referencing by its row number followed by its column number. The table below gives a few examples of equivalent referencing using both styles.

A1 style	R1C1 style
B2	R2C2
C10	R10C3
E20	R20C5

The RlCl style is useful when automating commonly repeated tasks using special recording programs called Macros.

Relative referencing

When performing tasks that require cell referencing, you can use formulae whose cell references keep on changing automatically depending on their position in the worksheet. This is called relative cell referencing. A good example would be if you type the formula =Al+Bl in cell Cl. If the same formula is copied to cell C2 the formula automatically changes to =A2+B2.

Absolute referencing

These are cell references that always refer to cells in a specific location

, of the worksheet even if they are copied from one cell to another. To make a formula absolute, add a dollar sign before the letter and/or number,

such as $B$lO. In this case, both the column and row references are absolute. .

Referencing using labels and names

Labels of columns and rows on a worksheet can be used to refer to the cells that fall within those columns and rows. It is possible to create a name that describes the cell or range then use it instead of having to specify a range with actual cell references. Such a descriptive name in a formula can make it readable and easier to understand its purpose. For example, the formula =SUM(SecondQuarterProfits) might be easier to identify than =SUM(AlO:C20). In this example, the name SecondQuarterProfits represents the rangeAlO:C20 on the worksheet. Names can also be used to represent formulae or values that do not change (constants). For example, you can use the name .Tariffs to represent the import tax amount (such as 7.0 percent) applied to imports.

To create a named range

To create a named range proceeds as follows: 1. Select the range to be named:

Click inside the name box to move the text cursor inside. Delete the Cell reference that is there and type a name for the range.
Press Enter key to apply. Figure 2.13 shows a worksheet range called sales that has values used in a formula to give the sum in cell C 11.

2.7 Basic functions and formulae

Formulae perform mathematical operations ranging from very simple arithmetic problems t9 complex scientific, financial and mathematical analysis.

Statistical functions.

Average: It returns the average (mathematical mean) of a set of values which can be numbers, arrays or references that contain numbers. If the value 20 is in cell DIO and 30 in ElO then:

=Average(D lO:E 1 0) returns 25 as the average of the two values.

Count: Counts the number of cells that contain values within a range e.g.

= count (AIO: EIO) many return a value 5 if all the cells have values.

Max: It returns the largest value in a set of values. It ignores text and logical values e.g. == Max (AlO:EIO) will return the maximum value in the range.
Min: It returns the smallest value in a set of values. It ignores text and logical values e.g. = Min (AIO:EIO) will return the minimum values in the range.
Mode: It returns the most frequently occurring value in a set of values. e.g. = Mode (AIO:ElO)
Rank: Returns the rank of a number in a list by comparing its size relative to the others. For example if A 1 to AS contains numbers 7, 3.8,3.8, 1 and 2 then RANK (A2, Al :A5,1) returns 3 while RANK (AI, AI:A5,I) returns
The general format is RANK (number to be ranked, range, order).

Logical functions

If: It returns a specified value if a condition is evaluated and found to be true and another value if it is false. If (marks > 50, “pass”, “fail”) will display a pass if values are more than 50 else it will display fail.
Countif: Counts the number of cells within a specified range that meet the given condition or criteria. e.g. suppose A 1 0 : E 1 0 contains eggs, beans, beans, eggs, eggs, countif(AIO:EIO, “Eggs”) will return 3.
Sumif: It adds values in the cells specified by a given condition or criteria. e.g. For example if AIO to ElO contains values 10,50,60, 30, 70, to sum all values greater than 50 = Sumif(AIO:EIO, “>50”). This returns 130.

Mathematical functions

Sum: adds values in a range of cells as specified and returns the result in the specified cell. e.g Sum (AIO:EIO) adds values in the range
Product: multiplies values in a range of cells and returns the result in the specified cell. For example if A 10 has 30 and BIO has
Product (AlO:BIO) will return 90.

Arithmetic formulae – using operators

Operator Function

+ (plus) adds values as specified

– (minus) . subtracts values as specified

* (multiplication) multiplies values

/ (division) divides values.

( ) parenthesis encloses arguments to be calculated first.

For a formula =(Al +C3)/E20, if the value in E20 is not zero, the result is displayed in the current cell.

Order of execution

If several. Operators are used in a single formula; Microsoft Excel performs the operations in the order shown in Table 2.3. Formulas with operators that have same precedence i.e. if a formula contains both a multiplication and division operator are evaluated from left to right. Enclosing part of the formula to be calculated in parentheses or brackets makes that part to be calculated first.

Operator		Name	Precedence
1. –		Negation as in -1	1
2.%		Percent	2
2. 1\		Exponentiation	3
3. * and /	!	Multiplication and division	4
4. + and –		Addition and subtraction	5
6. =,<>,>,<,<=,>=		Relational	6

Table 2.3: Operators’ order of execution

2.8

Editing a worksheet

Coping and moving data

Spreadsheet software automates many processes that could have been tedious if done manually. For example with Microsoft Excel, you can do calculations using formulae fairly easily as you give the data and correct instructions to the program. Copying and moving of, data can also be done quickly and efficiently.

When data is cut or copied from the worksheet, it is temporarily held in a storage location called the clipboard.

Copying data

To copy a cell or a range of cells:

Highlight the cells or range you want copied
Click the Edit menu then select Copy command.
Select the cell in which you want to place a copy of the information 4. From the Edit again, click Paste command. The Paste command puts a copy from the clipboard on the specified location

Moving data

Unlike the Copy command where a duplicate copy is created, the Move command transfers the contents of the original cell (s) to a new location.

To move a range of cells:

Highlight the range you want to move.
From the Edit menu, select Cut.
Specify the location you want to move the contents to.
From the Edit menu again, click Paste.

2.9 Worksheet formatting

Worksheet formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of the worksheet to make it more attractive and appealing to the reader. Appropriate formatting should be used to lay emphasis, catch attention and bring otherwise II hidden detail to the fore of the document.

The golden rule of formatting is to use simple clear formats. It essentially consists of changing text colour and typeface (font), size, style and alignment. In Microsoft Excel, format the cells whether empty or not and their contents will acquire the set format automatically.

To format a single cell, make it the current cell then format menu option and select the cells command In the format cells dialog box, make the formatting specifications that you wish then click the ok button to apply. If it is a range of cells, they must be highlighted first before formatting them as a block of cells.

Formatting text

Highlight the cells that have the text to be formatted.
Click Format menu then cells command. The dialog box appears
Select the font tab as shown in the figure by clicking it.
Select the font type e.g. Times New Roman. Other font formatting features like style, size, underline and colour are available and can be selected.
Click button to apply.

NB: Alternatively, use the formatting toolbar to accomplish all your text formatting needs. Notice that the options in the font dialog box are commands on the formatting toolbar.

Formatting numbers

Highlight the cells that have the numbers to be formatted.
Click Format menu then cells command. The dialog box in Figure 2.15 appears.
Select the Number tab as shown in the figure below.
You can now choose number formats as explained below:

Number Meaning

General general format cells have no specific number format.

Number Used for general display of numbers e.g. 2345.23.

Currency For displaying general monetary values e.g. $100, Ksh.10.

Accounting Lines up the currency symbols and decimal poin s. Displays date in chosen format.

Date Displays time in chosen format.

Percentage Multiplies the value in a cell with 100 and display ‘ it as %.

Text Formats cells to be treated as text even when numbers are entered.

Custom For a number format not predefined in Microsoft Excel, select custom then define the pattern.

Worksheet borders

You may need to put a printable border around your worksheet or in a range of cells to make it more attractive and appealing. To put a border:

Highlight the range you wish to insert borders. From the format menu, click cells command.
Click the borders tab and specify the border options for left, right, top and bottom. .
From the style options, select the type of line thickness and style. Also select the preset options.
Click the ok button. The selected range will have a border around it.

Formatting rows and columns

Sometimes, the information entered in the spreadsheet may not fit neatly in the cell set with the default height and width. It therefore becomes necessary to adjust the height of a row or the width of a column. The standard width of a column in Microsoft Excel is 8.43 characters but can be adjusted to any value between 0 and 255.

Changing column width

Move the mouse pointer to the right hand side line that separates the column headers i.e. for instance the line between A and B.
Notice that the mouse pointer changes from a cross to a double arrow
Click the mouse button and hold it down so that you can now resize the width of the column by dragging to the size you wish. After Dragging to the required point release the mouse button and the Column will have a new size.

NB: Alternatively, move the cell pointer to one of the cells of the column then click Format, point to Column then click Width command from the sidekick menu. Type a width in the dialog box that resembles Figure 2.17 then click Ok.button to apply.

NB: To change the widths of several columns at the same time, highlight them first before following this method.

Changing row height

Point to the line that separates two row numbers e.g. the line between 1 and 2. The mouse pointer becomes a double arrow.
Drag the line until the height of the row is as required then stop and release the mouse button.

NB: Alternatively, click Format point to Row then click Height from the sidekick menu that appears. Type the height that you wish in the dialog box that appears and then click OK button to apply.

Inserting rows and columns

I, Click cell A5 to make it the current or active cell.

2.clik insert then columns to insert a ‘row above cell A5 and shift all the other rows downward.

Click insert then Columns to insert a column to the left of column A and shift all the others to the right.

NB: Alternatively, click insert then cells to display the dialog box select the entire row or entire column options to insert a row or column respectively.

Global worksheet formatting

The word global in this case refers to the entire worksheet. In order to format the whole worksheet globally, it must be selected as a whole.

Two methods can be used to select a worksheet globally:

Click the top left comer of the worksheet that has a blank column header i.e. immediately on the left of A and just above I,

Press Ctrl+A on the keyboard.

Notice that the whole worksheet becomes highlighted. It can now be formatted as one big block using format cells command.

Using autoformat

It allows the user to apply one of sixteen sets of formatting to & selected range on the worksheet. This quickly creates tables that are easy to read and are attractive to the eye..

Select a range e.g. B 1 :G7 to make it active.
Click format then select the auto format command on the menu that Appears. Select a format from the autoformat dialog box shown in Figure 2.19.
Click the ok button to apply the format to the selected range.

2.9 Data management

At times, it becomes necessary to use advanced data management tools to manage large ,data stored on a ‘worksheet. For example, if the worksheet has many records, it may become necessary to arrange them in a particular order using a method called sorting for easier access to data items. Other methods of data management include use of filters, total/subtotal function and forms.

Sorting

To carryout sorting proceed as follows:

Highlight the range that you wish to sort by clicking its column header letter.
Click Data then Sort . Notice that the Sort by field is already reading the field that you selected. This field is called the criteria field.
Select the field to be used as the key for sorting and the sort order as either descending or ascending then click OK button to apply.

Filtering data

Filtering is a quick and efficient method of finding and working with a subset of data in a list. A filtered list will only display the rows that meet the condition or criteria you specify. Microsoft Excel has two commands for filtering lists.

The auto filter: It uses simple criteria and includes filter by selection.
Advanced filter: It uses more complex criteria.

In this Pupil’s Book we will look at the autofilter.

Autofilter

Filters can be applied to only one list on a worksheet at a time.

Click a cell in the list that is to be filtered; usually the list is in a column.
On the Data menu, point to Filter, and then
To display only the rows that contain a specific value, click the arrow in the column that contains the data you want to display as shown in Figure 2.21.
Click the value that is to be displayed by the filter from the drop down list. e.g in the example below, the selected value is 34.

NB: Sometimes while looking through a list of values on a large worksheet, you may come to a value of interest and want to see all other occurrences of the value in the spreadsheet. Simply click the cell that has the value then click auto filter on the standard toolbar. Microsoft Excel turns on AutoFilter and then filters- the list to show only the rows you want.

Subtotals function

Consider the following scenario: A company that has many salespersons

will need to know how much each of them should be paid at the end of a period by looking at individual sales volumes. Also, the grand total for all the payments has to be calculated. Therefore, if the salespersons are held in a list, there would be need to calculate the amount due to each of them. This can be called a subtotal in the list. All the subtotals can then be added together to make the grand total. Consider the following list:

Name Amount Owed

Stephen ` 6000

Joy 3000

Stephen 2000

Virginia 5000

Joy 800

Stephen 200

Virginia 5000

Microsoft Excel can automatically summarise the data by calculating subtotal and grand total values of the list. To use automatic subtotals, the list must have labelled columns and must be sorted on the columns for which you want subtotals. In this example, the list is first sorted by name

Click a cell in the list that will have subtotals e.g. cell A3.
On the Data menu click Subtotals 3. Notice that all the data range is now selected.
In each change in box, select Name from the drop down list because we want a subtotal for each of the names.
In the Use function box select the sum function then select the list for which subtotals will be inserted in the add subtotals box by checking the appropriate label. In this case it is the amount owed field.
Click ok button to apply and the list will now have sub totals inserted

Totals function

Use theAutoCalculate feature in Microsoft Excel to automatically show the total of a selected range. When cells are selected, Microsoft Excel displays the sum of the range on the status bar. Right clicking this function displays other functions like Min, Max and Average that can also be used. To find the total of a range, highlight it then click the autosum icon ∑ on the standard toolbar.

Forms

A form is a specially prepared template that the users can use to enter data in a worksheet. It is specifically formatted to enable users to enter data in a format that is more convenient to them. If data is collected on paper before entering in the computer, then a form can be created to have the layout of the data on the paper to quicken data entry procedures. To display a form: Click ‘Data, then form.

2.10 Charts/graphs

Charts/graphs are graphics or pictures that represent values and their relationships. A chart helps the reader to quickly see trends in data and to be able to compare and contrast aspects of data that would otherwise have remained obscure. Microsoft Excel has both two-dimensional and 3-dimensional charts that can be used instead of the raw data in the table that has to- be studied for a long time to understand it.

