Category Archives: Teachers’ Resources

GEOGRAPHY UPDATED SCHEMES OF WORK FORM 2 PDF

 

 

SCHEMES  OF  WORK             FORM TWO GEOGRAPHY                   TERM ONE YEAR 20………….  
 

WK

NO

 

L/

NO

TOPIC/

SUBTOPIC

LESSON / SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES

 

TEACHING / LEARNING

ACTIVITIES

MATERIALS

&

RESOURCES

 

REF.  

REMARKS

 
 

1

1

INTERNAL LAND-FORMING PROCESSES

 

Earth movements.

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Differentiate between internal and external land forming processes.

Differentiate between crustal compressional and tensional forces.

Explain effects of horizontal earth movements.

 

Probing questions.

Brief discussion on compression, tension, upwarping, downwarping, and shearing of crustal rocks.

Drawing illustrative diagrams.

   

KLB

GEOGRAPHY

BOOK II.

 

PAGES

1-2

   
 

2

Causes of earth movements.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe causes of earth movements.

 

Exposition of new concepts.

Discussion & drawing of illustrative diagrams.

   

PAGES

2-3

   
 

3

Results of earth movements.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify landforms resulting from earth movements.

Discussion & drawing of illustrative diagrams.    

PAGES

2-3

   
 

2

1

Theory of Continental Drift.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:
Explain the theory of Continental Drift.
Exposition of new concepts;

Discussion of evidence to support the theory.

 

Illustrative diagrams.  

PAGES

3-4

   
 

2

The Plates Tectonic Theory.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the Plates Tectonic Theory.

Exposition of the theory & discussion on evidence of the theory.

Drawing diagrams showing meeting of tectonic plates.

 

Illustrative diagrams.  

PAGES

5-6

   
 

3

Folding.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define folding.

Explain the causes of folding.

Identify parts of a fold.

Q/A: review vertical earth movements.

Discussion & drawing illustrative diagrams.

 

Illustrative diagrams.

 

 

PAGES

7-8

   
 

3

1,2

Types of folds. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify types of folds.

Describe various folding processes.

 

Exposition of types of folds and resulting landforms.

 

Illustrative diagrams.

 

 

PAGES

9-11

   
 

3

Features resulting from folding. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe landforms resulting from folding.

Discussion & drawing labelled diagrams of landforms.

 

Illustrative diagrams.

Map: World distribution of fold mountains.

 

     
 

4

1

Significance of folding. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Outline effects of folding.

Q/A & discussion on effects of folding.

Assignment.

   

PAGES

12-13

   
 

2

Faulting. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define faulting.

Identify parts associated with a fault.

Q/A: review horizontal and vertical earth movements.

Discussion on parts associated with a fault.

 

   

PAGES

13-14

   
 

3

Types of faults. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify types of faults.

 

Probing questions and detailed discussion.

 

Illustrative diagrams.

 

 

PAGES

14-19

   
 

5

1

Features resulting from faulting. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe landforms resulting from faulting.

 

Discussion &

Drawing illustrative diagrams.

Illustrative diagrams.

 

 

PAGES

14-19

   
 

2,3

The Great Rift Valley. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Trace the Great Rift Valley on a map.

Describe parts of the Great Rift Valley.

 

 

Case study.

The Afro-Arabian rift system.

Map: The Afro-Arabian rift system.  

PAGE 21

   
 

6

1

The Gregory Rift Valley. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Trace the Gregory Rift Valley on a map.

Describe the parts of the Gregory Rift Valley.

Case study.

The Gregory rift system.

Map / chart: Kenyan’s rift system and the associated highlands.

 

 

PAGES 21-22

   
 

2

Significance of faulting. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain ways in which faulting is significant.

Explain effects of faulting on the physical environment.

 

Probing questions.

Detailed discussion.

Assignment.

   

PAGES  22-24

   
 

3

CAT.            
 

7

1

Vulcanicity and Earthquakes.

Definitions associated with vulcanicity and volcanicity.

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Differentiate between vulcanicity and volcanicity.

Differentiate between intrusive and extrusive features.

Exposition of new concepts & brief discussion.

   

PAGES  24-25

   
 

2,3,

Intrusive features. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify various intrusive features.

Explain formation of various intrusive features.

Illustrate intrusive features with labelled diagrams.

Exposition of new concepts.

Probing questions.

Drawing illustrative diagrams.

 

Illustrative diagrams.  

PAGES 32-34

   
 

8

1-2

Extrusive features.

 

 

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify various extrusive volcanic features.

Illustrate extrusive volcanic features with labelled diagrams.

Give examples of extrusive features in Africa. Discussion.

Assignment.

Pictures in various textbooks.  

PAGES 25-27

   
 

3

Types of volcanoes. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State the three types of volcanoes.

Q/A & discussion on types of volcanoes.

Assignment: table showing types and examples of volcanoes in the World.

 

   

PAGES 25-30

   
 

9

1-2

Distribution of volcanoes and volcanic features. By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify volcanic regions in Kenya and in Africa.