The various types of charts available include column, bar, line. Pie, bubble and area charts among others. Consider carefully the type of chart that would best represent the base data in the worksheet before creating one. For example, if the aim is to depict the performance index of a student from Form I-to 3, a line chart would be most appropriate because it clearly shows the trend in performance.

Types of charts

Line chart – represents data as lines with markers at each data value in the x-y plane.
Column chart- represents data as a cluster of columns comparing values across categories. .
Bar chart – data values arranged horizontally as clustered bars. Compares values across categories.
Pie chart – it displays the contribution of each value to a grand total.
Scatter chart – compares pairs of values on the same axis.

To view types of charts, right click the chart object then select the chart type command.

Creating a chart

A chart must be based on values that are already entered in the worksheet.

To create a chart:

Select the range of values for which you want to create a chart.
Click the Chart wizard button on the standard toolbar and the chart wizard dialog box will open as shown in Figure 2.25
Click the type of chart you wish to .create. If the office assistant appears, close it. The chart sub-type preview will show several styles of the selected chart type.
Click the Next button to move to the dialog in Figure 2.26.
Click the Series tab then the collapse dialog button on the labels text box.

This will shrink the dialog box so that only the category labels text box is shown. Highlight the data labels from the worksheet.

Click the Expand dialog button to bring the full dialog box into view then click the: Next button. In step 3 of the wizard, use the appropriate tabs to type the title of the chart, show a legend, select whether to display gridlines or not etc. After all these click the Next button.’
At step 4 determine whether the chart will be inserted in the current worksheet or a new worksheet then click Finish button (Figure 2.27).

Moving and resizing a chart

Once the chart is created, its size and location can be changed in the worksheet. The chart element is enclosed inside a boundary called the chart area and hence both can be resized independently. Simply click the object you wish to resize and use the object handles just like in objects to drag to size. To move the chart, click inside the chart area then drag to the desired position.

Data ranges

A data range is a rectangular block of cells that provides the base data that is used to create the chart. In charting, a data range is referenced as an absolute range e.g. .

=Sheetl !$B$2:$C$8 which means that the base data is found on Worksheet 1 and absolute range B2:C8.

To see the data range of a chart, right click it then select the Source data command. .

Labels

Each representation of data on a chart can either be labelled by a value

or text label. For example, in a bar chart that compares the height of pupils, each bar can be given a value label to make it more readable.

To label:

Right click the chart then select the Chart options command from

the shortcut menu.

Click the lables tab and choose whether you want value or text labels then click OK button to apply. .

Headings and titles

Each chart must have a heading showing clearly what it represents. To I make the chart understandable, include axis titles.

. To include axis titles proceed as follows:

Right click the chart then select the. Chart options command.
Click the Titles tab then type the chart title (heading). And axis titles respectively.
Click OK button to apply.

Legends

The legend is like a key that explains what each colour or pattern of the data representation in the chart means. For example, Microsoft Excel may give red colour to one data value and green to the other. Without a legend it would be difficult to know how to differentiate the two sets of values.

: To create a legend:

.1.Right click the chart then select the Chart options command.

Click the legends tab and specify that it be displayed in the chart area.
Click OK button to apply.

2.11

Printing worksheets

A worksheet will finally be printed for sharing with others or for filing purposes. If it contains objects like charts, it may not fit on a standard printing page using the default printing options and settings. Therefore, Microsoft Excel allows the user to preview and set up the pages of a’ worksheet in order to fit them on the hard copy page.

Page setup

Click .File menu option then Page setup command to display the page setup dialog box. . .
On the Page tab, select the orientation of the page. Study the meanings of each buttons and options in Figures 2.28.
After making the necessary selections, click OK to apply.

Print preview

It displays the worksheet from the point of view of the printer i.e. exactly the way it will look when printed. Before using this command, make I sure the chart is deselected.

Click the Print preview button on the standard toolbar.
The worksheet will be displayed in the print preview window with the status bar reading preview.
Click Setup to start the page setup dialog box. To close the preview, click the Close. Button.

I Print options

To print click File then Print command. The print dialog, box appears as shown in Figure 2.29 .

Select printer – the name box in this dialog box enables a person to select the printer that will be used to print the document. All the printers that are installed on the computer will be available here.
The print what options are:

(a) Selection – this prints the selected worksheet area.

(b) Workbook – prints all the worksheets in the workbook.

Page orientation

As explained earlier, page orientation refers to the layout of the text on the page. A worksheet can also be printed on either landscape or portrait depending on the number of columns across the worksheet.

Pages and copies .

The number of copies box specifies how many copies of a particular worksheet or workbook should be printed.

Sometimes only some specified pages in a workbook are specified for printing e.g. if a workbook has 100 pages and you wish to print only pages 50 to 60 select the page(s) range button then type 50 and 60 in the from, to boxes respectively before clicking the OK button.

Printing

After selecting all the options, click the OK button to print.

Some common printing problems

A message appears on the screen saying that the printer specified could not be found in the directory.

Possible problems and solutions

(a) The printer could be off. Switch it on and it will start printing.

(b) The data cable to the printer could be loose. Make sure it is firm at the ports.

(c) The wrong printer could have been selected. Select the right one in the print dialog box and send the print job again.

(d) A message appears on the screen reading that there is paper jam. I

The printer is clogged with a paper jam. Alert the lab, technician or the Teacher to clear the paper jam.

DATABASES

Chapter outline

3.1 Introduction to databases

3.2 Database concepts

3.3 Data organization in a database

3.4 Creating a database using Microsoft Access

3.5 Editing a database

3.6 Form design

7 searching for specific records in a database

3.8 Creating reports

3.9 Creating labels

Introduction to databases

We are often faced with the need to keep, search for or give a report of daily experiences. This is the reason why many people use data storage methods like recording daily experiences in a diary. Traditionally, human beings used to manage data and information manually by using simple devices. However these methods have a number of weaknesses which include

Unnecessary duplication of data
Boredom and time wasting especially when searching for a Particular item.
Misleading reports due to poor data entry and organisation
Poor update of records etc.

Today, computerized systems have radically changec4the way data and information is managed by use of special programs called Database Management System (DBMS).

A database is a collection of structured and related data items organised so as to provide a consistent and controlled access to the items.

Database concepts .

Computerised database creation and manipulation is achieved using Database Management System software. This software facilitates the creation, organisation and maintenance of databases. Examples of database management software’s include Microsoft Access (Ms Access), Oracle, FoxPro, Dbase/V, Lotus Approach etc.

The functions of database management software are to:

Allow the user add or delete records.
Update or modify existing records.
Organise data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation of records.
Act as an interface between a database and other application programs.
Ensure security for the data in the database by safeguarding it against unauthorized access and corruption (damage).
Keep statistics of data items in a database.

Database models

Databases are classified according to the method used to organise data. The main database models are;

Flat file 2. Hierarchical
Network 4. Relational

NB: Current database models are called object relational and object databases. However these models will not be discussed in details in this book.

Flat files

In a flat file model, a database holds only one set of data and is not any different from the manual files. For example, the teacher’s assessment report may consist of performance cards for every student in a class. Another example of a flat file database are the cards used in a library books catalogue. The cards are arranged sequentially for easy access e.g. alphabetically using books’ titles or by authors’ names. Figure 3.1 below is a sample record of a flat file.

Name	Serah Seki
Admission number	649
Total marks	680
Number of subjects	10
Average	68
Position	4

Fig. 3.1: Sample record in a flat file

Hierarchical model

In this model, data items are arranged in hierarchical (tree) form as shown in Figure 3.2. To access level two data items, you have to first access level 1 data items. Level 1 item is called the root component. A specific single path leads to each item at lower levels. Hierarchical model is rarely used in modem database systems.

Level 1 main data item

Path

Level 2 data item

Fig. 3.2: Hierarchical database model

Network model

In this type of organisation, links are used to express the relationship between different data items, forming a network of items as shown in Figure 3.3. Access to one item can be through multiple paths and from any item. This model is also rarely used in modem database systems.

Dataitem 4

Fig 3.3: Network database model

Relational model

This is the most common type of model used on minicomputers and microcomputers. In this type of organisation, related data items are stored together in structures called relations or tables. Relationship can be created between tables such that a record or records from one table relates to another or other records in another table. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show customers and orders tables that are related by two fields; the customer number in Table 3.1 and customer ID in Table 3.2. In this case, the orders table shows that one customer with number 450 (Bat Hori) has made several orders.

		Customer Number		Name		Telephone number
		900		Mary Koech		02078907
		230		Peter Karimi		0667896
		450		Bat Hori		04456000
			Table 3.1: Customer number
	Customer ID		Order Number		Date		Amount (sh)
	900		2380		2/3/2004		90 000
	450		811		2/5/2004		5000
‘-	450		234		. 3/5/2004		13 000
	450		567		3/6/2004		13 000

Table 3.2: Customer ID

Object oriented models . !

The next generation of database model will look at records as objects that are independent and relate with the other objects in the database. This concept is a bit difficult to conceptualise because such databases are still at developmental stage. However, many databases today combine object and relational concepts to come up with object relation models.

Features of a database management software

Most database software contains a collection of features that provides the user with a means to manipulate data in a database. These features include Tables/files, Queries, Reports generators, Form interface and a computer programming language within it. Microsoft Access database software that will be considered in this book has two distinct features used to automate operations namely Macros and Modules.

Tables/ file structure

This is a database structure that is used to hold related records. Tables are organised in rows and columns with each row representing a record while each column represents common fields in each record. Table 3.3 shows a table of six records and each record is made up of four fields.

FIRST NAME	MIDDLE NAME	LAST NAME	ADDRESS
MBUGUA	STEPHEN	KIMANI	250 KERUGOYA
ADERA	NELSON	ODUOR	396 HOMA BAY
MARGARET	JUDY	WEKESA .	761 NAIROBI
GATO	PATRICIA	MUILA	170 TALA
MWELU	LUCY.	MWENI	390 KANGUNDO .
KOECH	PETER	KORIR	605 KERICHO

Table 3.3: Table of six records and four fields

Queries and query language

A query is a database tool used to search for or question a database on specific records. Because a query is a question posed to the database, it returns a result for the user. In Microsoft Access, this result is called a dynaset. For example, assume you work with the National Irrigation Board (NIB), you may wish to display all those farmers from Mwea Rice Irrigation Scheme who delivered rice in January to the National Irrigation Board. You can use a query object or statements to get the required records.

The query statements are written using a special language called

Structured Query Language (SQL). The user creates a, query by writing Structure query language statements such as:

Select

Farmer Number, Name, Month of Delivery

From

Delivery Table

Where

Month of Delivery = “January”

Forms/screen input

A form is a graphical interface that resembles the ordinary paper forms used to collect data. However, a database form enables the user to view and enter data into a table. Figure 3.4 shows a sample form used for entering a student’s marks scored in four subjects and. the date of admission. Form interface is a more convenient and easy way of entering and viewing records from a table.

Reports

Most database systems provide the user with a tool for generating reports from an underlying table or query. It is the report generator that provides the user with a means to specify the output layout and what is to be output or printed on a report. Table 3.4 shows a sample report for employees’ salaries.

Net Pay Report

fay rol/no .Last.Name First Name. . .Basic salary PAYE Net salary.

07 Wangui Grace sh 80,000.00 Kshs 7,300.00 sh 72,700.00

09 Ochieng Mbenga sh 37,000.00 Kshs 3,800.00 sh 33,200.00

13 Mumbua Peter sh 22,000.00 Kshs 2,300.00 sh 19,700.00

20 Mbuvai Sicily sh 60,000.00 Kshs 5,700.00 sh 54,300.00

Table 3.4: Sample report

Macros

Some database software provides the user with a tool called a macro, that can be used to automate frequently performed procedures or tasks. For example, if you frequently use a particular form when you start a database program, you need to create a macro that automates the opening of the form.

Programming module

When your database becomes more and more complex, you may need a more powerful tool than the macros to automate your database operations further. Some database software come with their own computer languages associated with them. For example Microsoft Access comes with a language called Visual Basic included as a Module in the software. Using this feature, you can create a program that will print a query result over and over again until a certain condition is true. This can be illustrated using a simple statement like;

Print Student Report until NumberofStudents = 40 (Not a real command anyway).

NB: For the purpose of this book, only tables, forms, queries and reports, have been covered.

Data organisation in a database

One of the functions of a database system is to organise data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation. Data is organised from the simplest fQfll1 called a field to a very complex structure called a data,base.

Fields

A field is a character or a logical combination of characters that represent data item. For example, in a class list, the student name is a field.

Records

This is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity. An example of a record is the student report card that may contain the. student’s name, admission number, class, total marks, average and grade.

Files/tables

A file is a collection of related records. For example, the students’ file in a school database contains the details of all the students in the school.

Database

This is the highest in data organisation hierarchy that holds all related files ‘or tables. For example, a school database may contain students and staff tables/files.

Creating a database using Microsoft Access

Microsoft Access (Ms Access) is a package in Microsoft Office suite used for creating and manipulating databases. Because there are different versions of Ms Access such as Ms Access 95/97/2000 and XP, a general approach for carrying out tasks has been adopted in this book. However most of the illustrations are based on Access 2000 in order to maintain consistency.

Starting Microsoft Access

From Windows desktop, click the start button.
Select. Microsoft Access from the programs menu
In the dialog box that appears when Microsoft Access starts, click Blank Access database as shown in Figure 3.5 then OK.

The Save As dialog box appears. See Figure 3.6. This lets you specify the name and location where your database will be stored. Click Create to save the database.

Microsoft Access database objects window is displayed from which I you can choose the type of object to create such as tables, forms, queries etc.

Microsoft Access screen layout

Like the other applications discussed earlier, Ms Access application Window has a title bar, menu bar, toolbars and status bar. However instead of having a work area like that ofMs Word or Excel, it provides the user with an object window from which you choose the type of an objectto work with such as tables, forms, reports e,tc. See Figure 3.7.

.Exiting from Microsoft Access

Because Microsoft Access consumes a large amount of computer memory it is advisable to exit from the application at end of each working session.

To exit:

From the File menu, click exit the close button on the title bar.

Guideline on designing a good databases

To design a good database which will require little time to maintain, consider the following:

Carefully study the requirements of the user in order to define all the data inputs, outputs and relationships required.
Design a draft database on the paper to determine the number of files or tables required.
Divide the information into separate fields, records and tables to allow flexibility in manipulating the database. This process of dividing information into independent tables to avoid repetition of data entries items is referred to as normalizing a database.
Define a field for each table that will be used to identify each record uniquely. This field is referred to as a primary key
Give the most important fields the first priority when constructing a table structure. Important fields are those that are used in sorting’ and querying the database. “
Design data entry forms needed for the database

Creating a table/file structure

To define a table structure:

From the Microsoft Access objects window, click the tables tab then new
From New table dialog box, select Design View Figure 3.8 appears. :
using the grid displayed, enter a unique name for each field in the table. A field name must start with a letter and can be up to a maximum of 64 characters including letters, numbers, spaces and punctuation.
Choose the correct data type before adding the next field. By default, Ms Access inserts Text as a data type. Figure 3.8 shows various data types used in Ms Access.
To save the table, click the Save button on the standard tool bar or save from the file menu.
Access will ask you whether you want to create a Primary Key, click Yes.

Description of field data types

The type of data to be used in a database must be clearly defined for the purpose of manipulation and storage. For example, if a field is to be used for calculation, it must be defined as a number. The data types allowed in Ms Access include:

Text

This type includes alphabetic letters, numbers, spaces and punctuation. Use this data type for fields that do not need to be used for calculations such as names, places, identification numbers etc. This type of field accommodates a maximum of 255 characters.

Number

These are fields made up of numeric numbers 0 to 9 that are to be manipulated mathematically.

Memo

This is a field made up of alphanumeric (both alphabetic and numeric) data. Instead of using Text use this data type if you need to enter several paragraphs of text because it accommodates a maximum of 32 000 characters.

Date/Time

Used to identify a field as either a date or time. This is because date/time values can be manipulated mathematically in a database. For example, you can calculate the age of a person from the date of birth to the current data.

Currency

Used to identify numeric values that have decimals or fractions. Use this data type especially when dealing with monetary values such as fees balance, amount sold etc.

AutoNumber

This is a numeric value used if you wish Ms Access to automatically increment the values in a field. For example when entering a list of forty students and you have a field labelled StudNumber, the numbers will increase by one every time you enter a new record.

Yes/No

This is a logical field where an entry is either a yes or a no, true or a

false. For example a field may require you to answer whether you are a male or a female.

OLE Object

OLE stands for Object linking and Embedding. This type of field is mostly used with graphical user interface applications for inserting graphical objects such as pictures, drawings charts etc. – – –

Field properties

As you create more and more complex tables, you will find a need to use the field properties to specify finer details related to fields and the table entries expected. The field properties depend on the type of-the field selected. For example when you click on a Text field then the General tab you will see properties associated to text data type as shown in Figure 3.9. The various properties are:

Field size

This allows the user set the number of characters in a field instead of the default 50 for text fields for numeric field’s integer and long integer, Byte, Single and Double.

Integer and longer integer: Accept numbers with no decimals.

Byte: Can only accept a number from 0-255.

Single and double: Accept numbers with decimals. Single accommodates up to 38 decimal places while double, accommodates up to 308.

Format

Determines how information appears on the screen and when printed. For example, you can format a number to scientific, currency, percentage or general format.

Decimal places

For number and currency fields you can specify the number of decimal places.

Input mask ,

Input mask automatically formats the field entry into a specified format. F or example, if you enter a number such as 02000 I 00409874 and the input mask is set as 000-(00000)-000000, it is automatically displayed as 020-(00100)-409874. This property is mostly used to format phone and address entries.

Caption

This is a more descriptive name for a field to be used in a table or a form display. For example the caption for StuName could be Student Name.

Default value ,

This is a value that will appear automatically in the datasheet or form if ‘ nothing is entered by the user to change it. For example = Date -( ) automatically displays the current date in a date field.

Validation Rule

Logical expression restricts the values to be entered in a field. ‘For example, if you want to restrict marks entered in a field to values between

, zero and a hundred, type >=0 And <= 100.

Validation Text

The message that appears once the validation rule is violated. For example, you may create a validation text for the above validation rule I to display “Enter a number between 0 and 100” whenever the user enters I a value outside this range.

Required

Determines if an entry must be made in the field before you proceed to the next field or record. For example, if a primary key is required, you must enter before you proceed.

Allow Zero Length

This allows the user to proceed without making any entry in the field set as Zero length.

Indexed

An Index, facilitates the organisation of records for easy search. A primary key is an example of an index set to No duplicates to control double entry of a record (redundancy).

Primary key and Indexes

An index is a database feature used to speed up search and sort operations in a table. A key field also referred to as a primary key is a special index that enforces uniqueness in a table so that one record is not entered twice.

Ms Access uses the primary key to search for data stored in a table as well as define relationships between tables. Once a field is set as primary key, its datasheet is automatically indexed or sorted using the primary key.

To set a primary key:

Open the table in design view.
Select the field you want to set as the primary key by clicking in the row header to the left of the Field Name.
Click Set Primary key button on the tools bar. A key should appear on the left of the field name as shown in Figure 3.10.

To see another field as an index other than the primary key: 1. Open the table in design view.

Ensure that non of the fields is selected as a primary key.
Click the Indexes button on the tool bar that is located next to the primary key. The index design grid is displayed on the screen as shown in Figure 3.11.
In the index name column, type in the name you want to give to the index.
In the Field Name column, click the cell to display a drop down list. From the drop down list, select the field to use as an index.

6 In the Sort Order column, select either ascending or descending.

In the lower portion, specify whether you want to make the field a primary key by selecting yes for primary and unique, and Ignore Nulls to ensure that data is entered into the field before proceeding.
Close the dialog box.

Entering data into a table

To enter/append data into a table:

Open the database in which the table is located
Click the Tables tab then double click the table you want to add records to.
Enter each record field by pressing the tab key to move to the next. Once you reach the end of the record and move the cursor to a new row the previous record is automatically saved.

Editing a database

Modifying the Datasheet view

To adjust the column size:

Point to the column border between the field’s header then drag to the require size.
Alternatively, click on the format menu then point to column and click on width
Type the desired width

To adjust row height

Point to the border between two rows in the row header and then drag.
Alternatively, use format menu, then Row height.

To reorder fields:

Select the column of the field you wish to move by pointing to the desired file name.
Drag the column right or left to the top of the field where you want your field to appear and then drop.

Modifying the table structure

Once you create a table, you may need to add more fields, remove some fields, reorder the fields or change fields data types and properties. Before you modify the table it is important to save a copy to avoid losing everything in case you make a mistake

To make a copy of your table:

From the file menu, click save as /export
From the dialog box that appears, choose whether to save to another (external) database or the current.
Type a new name for your table and click OK.

To modify the original table:

Open the table in design view by clicking the button that looks like a pencil and a set square placed on the edge of a ruler.
Select the field or fields to be modified and make the necessary changes.
Click the Save button to save the changes.

NB: If a table contains data and you make changes to the field data type, Ms Access may refuse to implement the changes. To avoid this problem, exit without saving and delete all the records from the table then return to the design view. You can then import a copy or copies of tables you backed up.

To import a table from another database:

From the File menu, point to Get External Data then click Import
From the dialog box that appears, select the database you wish to

import data from then click the Import button. Objects dialog box is displayed as shown in Figure 3.12.

From the objects dialog box displayed, click the Tables tab
Select the table(s) you wish to import then click OK.

Form design

Tables display many records at once from the database and in some cases you may not be able to see some fields properly. A form is an interface that enables the user to view and make data entries into an underlying table more easily. Figure 3.13 shows a sample form used to enter records into a books table.

In Microsoft Access, a form is designed using graphical objects called controls. A control is an object such as a text box, check box, command button or shapes that you place on a form design grid to display data or perform actions. There are two types of controls you can place on the grid: bound and unbound controls. A bound control is one whose source of data is a field in a table or query while unbound control is a control that is not connected to any data source.

You design or modify a form layout by dragging these controls to the required position. Figure 3.14 shows a form layout grid for a table called exam entry.

Creating a form layout using form wizard

To create a form layout, you can either use the form wizard or start from scratch. Using the form wizard you can create either a columnar, a tabular a datasheet or a justified form layout.

Columnar form: The fields for each record are displayed down a column i.e. each value displays on a separate line with field labels to the left. Tabular: Records are displayed from left to right across the page and labels appear at the top of each column and each row represents a new record.

Datasheet: The form resembles a table datasheet view.

Justified: One record occupies the whole form.

To create a form using the form wizard:

Open the database for which the form is to be created e.g.”EMPLOYEES”
Click the Form tab then, New. From the New form dialog box that appears, click Form Wizard.
Select the table you want to create a form for then New, A dialog box appears.
Click the name of the table or query that includes the data you want to add into the form, and then click OK.
From the fields list window, select the fields to add into the form by clicking the> button or click>> to add all fields then
From the layout dialog box, select the layout you wish to use e.g. Standard then. click Next.
In the Form title dialog box, type the name of the form then click Finish. Ms Access will automatically display the form on the screen.

Creating a form using autoform wizard

You can easily create a form using the Autoform wizard. This wizard creates a form for you automatically by asking you very minimal questions. The form includes all the fields from the selected table.

To construct an autoform tabular.

Make sure your database is open
Click the Form tab, then New.
In the new form dialog box, select an auto form layout e.g. columnar
In the “Choose the table or query where the object data comes” select the table you wish to create a form for then click OK. The form with all fields will be displayed.
Click the Save button to save the form.

Creating a form from scratch

Open your database
In the database window, click the Form tab then New
From the New form dialog box, select Design view
In the “Choose the table or query where the-object data comes” select the table you wish to create a form for then click The form with all fields will be displayed.

To add controls onto the grid:

Click the View menu, then. Field list command . The table you selected fields list is displayed.
Drag and drop each field and arrange them on the grid.
Save the form by clicking on the save button.

Data manipulating in a form

Adding and displaying records

The form provides the user with navigation buttons located at the bottom that can be used to navigate the form

The functions of the buttons can be summarized from left to right as follows

Displays the first record in the table
Displays the previous record.
Displays the next record
Displays the last record.
Add a new record.

Formatting fields/controls in a form

To format fields in a form;

Open the form in design view
To resize, click the controls then position the pointer on the outline of the control then drag to the required size.
To move, click the control and position the pointer onto the place holder or inside the control then drag to the required location.

Searching for specific records in a database

One major reason for use of a computerised database is the ability to search and retrieve specific information more efficiently. Rather than searching through endless filing cabinets, you simply enter an instruction and let the database do the rest. To search for data in a database, Ms Access provides the user with two search tools:

Find command 2. Queries’

Using the find command

With a large database, the Find command saves your time when you need to move a record pointer to a particular record.

To search for a record:

From Edit menu, click Find. The find dialog box appears in which you specify the field you want to search for in the” Find What” box as shown in Figure 3.16.
Type the name of field you wish to search for in the Find What text box. .
In the Search box (Figure 3.16), specify whether to:

( a) Search All

(b) Search Down to up or

In the match box, you can select one of the match types:

(a) Any part of field – As long as a string of characters to be searched are present in a word, then all the words having the string will

be searched e.g. “Berg” finds Berger, inselberg etc.

(b) Whole Field – Searches for the whole field for example, “Berg”

will not return Berger, inselberg but specifically berg if it is in the database.

In searching, you can also check or uncheck;

(a) Match case – Finds only text that has the same pattern of upper and lower case as the one specified in the Find What box.

(b) Search Field As Formatted – Select (check) to find data based on its display format e.g. ‘a date stored asa number 1/5/98 but

displayed as 05-Jan-98

After you set the search conditions click the Find First button.
If you want to search for the second record or other records with the same field, click Find Next button.

You can use a wildcard e.g. asterisks (*) if you are not sure of the correct search word that will find all records that match the specified search string. For example, if you wish to search for all names that start with letter “J” in a school database, type J *. All names that start with J e.g. John, Jane Joy, Joyce and James will be displayed.

Using Queries

Queries are the fastest way to search for information in a database. A query is a database feature that enables the user to display specific records as well as perform calculations on fields from one or multiple tables. You can analyse a table or tables by using either a select query or an action query. However, only the select queries will be discussed in detail in this book

Select query

This is the most common type query used for searching and analysing data in one or more tables. Select query lets the user specify the search criteria and the records that meet those criteria are displayed in a dynaset

Action query

These are queries that are used to make changes to many records once. They are mostly used to delete, update, add a group of records from one table to another or create a new table from another table.

The four types of a action queries found in Microsoft Access are:

Update – Updates data in a table.
Append query – adds data in a table from one or more tables.
Make table Query – Creates a new table from a dynaset.
Delete Query – Deletes specified records from one or more tables.

Creating a select query

Ensure that the database you want to create a query for is open.
Click the Query tab, then New.
From the New query dialog box, choose either to create a query from in Design view or using a Wizard.
To design from scratch, click Design View. The Show Table dialog box appears from which you can add a table or tables you wish to create a query for as shown in Figure 3.17.
Click the table from the table/ query list and then click Add.’
Click Close to close the show table dialog box.
The query design grid opens. In Microsoft Access it is called Query By-Example. This lets the user to design a query. Figure 3.18 is QBE grid for a table called Exam.

Parts of the query grid

Field row- Fields from a table or tables to be used are arranged in this row. Each field should occupy its column.

Sort row – By clicking the down arrow in the sort cell, you can specify the sort order i.e. ascending, descending or no sort.

Show row – By clicking the Show box, you specify whether to display the field in the query results: When the box is not checked, the field will not be displayed.

Criteria row – This is where you type conditional statement that will be used by the query to display specific records.

Or row – Used to specify an alternative condition e.g. if you want to display records with a field called City with items Nairobi or Embu, type Nairobi in criteria cell and Embu in the Or cell.

To add fields into the query grid:

Open the query in design view
From the field list of the underlying table, drag each field and place it in the field row

Specifying the search criteria

In order to search for a particular set of records, you have to enter a conditional statement or statements in the criteria row. For example if you have a table called employees with one of the fields as salary, you can display all the employees earning more than Shs. 5,000, by typing >5000 in the criteria row, salary column.

To define criteria, use either relational or logical operators. Relational operators include less than «), greater than (», greater than or equal to (>=), less than or equal to «=), not equal to «» and equal to (=). Logical operators include AND, OR and NOT.

Use AND to display values in a specific range. For example, to display records from the employees table with salaries above 4000 but less than 6000, type, >4000 AND < 6000 on the criteria row in the salary column. All the employees who meet this condition will be displayed.

Use OR if you wish to get either one of two values. For example if you wish to get those employees either in Nairobi OR Embu.

If you want to display data in a particular range use the word Between. For example, instead of typing , >4000 AND < 6000, type Between 4000 And 6000.

If you want to list all records except those that you do not want to see use NOT. For example if you type NOT 6000 in the salary column of the employees table, all employees records will be displayed except. those with their salary as 6000.

To display records you are not sure of the field name but at least you can remember a few characters, use LIKE and the wildcards. Wildcards are

special symbols mostly an asterisk and a question mark used in place of other characters. For example, to display all names starting with “Sm” followed by any other character, type Like Sm? Like */*/1993 lists records created in 1993 regardless of the day or month.

Saving and running the query

Click the Save button on the standard tool bar or save command from the file menu.
In the name box that appears, type in the name of the query then click OK.
To run the query in design view, click the Run button on the toolbar as shown in Figure 3.19 or Run command from the Query menu.
You can view the results of your query any other time by selecting the query, then clicking the Open button from the database window.

Sorting the dynaset To sort a dynaset:

In the sort row, click the down arrow that appears to specify the sort order i.e. ascending or descending of the desired field.
Display the dynaset.

Modifying and updating a query

To delete fields from the query grid:

Open the desired Query in design view.
Select the field column you wish to delete
Choose Delete from the Edit menu.
Click the Save button to save the changes

To adjust the column size in a query

Open the desired query in design view.
Position the mouse pointer at the boundary that separates columns then drag it to the required size. Alternatively, double click the boundary to auto fit cell content.
Click the Save button to save the changes

To modify a criteria statement ‘select query,

Open the desired query in design view.
Modify the criteria statements as desired, 3. Click the Save button to save changes.
To test whether the changes have been effected, click the Run button to display the results of the query.

Performing calculations in a query

Unlike tables, queries let the user perform mathematical calculations on numeric data. You can perform calculations in a query by using the Total functions or by creating basic formulas

Creating basic formulae

To create a formula that calculates the total marks in an underlying table e.g. Exams table:

Open your query in design view
In an empty cell, preferably the immediate last field cell, type an expression that includes a field name of your choice such as:

Total: [Math’s) + (Physics) + (Chemistry) as shown in Figure 3.20

Math’s	Physics	Chemistry	Total: (Math’s)+(physics)+(Chemistry)
Exam	Exam	Exam
			.
√	√	√	√

Fig. 3.20: Creating an arithmetic expression

You can then set the criteria, and other query options.
Save the query and run it. The results of the calculations will be displayed in the dynaset as shown in Figure 3.21. However, this field is not added to the underlying table(s) because query results must always be based on the most current data in the database.

Using Total functions .

With a query, you can analyze all records fields using the inbuilt functions such as Sum, Average, Minimum and Maximum etc. To use the total functions:

Open your query in design view.
Click the Totals button on the query toolbar.
Select the field you want to analyze.
For each field to be analyzed, click its cell in the Total row, and then select any of the functions as shown in Figure 3.22.

Sum: Adds all the numerical data items.

Avg; Calculates the mean of all numeric data items in the field column.

Min: Returns the minimum value from the field column.

Max: Returns the maximum value from the field column.

Count: Returns the number of items field column.

Set criteria and other options then click run to preview the results
Save the query.

Printing a query:

Open the database window of the database containing the query you want to print
Click the query tab then the query you want to print.
From the file menu, click print Set the printing options then click the OK. Button.

Creating a select query from multiple tables

When you use fields from more than one table in a query, there should be a common link or relationship between the tables. There are three type of relationships

One – to – One
One -to – Many
Many -to – Many

In a one -to – one relationship, for a particular field in one table (the main table), there is only one matching record in the related table and vice versa. In a one -to – many relationships, for a particular field in one table there are several matching records in another table. This is the most common type of relationship. For example, a person may make one order, or several orders. For this instance, there is only one record with that person’s details say in customers’ table, yet there are several records related to the same person in the Orders table.

In a many -to – many relationship, for particular records in one table there are several matching records in the other table and vice versa. This is not very common.

Defining relationship between tables

Make sure your database is open.
From Tools menu, choose Relationships. The relationship dialog box appears.
Select the tables to add then click the Add button. .
To create relationship, click on the common field and drag it to the second table. The fields used to create the relationship must be of the same type and properties.
To Enforce Referential Integrity, right click the line joining the two tables then click Edit. An Edit relationship dialog box such the one in Figure 3.23 will be displayed.
Make sure Enforce Referential Integrity is checked to ensure that all records entered in the related table exists in the primary table.

Click OK to close the Edit relationship dialog box.

To create a query based on related tables

Start the database window and click the Queries tab,
Select design view and click OK.
From the show table dialog box, click the tables you want to base your query on and then click Add.
Relationship between various tables will be displayed as shown in Figure 3.24. Add the fields from both tables into the QBE grid.
Save and Run the query.

Creating reports

Reports are used to summarize and present information from a database. A good database software should enable the user to generate database reports and print them for presentation and distribution. This process is referred to as formal presentations. As with forms, a report layout is also designed by placing controls on to the report layout grid as shown in Figure 3.25.

Parts of a report layout in design view

Report Header-This contains unbound controls that displays title of the report.

Page Header – Contains heading or labels data items to be displayed in every column.

Detail – Holds bound controls that display data items for the table or query it was created from.

Page footer holds a control that is to be displayed on every page such as the page number and date. For example =Now() displays the current date and time as set in the system clock.

Report footer – Used to display summary from a report such as the grand total for numerical data in a particular field column.

Creating a report using report wizard

Just like the form wizard, report wizard takes the user through a number of steps by answering a few questions and Ms Access automatically does the rest.

To create a report layout:

Ensure that the database is open.
Click the Report tab, then New
From the/New Report dialog box, click Report Wizard then
Select a table or a query then the fields to be added to the report then click next.
The wizard asks you whether you wish to add any group. Grouping is used to categorise records using a particular field for better presentation or if you need to perform calculations on a group of common items. For example, to categorise books in a library database according to ISBNNumber, double click the field then click Next. (Figure 3.26).
In .the dialog box that appears, select the Sort option if you want to sort the records. You can also click the Summary options button in case you want Ms Access to perform calculations on numerical fields. In summary options dialog box, select the Summary options you want performed e.g. Sum, Average etc. as shown in Figure 3.27. Click OK to close the summary options dialog box then Next.
From the layout dialog box, select the type of layout such as stepped, block etc. Select page orientation i.e. either portrait or landscape then click Next.
In style dialog box, specify the report style by selecting either bold, casual etc.
Finally enter the name of your report then click finish. The report will be displayed on the screen in print preview mode.

Creating a report in design view

Just like with forms, you can create a report in design view by placing controls on the report design grid.

To design a report in design view:

.’

In the database window, click the Reports tab then New.
In the New Report dialog box, click Design view.
Click the name of the table or query you want to generate a report from.
Click the OK button. You will get a report design grid where you can place data controls.
From the view menu, click Field List.
To design the layout, drag each field from the field list to the layout grid and drop it where you want the data column to appear.
Once you finish placing controls, click the Save button.
In the save as dialog box, enter the name of the report and click OK.
To view the report, click the Print Preview button. Alternatively, click Print Preview from the file menu.

Modifying a report layout

To modify headers and footers:

Open the report in design view.
Click the report header or footer you want to modify.
Make the necessary changes and then click the Save button.
Click the Print Preview button to view the changes.

To add more controls onto the report layout:

Open a report in design view.
Display the field list by clicking the Field list button or using the View.
Select one or more fields in the field list and drag view to the Report design grid.

To resize or move a control:

Click at once to select it. Position the mouse pointer to on the place holder, until the mouse pointer changes to a double-sided arrow. Drag the pointer to resize the control
To move a control, select it and place the mouse pointer on the place holder until it changes to a hand.

Creating labels

A label is a sticker or piece of paper put on an item for the purpose of identification. Examples of stickers are mailing labels, label on the floppy disk where you write your name etc. Using the report label wizard, Microsoft Access lets you easily create labels of different sizes.

To create a label using the report wizard,

Open the your database
From the database window, click the Report tab then New
From the New Report dialog box, select Label Wizard the table or query from which the labels are to be generated from.
Label wizard starts running as shown in Figure 3.28.
From a series of dialog boxes displayed, specify the label size, font, and fields to be included in the label, whether to sort the labels, the name of the label then click Finish.

Modifying labels

Just as you can modify a report or a form, you can also modify a label by manipulating the layout controls.

To modify a label,

From your database window, click the Report tab then the Design View button.
The label design grid is displayed. Edit the layout as desired, save and close the design grid.
To view the modified label, click the Preview button from the database window.

Printing the report and labels

Before you print a report or a label, you should first set the page options i.e. the margins, paper size and orientation.

Open the database that contains the report you want to print.
Click the Report tab, select the report you want to print then click the Preview button.
From the File menu, click Print.
Set the printer options i.e. the printer type, print range and number of copies.
Click OK to print.

DESKTOP PUBLISHING (DTP)

Chapter outline

4.1 Introduction.

4.2 Definition of desktop publishing.

4.3 Purpose of desktop publishing.

4.4 Types of desktop publishing software.

4.5 Designing a publication.

4.6 Manipulating text using the toolbox

4.7 Editing a publication.

4.8 Formatting a publication.

4.9 Printing a publication.

Introduction

Have you ever asked yourself how newspaper and book publishing companies manage to produce publications that are attractive with creative layouts and graphics in large volumes? They do this through a special process called publishing. Publishing is the process of producing publications like newspapers, cards, pamphlets, pictures, calendars etc. that have special text and graphical layouts and designs. The traditional method of publishing involved drawing and writing manually on wooden or metallic boards. The artwork would then be painted with ink and pressed on papers to produce a printout. This was a very tedious work.

Today the art of publishing has changed because of the advent of personal computers and smaller printers that are able to print high quality text and graphics even in an office or at home.

Definition of desktop publishing (DTP)

Desktop publishing refers to the process of producing publications like cards, newspapers etc. by designing their text and graphics layout and inserting, editing, formatting and printing of text and graphical objects using a special desktop publishing software installed on computers. The term desktop means that all the publishing processes can now be done on a desk in the office or at home using a personal computer! The difference between a desktop publisher and a word processor is that a desktop publisher software gives the user more tools and control of the page layout, text manipulation and graphic design than a word processor.

However it is important to note that some word processors today have also been incorporated with text and graphic formatting and editing tools. Hence a thin line exists between them and the desktop publishers. For example you can design a full publication in Microsoft Word by using the available drawing and picture tools, create columns etc.

Examples of desktop publishers include Adobe PageMaker, CorelDraw, Microsoft Publisher and Ventura. This book will use Adobe PageMaker to demonstrate the concepts of desktop publishing.

Purpose of desktop publishing software

Desktop Publishing programs are very popular in publishing because they give the person designing publications (typesetter) a lot of control on:

Graphic design: Using desktop publishing software, a typesetter can create and edit very complex text and graphical objects like pictures to the finest details. For example, the software provides the user with rulers and ruler guides that can be used to place an object in exactly the correct position.

Page layout design: With a desktop publisher, the user can be able to design a page layout by setting consistent picture and object locations, dividing a page in a number of columns and creating layers. A layer can be viewed as the arrangement of objects on top of each other with the one on top being on the first layer e.g. text can be on one layer while graphical objects on another. Therefore the text layer can be manipulated separate from the graphical object layer like for example text moves separate from the objects. Another good example is you can make the graphical object layer transparent in order to make the text in a layer behind the object visible.

Printing: Because the main purpose of any desktop publisher is to produce publication s, this cannot be accomplished without printing. Desktop publishing software therefore helps the user prepare what is referred to as an artwork in commercial circles for printing.

Types of desktop publishing software

There are two main types of desktop publishing software:

Graphical based: They are specifically developed to edit and format graphic objects like pictures. Examples are Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw, harvard graphic etc. This desktop publishers have superior image handling capabilities like setting resolution, brightness, contrast, cropping and filling images of all types with colour.

Layout based: These types of desktop publishers are specifically developed to create different page layout designs for text and pictures. Have you ever wondered how the complicated front page of a newspaper is developed? It is difficult to achieve such without a good layout based DTP. Good examples of layout based desktop publishers are Adobe PageMaker and Microsoft Publisher.

Designing a publication

Publications vary in design and formatting. For example, a card has a particular design layout that is different from a newspaper. Therefore, publication designs determine how they are classified.

Types of publications

It is possible to produce different types of publications using a desktop publishing software. There are several types of publications that can be published namely:

Cards: These may be for weddings and other special occasions like graduations and for congratulations.

Certificates: To show completion of courses and special events. These type of publications are very sensitive because they must be designed to discourage any type of duplication or counterfeits.

Newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and newsletters: Have news targeting a group of people. They may have many text and graphical layouts and designs.

Books: Are bulky publications with many pages bound together in the same publication.

Calendars: Apart from showing dates, they are used by companies to advertise their products hence most of them have heavy catchy graphics.

Running Adobe PageMaker

Currently PageMaker versions 6.5 and 7.0 are the most common desktop publishing software developed by Adobe PageMaker. Other Adobe products includes Adobe Photoshop mainly used for editing and formatting photographs, Adobe illustrator used for creating complex freehand artwork such as drawings and logos etc.

Starting Adobe PageMaker

Click the Start button and then point to Programs
From the programs sidekick menu, point to Adobe group then select PageMaker. Figure 4.1 shows how to start PageMaker in a typical Windows environment.
The PageMaker program starts and provides the Document Setup dialog box. If the Document setup dialog box is not displayed, then click File menu and select the New command.
In the Document Setup dialog box similar to the one in Figure 4.5 specify the publication setup options.
Click OK to apply the selected options. A publication window similar to the one in Figure 4.2 is now displayed.

PageMaker screen layout .

The PageMaker application window looks like most application windows for programs you have used before. It also has a title bar, menu bar and scroll bars. However, you will note that unlike most of the Microsoft applications you have used before, Adobe PageMaker does not have a status bar on its application window. The most notable difference between a desktop publishing software such as PageMaker and a word-processing software such as Microsoft Word is that a desktop publishing software has its printable work area centered on a pasteboard as shown in Figure 4.2.

The PageMaker publication window is made up of the following layout components:

The pasteboard. 3. The toolbox. 5. Rulers

The printable area. 4. Master pages.
Control pallete.

The pasteboard

A pasteboard is a large blank area where you place text and graphical objects before arranging them neatly on the printable work area enclosed with margins.

The printable area

It is the area that looks like a page surrounded by margins on the pasteboard. Any object or text that is placed on the printable area will be printed by the printer.

The Toolbox.

This is a set of buttons that contains various tools you can use to create and manipulate your publication it has the following tools

Line tool

Rectangle tool

Ellipse tool

Polygon tool

Hand tool

Pointer tool

Rotate tool

Text tool

Cropping tool

Constrained tool

Rectangle frame tool

Ellipse frame tool

Polygon frame tool

Zoom tool

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Free English Notes Form 1-4

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2012 KCSE CRE PAPER 1 MARKING SCHEME

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

PAPER 1

MARKING SCHEMEME-2012

(a) The literary forms used in the writing of the Bible

(i) Poetry

(ii) Wise sayings

(iii) Prose/narratives

(iv) Letters/Epistles

(v) Legal/Law expressions

(vi) Songs

(vii) Prophetic/ speeches

(viii) Gospels

(ix) Philosophical essays

(x) Prayers eg Nehemiah

xi) Sermons (6×1=6 marks)

(b) Reasons why the Bible had to be compiled into its present form by early Christians.

(i) The eye witnesses of Jesus Christ were being killed.

ii) In order to prevent information from getting lost/distorted

iii) Due to the expansion of the church/increased number of believers/who needed material to refer to.

iiv) To counteract false teachings/ teachers who were confusing the believers.

(v) To ensure that same doctrines/beliefs, were being taught to all Christians

vi) To reach out to the Jews in Diaspora/ gentiles

vii) To preserve an orderly account of biblical themes/ distortion

(4×2= 8 marks).

(c) Ways in which Christians use the Bible in Kenya today.

(i) Christians read the Bible for spiritual growth/ meditation/ Bible study

(ii) They use it for instructing converts.

(iii) It is used as a text book when teaching Christian Religious Education in schools/colleges.

(iv) It is used as resource material in search of general knowledge.

(v) It is used to compose Christian hymns/ songs/ dramas/ plays/ films.

(vi) It is used in taking oaths/vows/swearing.

(vii) It is used as a prayer book

(viii) It is used for preaching evangelism

(ix) It is used to explain Christian ethics/ rituals/ doctrines.

x) It is used to produce Christian literatures of Christian magazines

(6 x 1 = 6 marks)

a) The covenant ceremony between God and Abraham.

(i) Abraham was in doubt for the promise of a son.

(ii) God assured him that his own son would inherit him and not Eliezer of Damascus.

(iii) God showed Abraham the many stars and confirmed that his decedents would be as the stars.

(iv) God asked Abraham to bring him a heifer, a goat, a ram, each three years old, a dove and a young pigeon.

(v) Abraham cut the animals into and arranged the halves in two rows.

(vi) The birds were not cut.

(vii) He drove away the birds of prey that targeted the carcasses.

(viii) At sunset Abraham fell into a deep sleep.

(ix) God spoke to him giving the promise that his descendants would be slaves for four

hundred years but He would set to liberate them.

(x) Abraham was promised a long peaceful life. Good old age.

(xi) Abraham saw God pass through the carcasses in form of a smoking fire pot and a flarming torch.

xii) Reaffirmed to give them land.

(7x1=7marks)

b) Differences between Jewish and the traditional African circumcision practices.

(i) In the Jewish community, it is for boys only while in some traditional African

communities it is for both boys and girls.

(ii) In the Jewish community, it is done on eighth day while in traditional African communities it is done during adolescent stage.

(iii) Its purpose in the Jewish community is to identify with God’s people while in traditional African communities it is to promote one to adult life.

(iv) Among the Jews, the practice was commanded by God while in traditional African communities it was done in obedience to the ancestors.

(v) The rite is not seasonal among the Jews as is the case in traditional African communities.

(v) In traditional African communities it is a gate way to more responsibilities while among the Jews one is too young for any responsibility.

(4×2= 8 marks)

c) Reasons why church leaders in Kenya take vows before starting their mission.

(i) To receive God’s blessing/guidance.

(ii) To get acknowledgement from the people being served.

(iii) It reminds the leader to stick to the church regulations/mission.

(iv) To get the authority of God to lead.

(v) It gives the leader courage to do his/her work.

(vi) It shows one’s willingness/ commitment to serve.

(vii) To emulate the Biblical way of commissioning servants of God.

(5×1=5marks)

(a) Ways used by King David to promote the workup of God in Israel.

(i) He brought the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem.

(ii) He made Jerusalem a holy city where Israelites from all over the land came for important religious occasion.

(iii) He composed the Psalms which were used in worship by the Israelites.

(iv) He showed respect to the prophets of Yahweh/listened to their messages.

(v) He wanted to build a temple for God/made preparations for its construction.

(vi) When he made mistakes, he asked for Yahweh’s forgiveness/repented.

(vii) He sought for God’s guidance in whatever he wanted to do

viii) He entered into a covenant with God.

ix) He build alters / offered sacrifices

(6×1=6marks)

(b) Life skills used by Prophet Elijah to fight against false religion.

(i) Asseniyeness – he told Ahab that he was the cause of trouble in Israel.

(ii) Creative thinking – He requested for a contest between the prophets of Baal and himself.

(iii) Decision making -He killed the prophets/prophetess of baal.

(iv) Self esteem – He was convinced that God was on his side.

(v) Negotiation – Elijah asked the Israelites to choose between God and Baal.

(vi) Conflict resolution – Through the contest, he convinced the Israelites that Yahweh was the true God.

(vii) Effective communication – He explained to the people how the contest was to be carried out.

(viii) Self awareness – He knew that he was the prophet of the true God/ he had confidence in himself.

(4×2 = 8marks)

(c) Problems faced by church leaders in carrying out their work.

(i) They receive threats from the opponents.

(ii) They lack material/ financial assistance.

(iii) There is lack of cooperation from the church members.

(iv) There is rivalry among the leaders/themselves.

(v) They may not be good role models/hypocrisy.

(vi) They may suffer from long separation from their families.

(vii) There is misinterpretation of the Biblical theology from different sources/ Science & technology.

(viii) Greed for things/property.

(ix) They may be posted to a hostile working environment.

(x) There is political interference in their work.

(xi) They may lack adequate skills for carrying out their work.

xii) Permissiveness/ corruption/ mass media

xiii) Rejection

(6×1 = 6 marks)

a) Reasons why Amos was against the worship of God in Israel

(i) The Israelites had neglected God/worshipped idols.

ii) They practised insincere worship/had no inner faith.

iii) The worshippers were not righteous/they mistreated fellow Israelites which was against God’s teaching.

iv) They worshipped God as well as Baal/practiced syncretism.
v) They were impatient during the worship ceremony/wanted to go back to their businesses.
vi) They gave sacrifices/ offerings as a show off/ pride/ not for love of God

vii) They had many ceremonial festivals/ feasts

(viii) They showed disrespect to the name of God through sexual immorality.

(ix) They defiled the place of worship. eg drinking & wine

x) Building high places for the gods & worshipped other gods.

(4×2=8 marks)

b) Ways in which God would punish Israel for her evils according to Prophet Amos.
i) Israel would be surrounded by an enemy nation.
ii) The Israelites would be taken to exile

iii) Amaziah, the Priest/King would die by the sword.

iv) The Holy place of worship would be destroyed.

v)The land would be occupied by a foreign nation/ cities would be destroyed.

vi)There would be hunger/thirst for the word of God.

(vii) God would cover the land with total darkness/ eclipse.

(viii) There would be earthquakes.

(c) How the church punishes errant members.

(i) The church suspends them

(ii) It denies them participation in the church activities/rituals.

(iii) They may be denied leadership positions/demoted. withdrawal of privilages

(iv) They may be publicly condemned/asked to repent/apologise.

(v) They may be warned.

(vi) Some may be transferred to difficult areas.

(vii) They may be sacked from the job

(viii) They may be excommunicated.

ix) Payment of fines

(6×1 = 6 marks)

a) Qualities of God from the call of prophet Jeremiah.

(i) God is the creator

(ii) God knows every person by name/all knowing.

(iii) God is a planner/chooses/appoints.

(iv) God is holy.

(v) God hates/punishes evil.

(vi) God is just/judges

(vii) He is caring/concerned.

(viii) God is merciful/forgiving.

(ix) God is universal.

(x) God is a protector/deliverer

(xi) He is powerful/almighty/omnipotent.

(xii) He is beyond human understanding/transcedent.

(xiii) He is everywhere/omnipresent.

(8×1=8 marks)

(b) The characteristics of the new covenant foreseen by prophet Jeremiah.

(i) The laws would be written in the hearts of men and women.

(ii) Every individuaLwould know God individually.

(iii) It would be an everlasting covenant/ would not be broken again.

(iv) There would be suffering for ones sins.

(v) God would forgive their sins/remember them no more.

(vi) It would be established after God punishes Israel/wiih the remnant.

Vii) It would establish a new Israel/ a new people of God.

(viii) It would be initiated by God.

(6×1 = 6 marks)

(c) Ways in which Christians can assist victims of disasters.

(i) By donating food clothing for them.

(ii) By providing shelter for them.

(iii) By resettling them in safe areas.

(iv) Offering guidance and counselling.

(v) Through healthcare.

(vi) By re-uniting them with their families.

(vii) By providing financial assistance

(viii) By taking preventive measures against future disaster. (6×1 = 6 marks)

(ix) Through visiting them.

x) Praying for/ with them.
xi) Preaching to them

(6×1 = 6 marks)

a) Ways in which people in traditional African communities communicate with God.

(i) They make sacrifices to God.

ii) They sing/dance for God.

iii) They say prayers to God.

iv) Through charting/recitation/ involving God’s name
v) They give offerings/food stuffs
vi) Through burning incense

(5 x 5 = 5 marks)

(b) Reasons for singing and dancing during initiation ceremonies in Traditional African communities.

i) The songs inform the participants of the history of the community.
ii) They provide an opportunity for the members to socialise/ unity

iii) It diverts the initiates minds from the impending pain.

iv) The songs teach participants important moral values.
vi) Through singing and dancing the members exercise their bodies

vii) The songs encourage the initiates to face the challenge/ rebuke cowardice.

(viii) It exposes those with leadership qualities/ skills/talents.

(ix)They are used to mark the various stages of the initiation ceremonies/ happiness/ rejoice

(x) It is a forum of prayer for the initiative/ drive away evil spirits/ blessing for the initiates

xi) Singing and dancing is a form of entertainment/ enjoyment/happiness

(8×1=8 marks)

(c) Reasons why witchcraft is feared in traditional African community.

i) Witchcraft leads to death/destruction.
ii) It is the work of the evil spirits.

iii) It leads to poverty/ loss of property

iv) It involves cheating/telling lies
v) In some cases people are forced to leave their homes/ migrate to other places.
vi) It can lead to break up of families/ conflicts/ quarrel/division.

vii) A person can be banished/made an outcast./ excommunication

viii) Witchcraft causes suspension/hatred/mistrust amongst the people.

ix) It leads to underdevelopment.
x) It can cause physical/psychological. Injury.
xi) It can cause embarrassment to an individual/family

(7×1=7 marks)

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Free Teachers’ Resources; Schemes, notes, sample exams, revision materials

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Get unlimited, free, resources by clicking on the links below; each link (per subject) contains unique content . The resources have been collated to act as a guide for teachers’ preparations. This is a one stop location for schemes, notes, revision materials, exams and many more resources, free. Credit is given to the generators of these resources. The resources will be updated from time to time, on this link. Visit the link regularly for updates on the resources’ content.

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English Grade 6 CBC Free Schemes of Work

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NEW PRIMARY ENGLISH ACTIVITIES. GRADE 6 SCHEMES OF WORK

School: Teacher’s Name: Term Year


Wk	Ls n	Strand/Them e	Sub strand	Specific learning outcomes	Key inquiry Questions	Learning experiences	Learning Resources	Assessment methods	Ref l
1	1	PROPER USE OF LEISURE TIME	Listening and speaking: pronunciation and vocabulary- interactive listening	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify words with the sound /h/ in an oral text. b) listen to a text and tell words or phrases with sound /h/. c) Advocate importance of polite interruption and turn taking in oral communication.	Why should we take turns in a conversation? How can we interrupts a speaker politely? What are some of the moods or feelings we can show during a conversation?	Learner is guided to: • Pick out the sound /h/ as in holiday from an audio text. • Listen to a text and say words and phrases with the sound /h/.	Audio texts NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 108-110 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 93-95	Oral discussions Peers assessment
	2			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify words with the sound /h/ in an oral text. b) Take turns during a conversation. c) Advocate importance of polite interruption and turn taking in oral communication.	Why should we take turns in a conversation? How can we interrupts a speaker politely?	Learner is guided to: • Take turns during (short interviews, debates and discussions on grade appropriate topics)	Audio texts NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 108-110 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 93-95	Oral discussions Peers assessment
					What are some of the moods or feelings we can show

					during a conversation?
	3			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Interrupt a speaker appropriately during a conversation. b) Express appropriate moods during a conversation. c) Advocate importance of polite interruption and turn taking in oral communication.	Why should we take turns in a conversation? How can we interrupts a speaker politely? What are some of the moods or feelings we can show during a conversation?	Learner is guided to: • Interrupt appropriately during a class discussion, interview or debate. • Perform a choral verse (about six stanzas) or conversational poem in a reader’s theatre, and display various moods. • Practice using expressions such as fixed phrase: kill time; simile: sleep like a log; metaphor: my mother is hawk eyed. she sees everything; proverbs: there is no time like the present, idioms: day dream, phrasal verbs: good at,	Audio texts NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 108-110 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 93-95	Oral discussions Peers assessment
	4	Reading	Intensive reading	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Make connections between events in a text and real life experiences. b) Answer direct and inferential questions correctly for comprehension. c) Acknowledge the role of reading comprehension in lifelong learning.	How do you tell the meaning of new words from a text? Why do you think events in a story have a relationship with real life experiences?	Learners is guided to: • Preview a text (of about 500 words) for general understanding. • Make predictions about events. • Infer the meaning of new words using prior knowledge and clues. • Answer questions in pairs. • Retell events in a text in small groups. • Create a crossword puzzle using the learnt vocabulary.	Sample of a crossword puzzle NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 111-113 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 95-99	Written exercises, portfolio
2	1			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Predict events in a text accurately. b) Use contextual clues to infer the meaning of	How do you tell the meaning of new words from a text?	Learners is guided to: • Preview a text (of about 500 words) for general understanding. • Make predictions about events.	Sample of a crossword puzzle NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 111-113	Written exercises, portfolio

unfamiliar words and expressions such as proverbs, similes among others.

c) Summarize information in a text by restating it in own words.

d) Acknowledge the role of reading comprehension in lifelong learning.

Why do you think events in a story have a relationship with real life experiences?

• Infer the meaning of new words using prior knowledge and clues.

• Answer questions in pairs.

• Retell events in a text in small groups.

• Create a crossword puzzle using the learnt vocabulary.

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 95-99

Grammar

in use

Conjunctions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify conjunctions in a text.

b) Use conjunctions in varied contexts correctly.

c) Judge the appropriateness of conjunctions used in sentences.

Why should we write sentences correctly?

How do we join two or more sentences?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify the conjunctions since, so, nor, far, yet, for, unless, although, though, in a text in pairs.

• Construct sentences using conjunctions in small groups.

• Fill in blanks in sentences using conjunctions individually or in pairs.

• Collaborate with peers to construct sentences using conjunctions.

• Create a crossword puzzle using conjunctions and share it with others through

posters, charts or social media

Readers, newspapers, magazines

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 114-116

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 99-100

Gap filling,

class competitio n, sentence constructio n, learner portfolio

By the end of the lesson, the

learner should be able to:

a) Identify conjunctions in a text.

b) Use conjunctions in varied contexts correctly.

c) Judge the appropriateness of conjunctions used in sentences.

Why should

we write sentences correctly?

How do we join two or more sentences?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify the conjunctions since, so, nor, far, yet, for, unless, although, though, in a text in pairs.

• Construct sentences using conjunctions in small groups.

• Fill in blanks in sentences using conjunctions individually or in pairs.

Readers,

newspapers, magazines

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 114-116

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 99-100

Gap filling,

class competitio n, sentence constructio n, learner portfolio

• Collaborate with peers to construct sentences using conjunctions.

• Create a crossword puzzle using conjunctions and share it with others through posters, charts or social

media

By the end of the lesson, the

learner should be able to:

a) Identify conjunctions in a text.

b) Use conjunctions in varied contexts correctly.

c) Judge the appropriateness of conjunctions used in sentences.

Why should

we write sentences correctly?

How do we join two or more sentences?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify the conjunctions since, so, nor, far, yet, for, unless, although, though, in a text in pairs.

• Construct sentences using conjunctions in small groups.

• Fill in blanks in sentences using conjunctions individually or in pairs.

• Collaborate with peers to construct sentences using conjunctions.

• Create a crossword puzzle using conjunctions and share it with others through posters, charts or social

media

Readers,

newspapers, magazines

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 114-116

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 99-100

Gap filling,

class competitio n, sentence constructio n, learner portfolio

Writing

Creative

writing

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Use appropriate adjectives to describe a person, object or a place.

c) Plan a descriptive composition in preparation for writing.

c) Judge a descriptive composition for correctness of language, relevance to the topic, creativity and organization of ideas.

Why should we plan our compositions?

How do we describe objects, people or events?

Which words do we use to describe

people, objects or events?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify key points about an event such as a wedding ceremony, football match and dance, among others.

• Suggest people, events, places or objects that can be described in pairs.

Sample of descriptive composition

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 116-119

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 101-102

Compositi

on writing, peer assessment

, learner portfolio

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

b) Discuss and Plan a descriptive composition in preparation for writing.

c) Create a descriptive composition on a variety of topics.

d) Judge a descriptive composition for correctness of language, relevance to the topic, creativity and organization of ideas.

Why should we plan our compositions?

How do we describe objects, people or events?

Which words do we use to describe people, objects or events?

Learner is guided to:

• Plan a descriptive composition of about (120- 160 words) in small groups.

• Select and use appropriate expressions such as proverbs and idioms in a composition.

• Write the introductory paragraph of the descriptive essay in small groups.

• Complete the descriptive composition individually.

• Proofread the composition with peers.

• Display the corrected composition in the classroom or share it over the internet,

email or social media.

Sample of descriptive composition

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 116-119

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 101-102

Compositi

on writing, peer assessment

, learner portfolio

SPORTS:

INDORR GAMES

Listening and

speaking: pronunciation and vocabulary (audio files)

By the end of the lesson, the

learner should be able to:

a) Select sounds, words and phrases from a text for listening fluency.

b) Listen to audio stories and pick specific sounds

c) Appreciate the importance of effective listening in communication.

Why should

we look at people’s faces as they speak?

How are audio stories different from a storybook?

Learner is guided to:

• Listen to audio stories and pick put specific sounds, words, phrases or sentences in pairs.

• Say words with the sounds

/ʊ/ and /uː/ correctly.

Digital devices,

posters, charts

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 120-123

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 103-104

Sentence

constructio n, peer assessment

, recitation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Use words and expressions such as proverbs, phrasal verbs, proverbs among others related to the theme in sentences.

b) Interpret non-verbal cues correctly during conversations.

Why should we look at people’s faces as they speak?

How are audio stories different from a storybook?

Learner is guided to:

• Listen to choral poems with the sounds /ʊ/ and

/uː/ in small groups and pick out words with the selected sounds.

• Say tongue twisters with the target sounds.

Digital devices, posters, charts

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 120-123

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 103-104

Sentence

construction, peer assessment

, recitation

				c) Appreciate the importance of effective listening in communication.
4	1			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Interpret non-verbal cues correctly during conversations. b) Listen for specific details and main idea from audio recordings, internet, and radio or television programmers. c) Appreciate the importance of effective listening in communication.	Why should we look at people’s faces as they speak? How are audio stories different from a storybook?	Learner is guided to: • Practice using expressions such as fixed phrases: out of breath; similes: as bright as day; metaphor: Lodunga is a deer. He runs very fast. ; Idioms: get a head start; proverbs: look before you leap and phrasal verbs such as pass round.	Digital devices, posters, charts NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 120-123 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 103-104	Sentence constructio n, peer assessment , recitation
	2	Reading	Intensive reading – digital stories	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify words, phrases and proverbs from a digital text. b) Create mental images from viewed, heard or read text. c) Acknowledge the role of reading comprehension in lifelong learning.	How do you make predictions about a story you are about to read? How are digital stories different from storybooks?	Learner is guided to: • Participate in a reader’s theatre and read solo or choral poems in small groups. • Make predictions about a text by observing the cover or title. • Make connections between the pictures in a text and real life situations.	Digital devices, pictures, photographs NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 124-127 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 105-106	Learner summary of content, answering oral and written questions
	3			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Use contextual clues to infer the meaning of words and expressions. b) Answer direct and inferential questions correctly for comprehension. c) Acknowledge the role of reading comprehension in lifelong learning.	How do you make predictions about a story you are about to read? How are digital stories different from storybooks?	Learner is guided to: • Summarize important ideas and restate them in own words. • Retell events in a poem chronologically. • Use contextual clues to infer the meaning of expressions such as fixed phrases, similes, metaphors, idioms: proverbs and phrasal verbs.	Digital devices, pictures, photographs NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 124-127 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 105-106	Learner summary of content, answering oral and written questions

						• Summarize events in a text through retelling.
	4	Grammar in use	Interrogatives	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify interrogatives in print or digital texts. b) Use interrogatives correctly to express different meanings. c) Assess the appropriateness of conjunctions used in print and digital texts.	How do we form questions? Why do we ask questions?	Learners are guided to: • Discuss in pairs or groups which among the following words are not interrogatives: whip, how, what, when, whom, why which, whisper, where and whole	Photographs, charts, video clips NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 128-130 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 106-107	Writing sentence from substitutio n table and language game
5	1			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify interrogatives in print or digital texts. b) Use interrogatives correctly to express different meanings. c) Assess the appropriateness of conjunctions used in print and digital texts.	How do we form questions? Why do we ask questions?	Learners are guided to: • Practice using when clauses with present tense to show the future: ‘When are you going to school’ in pairs. • Collaborate with peers to use interrogatives in sentences correctly.	Photographs, charts, video clips NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 128-130 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 106-107	Writing sentence from substitutio n table and language game
	2			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify interrogatives in print or digital texts. b) Use interrogatives correctly to express different meanings. c) Assess the appropriateness of conjunctions used in print and digital texts.	How do we form questions? Why do we ask questions?	Learners are guided to: • Create lists of interrogative sentences using words related to the theme. • Type the list using a computer, laptop or tablet in groups and display his or her work to peers.	Photographs, charts, video clips NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 128-130 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 106-107	Writing sentence from substitutio n table and language game
	3	Writing	Spelling (synonyms and antonyms)	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify synonyms and antonyms correctly for writing fluency.	How do we tell the meaning of unfamiliar words?	Learner is guided to: • Listen/watch a video recording and identify words with synonyms and antonyms.	Newspapers, magazines, web resources, video clips, digital devices	Peer assessment , sentence constructio n, portfolio

b) Use synonyms, and antonyms correctly in sentences.

c) Advocate the use of a rich vocabulary in writing.

Which are some of the words with the same or opposite meaning?

• Form sentences in pairs or small groups using synonyms and antonyms.

• Identify synonyms and antonyms from newspapers, magazines or the internet in pairs and create a crossword puzzle.

• Display their work on posters.

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 131-133

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 108-110

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify synonyms and antonyms correctly for writing fluency.

b) Use synonyms, and antonyms correctly in sentences.

c) Advocate the use of a rich vocabulary in writing.

How do we tell the meaning of unfamiliar words?

Which are some of the words with the same or opposite meaning?

Learner is guided to:

• Listen/watch a video recording and identify words with synonyms and antonyms.

• Form sentences in pairs or small groups using synonyms and antonyms.

• Identify synonyms and antonyms from newspapers, magazines or the internet in pairs and create a crossword puzzle.

• Display their work on posters.

Newspapers, magazines, web resources, video clips, digital devices

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 131-133

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 108-110

Peer

assessment

, sentence constructio n, portfolio

ENVIRON

MENTAL CONSERVA TION

Listening and

speaking: Pronunciation and vocabulary

By the end of the lesson, the

learner should be able to:

a) Listen for specific details such as sounds words, expressions such as proverbs, similes, metaphors, fixed phrases and idioms for effective oral communication.

b) explain how our hands, faces and eyes communicate

c) Judge the appropriateness of non-verbal cues in a conversation or video recordings.

Why should

we speak at the right speed, accurately and with expression?

How do our faces, hands and eyes help us communicate better?

Learner is guided to:

• Say words and phrases with the sounds / ʒ/ / ʤ/ correctly.

• Recite poems with words that have the sounds /ʒ/ / ʤ/.

• Listen for specific details such as fixed phrases – as long as, similes – as wide as the sky; metaphor – He is a tortoise. He walks slowly!; idioms – a drop in the ocean, proverbs – Prevention is better than cure; phrasal verbs

– clean up, cut down

Digital devices,

video clips, photographs, charts, posters

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 134-136

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 111-113

Peer

assessment

, giving speeches, mock interview


2			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Make oral presentations such as speeches accurately, with minimal hesitations and with expressions. b) identify various non- verbal cues in an oral presentation c) Judge the appropriateness of non-verbal cues in a conversation or video recordings.	Why should we speak at the right speed, accurately and with expression? How do our faces, hands and eyes help us communicate better?	Learner is guided to: • Say words and phrases with the sounds / ʒ/ / ʤ/ correctly. • Recite poems with words that have the sounds /ʒ/ / ʤ/. • Listen for specific details such as fixed phrases – as long as, similes – as wide as the sky; metaphor – He is a tortoise. He walks slowly!; idioms – a drop in the ocean, proverbs – Prevention is better than cure; phrasal verbs – clean up, cut down	Digital devices, video clips, photographs, charts, posters NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 134-136 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 111-113	Peer assessment , giving speeches, mock interview
3			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Use non-verbal cues appropriately to enhance fluency. b) identify various non- verbal cues in an oral presentation c) Judge the appropriateness of non-verbal cues in a conversation or video recordings.	Why should we speak at the right speed, accurately and with expression? How do our faces, hands and eyes help us communicate better?	Learner is guided to: • Speak on topics based on content from other areas. • Participate in mock interviews in small groups. • View videos on recitations of poems or narration of narratives. • Recite choral and solo verses related to the theme. • Participate in a reader’s theatre in which he or she reads poems and narratives in groups.	Digital devices, video clips, photographs, charts, posters NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 134-136 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 111-113	Peer assessment , giving speeches, mock interview
4	Reading	Intensive reading	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify words, phrases, and proverbs used in a song or poem. b) Uses stress and rhythm correctly while reading lines	Why do some people enjoy songs more than reading a book? How are digital stories	Learner is guided to: • Participate in a reader’s theatre and read solo or choral poems in small groups. • Sing along as a video of poetry recitation or song	Digital resources, video clips, posters, charts, photographs NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 137-139	Recitation s Answering questions

				and words in a poem or song. c) Advocate the importance of correct stress and rhythm in communication.	different from printed storybooks?	plays with the lyrics provided.	NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 114-116
7	1			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify and Create mental images from viewed, heard, or read poem events, characters, or places in a text. b) Use contextual clues to infer the meaning of words and expressions in a song or poem. c) Advocate the importance of correct stress and rhythm in communication.	Why do some people enjoy songs more than reading a book? How are digital stories different from printed storybooks?	Learner is guided to: • Make predictions about events in a poem by observing the cover or title. • Answer questions from a comprehension passage. • View pictures or events in a poem or song and compare them to real-life situations in pairs. • Infer the meaning of new words and expressions such as fixed phrases, proverbs, idioms, phrasal verbs and similes from the way they have been used in a text.	Digital resources, video clips, posters, charts, photographs NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 137-139 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 114-116	Recitation s Answering questions
	2			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Use contextual clues to infer the meaning of words and expressions in a song or poem. b) Answer direct and inferential questions correctly from a song or poem. c) Advocate the importance of correct stress and rhythm in communication.	Why do some people enjoy songs more than reading a book? How are digital stories different from printed storybooks?	Learner is guided to: • Make predictions about events in a poem by observing the cover or title. • Answer questions from a comprehension passage. • View pictures or events in a poem or song and compare them to real-life situations in pairs. • Infer the meaning of new words and expressions such as fixed phrases, proverbs, idioms, phrasal verbs and similes from the way they have been used in a text.	Digital resources, video clips, posters, charts, photographs NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 137-139 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 114-116	Recitation s Answering questions
	3	Grammar in use	Question tags	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:	What is a question tag?	Learner is guided to:	Posters Web resources	Peer assessment , filling

a) Identify tag questions from a print or digital text for information.

b) Form tag questions from verbs to be, verbs to have, verbs to do, and modals.

c) Use tag questions correctly in oral and written texts.

d) Appreciate the importance of well-formed

sentences in communication.

How do we form a question tag?

• Identify the verbs to be, verbs to have verbs to do and modals.

• Form tag questions using verbs to be, verbs to have verbs to do and modals.

• Apply rules when forming tag questions. For example, a positive statement results in a negative tag question and vice versa.

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 141-143

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 117-118

gaps,

dialogue completion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify tag questions from a print or digital text for information.

b) Form tag questions from verbs to be, verbs to have, verbs to do, and modals.

c) Use tag questions correctly in oral and written texts.

d) Appreciate the importance of well-formed

sentences in communication.

What is a question tag?

How do we form a question tag?

Learner is guided to:

• Search for examples of question tags on the Web.

• Practice using tag questions in dialogues and conversations.

• Make posters featuring tag questions in small groups and display them in class.

Posters

Web resources

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 141-143

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 117-118

Peer

assessment

, filling gaps, dialogue completion

Writing

Functional

writing (personal journal)

By the end of the lesson, the

learner should be able to:

a) Identify all the components of a personal journal.

b) read a sample of a personal journal.

c) Judge the correctness sentences, relevance to the topic and the format of a personal journal.

How do we

record important occasions or dates in our lives?

Why do we keep journals and diaries?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify all the components of a personal journal in small groups.

• Read a sample personal journal in small groups.

• Create a personal journal for seven days in pairs.

• Peer-edit the personal journals – different pairs exchange their journals for

editing.

Sample personal

journals

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 143-145

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 119-120

Peer

assessment

, portfolio, standard writing assessment

					• Revise personal journals. • Display the personal journals in class, on the school notice board, internet among others.
2			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify all the components of a personal journal. b) Use the correct format to create a personal journal. c) Judge the correctness sentences, relevance to the topic and the format of a personal journal.	How do we record important occasions or dates in our lives? Why do we keep journals and diaries?	Learner is guided to: • Identify all the components of a personal journal in small groups. • Read a sample personal journal in small groups. • Create a personal journal for seven days in pairs. • Peer-edit the personal journals – different pairs exchange their journals for editing. • Revise personal journals. • Display the personal journals in class, on the school notice board, internet among others.	Sample personal journals NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 143-145 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 119-120	Peer assessment , portfolio, standard writing assessment
3	MONEY- TRADE	Listening and speaking: pronunciation and Vocabulary – (intensive Listening)	By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: a) Identify specific sounds, words, phrases, and sentences from a text. b) Listen to a short text and rewrite it accurately. c) Advocate the need for attentive listening during oral comprehension.	Why should we listen carefully? What messages do we obtain from similes and proverbs? Which proverbs and similes are you familiar with?	Learner is guided to: • Dictate a story featuring proverbs and similes, pick them out and list them in pairs. • Rewrite a short text in his or her own words accurately.	Digital devices NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 147-149 NPE Grd 6 Learners Bk. pg. 121-122	Retelling a story Sentence constructio n
4			By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:	Why should we listen carefully?	Learner is guided to: • Read a written version of what they have listened to.	Digital devices NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 147-149	Retelling a story

a) Identify specific sounds, words, phrases, and sentences from a text.

b) Listen to a short text and rewrite it accurately.

c) Use similes, proverbs, fixed phrases idioms and metaphors in oral contexts correctly.

d) Advocate the need for attentive listening during oral comprehension.

What messages do we obtain from similes and proverbs?

Which proverbs and similes are you familiar with?

• Predict the likely outcome of events in a listening text.

• Pick out information such as amounts, dates, time, facts, characters, and the sequence of events from an oral text.

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 121-122

Sentence

constructio n

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify similes, proverbs, fixed phrases idioms and metaphors in oral contexts

b) Use similes, proverbs, fixed phrases idioms and metaphors in oral contexts correctly.

c) Advocate the need for attentive listening during oral comprehension.

Why should we listen carefully?

What messages do we obtain from similes and proverbs?

Which proverbs and similes are you familiar with?

Learner is guided to:

• Use fixed phrases such as at once, no entry, similes

such as sell like hot cakes, as happy as a hippo; metaphors such as – Chebet is a hare.

She is so clever. Proverbs such as A stitch in time saves nine, grow on trees, idioms such as back to square one, to cut corners and phrasal verbs such as

count on, give in and give back.

Digital devices

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 147-149

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 121-122

Retelling a

story Sentence constructio n

Reading

Extensive

reading

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Select appropriate reading texts from print or digital collections.

b) Read a variety of print or digital texts for enjoyment and general understanding.

c) Appreciate the importance of extensive reading in lifelong learning.

How do we obtain information from a newspaper, book, or magazine quickly?

Which materials do

you enjoy reading?

Learner is guided to:

• Skim various texts to find out the general idea.

• Scan a text to find specific details such as key words.

• Read a variety of texts of about (1251 to 1500 words) newspaper, magazines, grade appropriate digital/print texts, articles.

Collection of books, newspapers, magazines, digital resources

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 150-152

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 122

Summary

of read materials and peer assessment

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Select appropriate reading texts from print or digital collections.

b) Read a variety of print or digital texts for enjoyment and general understanding.

c) Appreciate the importance of extensive reading in lifelong learning.

Why do we enjoy reading some materials and not others?

Why should we read widely?

Learner is guided to:

• Collaborate with peers to establish a class library.

• Read print and non-print materials (websites and blogs) independently.

• Read newspapers, magazines poems, and class readers.

• Read digital versions of newspapers and magazines for information.

Collection of books, newspapers, magazines, digital resources

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 150-152

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 122

Summary

of read materials and peer assessment

Grammar

in use

Word classes:

prepositions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify prepositions correctly in oral and written texts.

b) Use prepositions correctly in varied texts.

c) Judge the appropriateness of prepositions used in various texts.

How do we describe where people or objects

Learner is guided to:

• Identify prepositions of time such as since, before, until, about, during, past directions: such as above, across, below, after agent such as by, and with instrument such as with and by

• Collaborate with peers to create visuals demonstrating the use of various

prepositions.

Visuals such as posters, charts, pictures, photographs

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 152-154

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 123-124

Discrimina

tion, gap filling and drawing

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify prepositions correctly in oral and written texts.

b) Use prepositions correctly in varied texts.

c) Judge the appropriateness of prepositions used in various texts.

How do we describe where people or objects

Learner is guided to:

• Create crossword puzzles using prepositions in pairs or small groups.

• Create visuals to demonstrate the use of various prepositions in sentences.

• Create charts or posters showing where objects are in pairs or small groups. ‘For example, ‘The pupils are inside the classroom.’

Visuals such as posters, charts, pictures, photographs

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 152-154

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 123-124

Discrimina

tion, gap filling and drawing

Writing

Spelling

(Affixes)

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Recognize affixes used to change the form and meaning of words.

b) Form new words using prefixes and suffixes.

c) Spell words correctly for writing fluency.

d) Determine the correctness and appropriateness of affixes used in various texts.

Why is it important to spell words correctly?

Why is it difficult to spell some words?

How can we become better at spelling?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify words with prefixes and suffixes and use them to create puzzles and lists in pairs or groups.

• Form words using prefixes and affixes in small groups.

• Match words with their appropriate affixes (-un,- cian, – sion, – tion).

• Use mind maps to generate a list of words related and change their form by adding affixes.

• Create a crossword puzzle

using the words they have generated.

Charts, posters, dictionaries and word builders.

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 155-158

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 125-127

Peer

assessment

, learner journal and portfolio

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

a) Recognize affixes used to change the form and meaning of words.

b) Form new words using prefixes and suffixes.

c) Spell words correctly for writing fluency.

d) Determine the correctness and appropriateness of affixes used in various texts.

Why is it important to spell words correctly?

Why is it difficult to spell some words?

How can we become better at spelling?

Learner is guided to:

• Identify words with prefixes and suffixes and use them to create puzzles and lists in pairs or groups.

• Form words using prefixes and affixes in small groups.

• Match words with their appropriate affixes (-un,- cian, – sion, – tion).

• Use mind maps to generate a list of words related and change their form by adding affixes.

• Create a crossword puzzle using the words they have generated.

Charts, posters, dictionaries and word builders.

NPE Grd 6 TG pg. 155-158

NPE Grd 6

Learners Bk. pg. 125-127

Peer

assessment

, learner journal and portfolio

Teachers' Resources

GAS LAWS PHYSICS NOTES

October 5, 2025 Hillary Kangwana Leave a comment

Chapter Ten

GAS LAWS

Boyle’s Law

It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided the temperature is kept constant.
Stated in symbols;

P α ¹/_V OR P= k x ¹/_V

So, PV = constant

How to proof the Boyles law

Apparatus

Thick-walled J-shaped glass tube with one end closed, oil, Bourdon gauge, foot pump, meter rule.

Procedure

Set up the apparatus as shown above
Connect the foot-pump to the apparatus and with the tap open, pump in air until the oil rises a small but measurable height, then close the tap.
Allow the air to adjust to room temperature, then read the value of pressure on the gauge and the height h of air column, which represents volume of the air (glass tube has uniform cross-sectional area).
Repeat the experiment by varying values of pressure to obtain at least five more readings.

Record your results in table

Table 10.1

Pressure p(Pa)	Volume h (cm)	¹/_v (¹/_h)cm-1	pv

Pressure, p(x 10⁵Pa)	2.00	2.50	3.00	3.50	4.00	4.50
Volume, V (m³)	0.025	020	0.017	0.014	0.012	0.011

Using your results in table plot a graph of:
(i) P against V.

(ii) P against ¹/_v. Determine the slope.
(iii) PV against P.

Results and Conclusion

The experiment show that an increase in pressure of a fixed mass of a gas causes a decrease in its volume.

The sketches below show the relationship between pressure P and volume V of a fixed mass of gas.

The graph of P against V is a smooth curve while that of P against1/v is a straight line passing through the origin. That of PV against P is a straight line parallel to the x-axis. Since PV = constant;

P I V I = P 2 V 2 = constant, for any given mass of a gas.

Example 1

The diagram below shows an air bubble of volume 2.0 cm³ at the bottom of a lake 40 m deep.

What will be its volume just below the surface S if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a height of 10 m of water?

Solution

10m height = 1 atm.
40 m height = 4 atm.

Pressure PI at the bottom = (l + 4) =5 atm
Pressure P, at surface = 1 atm
Volume V: at bottom = 2 cm³

By Boyle’s law, PIV_I = P₂V₂

5 x 2 = 1 X V₂

V₂= 10

Volume just below surface is 10 cm³,

Example 2

The volume V of a gas at pressure P is reduced to ³/₈V without change of temperature. Determine the new pressure of the gas.
Solution

PV = constant
P1V1, =P₂V₂

P1V1 = P₂ x ³/₈V₁

P₂ =⁸/₃P₁

Example 3

A column of air 26 cm long is trapped by mercury thread 5 cm long as shown in (a). When the tube is inverted as in figure (b), the air column becomes 30 cm long. What is the value of atmospheric pressure?

Solution

In (a), gas pressure = atm pressure + hƥg,
In (b), gas pressure = atm. pressure – hƥg,
where ƥ is the density of mercury.

From Boyle’s law;

P₁ V₁ = P₂V₂

Let the atmospheric pressure be height ‘x’ of mercury.
So, (x + 5) 0.26 == (x – 5) 0.30

0.26x + 1.30 == 0.3x – 1.5

2.8 = O.04x

:. x = 2.8

0.04

=70cm

If experiment above is repeated at different temperatures, similar curves are obtained as in figure each is called an isothermal curve.

When P is plotted against ~ for each of the isothermals, the figure below is obtained.

Sample questions

On the axes provided sketch the P-V graph for a gas obeying Boyle’s law.

2003 Q24 P1
On the axes provided in, sketch a graph of pressure(p) against reciprocal of volume(¹/_V) for a fixed mass of an ideal gas at constant temperature.

¹/_V

The pressure acting on a gas in a container was changed steadily while the temperature of the gas maintained constant. The value of volume V of the gas was measured for various values of pressure. The graph in figure 9 shows the relation between the pressure, p and the reciprocal of volume 1

Suggest how the temperature of the gas could be kept constant
Given that the relation between the pressure P₁ and the volume, V₁ of the gas is given by PV = k When k is a constant, use the graph to determine the value of k.
What physical quantity does k represent? (4 marks)
State one precaution you would take when performing such an experiment (1 mark)

(c) A gas occupies a volume of 4000 litres at a temperature of 37⁰C and normal atmospheric pressure. Determine the new volume of the gas if it heated at constant pressure to a temperature of 67⁰C (normal atmospheric pressure P= 1.01 x 10⁵ pa)

An air bubble is released at the bottom of a tall jar containing a liquid. The height of the liquid column is 80cm. The volume of the bubble increases from 5 cm³ at the bottom of the liquid to 1.15 cm³ at the top. Figure below shows the variation of pressure, P, on the bubble with the reciprocal of volume 1/v³ as it rises in the liquid.

(i) State the reason why the volume increases as the bubble rises in the liquid column (1 mark

(ii) From the graph, determine the pressure on the bubble:

(I) at the bottom of liquid column; (2 marks)

(II) at the top of the liquid column (1 mark )

(iii) Hence determine the density of the liquid in kgm³ (3 marks)

(iv) What is the value of the atmospheric pressure of the surrounding? (1 mark)

(c) A rubber tube is inflated to pressure of 2.7 x 10⁵ Pa and volume 3800 cm³at a temperature of 25^◦C. It is then taken to another place where the temperature is 15⁰C and the pressure 2.5 x 10⁵ pa. Determine the new volume. (4 Marks)

Charles’ Law

It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the pressure is kept constant.

The set-up in figure can be used to demonstrate the relationship between temperature
and volume of a given mass of a gas at constant pressure.

The flask is grasped firmly and the water index observed.

The water index rises higher when the flask is held and falls when the hands are withdrawn, showing that the volume of gas increases when its temperature is raised.

EXPERIMENT: To investigate the relationship between volume and temperature of a given mass of gas at constant pressure

Apparatus

Capillary tube sealed at one end, cone, sulphuric acid, thermometer, rule, and stirrer, source of heat, retort stand, rubber band, and water bath.

Procedure

Introduce concentrated sulphuric acid deep into the glass tube to trap air in the tube.

Attach the tube, thermometer and the ruler using rubber band.

Assemble the apparatus as shown in figure above.

Record the room temperature and the corresponding height h of air in the tube.

Heat the bath and record the temperature and the height at suitable temperature intervals in table below.

Temp (˚c)
Height h(cm)

Note:

(i) The sulphuric acid index serves as a pointer to the volume of the gas on the scale as well as a drying agent for the air.

(ii) Pressure of the trapped air is the same as the atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to the acid index. This remains constant throughout the experiment

(iii) Before taking the readings. Stir the bath so that the temperature of the gas is equal to that of the bath.

Plot a graph of volume (height h cm) against temperature.

Observations

As the temperature rises, the height h (volume) also increases.

The graph is a straight line, indicating proportional changes in volume and temperature.

the graph does not pass through the origin.
If the graph is extrapolated it cuts the temperature axis at about -273⁰ At this temperature the volume of the gas is assumed to be zero.
This temperature -273 ˚C. at which the volume of a gas is assumed to be zero is the lowest temperature a gas can fall to. It is therefore called absolute

The scale of temperature based on the absolute zero is called the absolute scale or Kelvin scale of temperature.

A plot of volume against absolute temperature gives a straight line through the origin, as shown in figure

Note:

It is impossible to get to absolute zero for gases because they condense at fairly higher temperatures.

In symbols, Charles ‘law can be stated as follows;
V αT or V = kT, where k is a constant.

Hence, ^V₁/_T1 = ^V2/_T2constant

Note:

This formula is only applicable when T is expressed in Kelvin.

Relation Between Celsius and Absolute Scale

Figure 10.12 relates the absolute (Kelvin) scale to the Celsius scale.

The zero Kelvin (0 K) corresponds to -273°C while 0˚C corresponds to 273 K.

It follows that to change from Celsius to Kelvin, we add 273 to the Celsius temperature, i.e.;

= (T + 273) K

Example 3

The temperature of a gas is -42 ⁰C. What is this temperature on the Kelvin scale?

Solution

Example 4

0.02 m³ of a gas af27 °C is heated at constant pressure until the volume is 0.03 m³. Calculate the final temperature of the gas in “C.

Solution

Example5

A mass of air of volume is 750 cm³ is heated at constant pressure from 10 °C to 100°C. What is the final volume of the air?

Solution

a)What is meant by absolute zero temperature? (1 mark)

b) 10 shows a set up to investigate the relationship between temperature and volume for a certain gas.

b) State two factors that are kept constant, in order to determine the relationship. (2 marks)
c) The graph in Fig. 11 shows the relationship between volume and temperature for the experiment.

(i)What was the volume of the gas at 0⁰C? (1 mark)

(ii)At what temperature would the volume of the gas be zero? (1 mark)

(iii) Explain why the temperature in part (ii) above cannot be achieved. (2 marks)

d) A sealed gas cylinder contains 300cm³ of certain gas at a temperature of 25⁰C, and at a pressure of 9.5x 10⁴pa the gas in the cylinder was then cooled to 10⁰

Determine the new pressure of the gas in the cylinder. (4 marks)

2009 Q13 P1

State what is meant by absolute zero temperature (Zero Kelvin or -273^◦C). (1 mark)

Pressure law

It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, provided the volume is kept constant.

EXPERIMENT: To investigate the relationship between the pressure and the temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume

Apparatus

Round-bottomed flask, pressure gauge, water bath, heater, thermometer.

Procedure

Set up the apparatus as shown in figure above.
Record the initial temperature and pressure readings.
Heat the water bath gently and obtain at least seven more pairs of readings at suitable temperature intervals.
Record your results in table 10.3.

Table 10.3

Temp (c
Pressure(pa)
Pressure Temp

Note:

The air in the tube connecting the gauge to the flask may be at a lower temperature than the air in the flask. This tube should therefore be as short as possible.

Observations

It is observed that increase in temperature causes an increase in pressure.

A plot of pressure against temperature gives the graph shown in figure.

Graph of pressure against temperature

When the graph is extrapolated, it cuts the temperature axis at -273°C, the absolute zero.
Figure shows the same graph of an absolute temperature scale.

On the absolute scale, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

This conclusion is summed in pressure law which

In symbols;

PαT (V constant)

Or P = kT, where k is constant

So P₁ = P₂

, T₁ T2

Example 6

A cylinder contains oxygen at 0⁰C, and 1 atmosphere pressure. What will be the pressure in
the cylinder if the temperature rises to 100 °C?

Solution

= 1.37 atmosphere

Example 7

At 20°C, the pressure of a gas is 50 cm of mercury. At what temperature would the pressure of the gas fall to 10cm of mercury?

Solution

= 58.6 K (or -214.4 “C)

a) Figure 6 shows a simple set up for pressure law apparatus.

Describe how the apparatus may be used to verify pressure law. Initial reading of pressure and temperatures are recorded

Water is heated and gently stirred;

Values f pressures and temperature are recorded to intervals;

Temperature is converted to K and atmospheric pressure p added to P;

Graph of pressure p against temperature (K) Plotted giving straight line;

Equation of State

A general gas law relating the changes in pressure, volume and the absolute temperature can
be derived from the three gas laws.

Consider a fixed mass of gas which is being changed from state A to state B through an
intermediate state C, as shown in figure.

Charles’ law Boyle’s law

From A to C, the gas is heated at constant pressure PI’ By Charles’ law;

V₁ = V_c

T₁ T₂

Volume V_c in state c, V_c = V₁T₂

T₁

From C to B, the gas pressure is changed from P₁to P₂ at constant temperature T₂. By Boyle’s law,

P₁V_c = P₂V₂

Vc = P₂V₂

P₁

Equating the two

V₁T₂ = P₂V₂

T₁ P₁

Rearranging the equation

V₁ P₁= P₂V₂

T₁ T₂

In general, PV = k, where k is a constant.

This is known as the equation of state, in which k depends on the type and quantity of the gas.
The equation changes to when the amount of gas is 1mole. Constant R is same for all gases, and is called the universal gas constant.

Example 8

A mass of 1 200 cm³ of oxygen at 27°C and a pressure 1.2 atmosphere is compressed until its volume is 600cm³and its pressure is 3.0 atmosphere. What is the Celsius temperature of the gas after compression?

Solution

102˚C

Gas Laws and Kinetic Theory

If the volume of a vessel containing a fixed mass of gas is halved, the number of molecules per unit volume will be doubled. The number of collisions per unit time, and therefore the rate of change of momentum, will also be doubled. Consequently, halving the volume of the gas
doubles the pressure, which is the import of the Boyle’s law.

Charles’ Law and Kinetic Theory

When a gas is heated, the kinetic energy and therefore the velocity of the molecules increases.
As the temperature rises, the molecules move faster. If the volume of the container were constant,
the pressure on the walls would increase due to greater rate of change of momentum per unit time. But since Charles’ law requires that the pressure be constant, then the volume must
increase accordingly so that although the molecules are moving faster, the number of collisions at the walls of the container per unit time is reduced, since the distance between the walls is increased by increasing the volume.

Pressure Law and Kinetic Theory

In gases, pressure is as a result of bombardment of the walls of the container by the gas molecules. When the molecules of the gas bombard and rebound from the walls of the container, a change of momentum takes place. The number of bombardments per unit time constitutes a rate of change of momentum, which according to Newton’s second law of motion, constitutes a force. This force per unit area emerges as the pressure of the gas.

When a gas is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy and move about faster. If the volume of the container is constant, the molecules will bombard the walls many more times per unit time, and with greater momenta. The total rate of change of momentum will therefore increase. The resulting force per unit area, which is the pressure, will increase.

Limitations of Gas laws

When explaining the gas laws using the kinetic theory, both the size of molecules and the intermolecular forces are assumed to be negligible.

Real gases have molecules with definite volumes and therefore the idea of zero volume or zero pressure is not real. Real gases get liquefied before zero volume is reached.

This departure from the gas laws is so particularly true at low temperatures and high pressures. A gas that would obey the gas laws completely is called ideal or perfect gas.

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

FOR EXAMINER’S USE ONLY

Section I

Section II

MATHEMATICS Form 3

MARKING SCHEME

PAPER 3

MARKING SCHEME

AVAILABLE DIGITAL COMPUTER STUDIES RESOURCES

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RELATED CONTENT

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Set 2

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Set 4

Set 5

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Set 7

Set 8

Set 9

Set 10

Set 11

Set 12

SIMPLIFIED ENGLISH NOTES FOR FORM 1 TO 4

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