Drawing map of Kenya & Africa and showing the distribution of volcanoes and volcanic features. Maps: Volcanic regions in Kenya, Africa and in the World.  

PAGES 30-35

   
 

3

Positive influences of vulcanicity.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain ways in which vulcanicity is beneficial to man.

Q/A and detailed discussion.    

PAGES

35-36

   
 

10

1

Negative influences of vulcanicity.

 

Highlight negative influences of vulcanicity. Q/A, detailed discussion and assignment.

 

   

PAGE 36

   
 

2

Earthquakes.

 

Definitions associated with earthquakes.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

 

Give definitions associated with earthquakes.

Q/A definition of earthquake, shockwaves.

Exposition of new terms:

Seismology, epicentre, focus, tsunamis, tremors.

Drawing relevant diagrams.

 

Illustrative diagrams.  

PAGE 37

   
 

3

Causes of earthquakes.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe human and natural causes of earthquakes.

Q/A to review tectonic movements, vulcanicity.

Probing questions leading to causes of earthquakes.

Q/A: human activities that may cause tremors.

 

   

PAGES

37-38

   
 

11

1,

2

Types of earthquakes and waves. Measurement of earthquakes.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe primary and secondary seismic waves.

Identify scales used to determine the intensity and magnitude of an earthquake.

Brief discussion: primary and secondary waves.

Exposition of basic terms:

Mercalli scale and Richter scale.

Open discussion.

 

 

Newspaper extracts on intensity and magnitude of earthquakes.  

PAGES 38-39

   
 

3

Effects of earthquakes.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Outline effects of earthquakes & tremors.

Q/A and brief discussion. Newspaper cuttings outlining effects of earthquakes.

 

 

PAGES

40-41

   
 

12-13

 

END OF TERM  ONE  EXAMINATIONS

         

SCHEME  OF  WORK                     GEOGRAPHY     FORM  TWO                         TERM  TWO  YEAR  20………….  

 

WK

NO

 

L/

NO

TOPIC/

SUBTOPIC

LESSON / SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES

 

TEACHING / LEARNING

ACTIVITIES

MATERIALS

&

RESOURCES

 

REF.  

REMARKS

 

1

1,

2

MAP WORK

 

Direction and Bearing.

 

Methods of showing direction.

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

 

Distinguish between direction and bearing.

 

Outline some traditional and modern methods of showing direction.

 

 

 

Q/A and brief discussion.

 

   

 

 

PAGES

42-43

   

3

Compass Bearing.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define bearing of a point.

Determine the compass bearings of given points on a map.

Diagram of 16 points of the compass.

Oral exercise.

 

Pair of compasses & protractors.  

PAGES

43-44

   

2

1

True Bearing.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Find the true bearing of a point from another point.

Brain storming;

Class exercise.

Pair of compasses protractors.  

PAGES

44-45

   

2

Calculation of grid bearing.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Find the grid bearing of a point from another point.

Exposition.

Class exercise.

Pair of compasses protractors.  

PAGES

44-45

   

3

Determination of magnetic bearing.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Determine magnetic bearing given the grid bearing.

Q/A: conversion of minutes and seconds to degrees.

Exposition: calculating magnetic variation.

Worked examples.

 

   

PAGES

44-45

   

3

1

Locating places using latitudes and longitudes.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Locate position of places using latitude and longitudes.

Exercise: locating position of places using latitude and longitudes. Topographical maps.  

PAGES

46-47

   

2

Locating places using four- figure grid references.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Give the four-figure grid reference of points on map.

Q/A identifying easting and nor things.

Guided exercise

Chart: grid reference system.  

PAGES

48-49

   

3

Locating places using six-figure grid references.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Give the six-figure grid reference of points on map.

Q/A: identifying eastings and northings.

Guided exercise.

Assignment.

 

Chart: grid reference system.  

P 49

   

4

1

Representing relief using spot heights and trigonometric stations.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define the term land relief.

Identify spot heights & trigonometric stations on a map.

Q/A: review six-figure reference.

Definition of land relief.

Brief discussion.

 

 

Atlases or topographical maps.  

PAGES

49-51

   

2

Contours and forms lines.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define contours and forms lines.

Identify Contours and forms lines

Exposition: new terms.

Q/A: Contour interval, vertical height.

Exercise: estimating height-using contours.

 

Topographical maps.  

PAGES

50-51

   

3,

1

Methods of representing relief.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain use of pictorials, hachures, hill shading and layer tinting to represent relief.

State advantages and disadvantages of each method.

 

Exposition, Q/A and brief discussions.

Assignment.

Textbooks pictures.  

PAGES

53

   

5

5

2

PHOTOGRAPH  WORK.

 

Ground photographs.

 

Aerial photographs.

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

 

Distinguish between ground close-ups and ground oblique photographs.

Distinguish between general oblique and vertical aerial photographs.

 

 

 

Exposition of new concepts & brief discussion.

 

 

 

Illustrative diagrams.

 

 

 

PAGES

55-57

   

3

Parts of a photograph.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify horizontal and vertical divisions of a photograph.

Divide a photograph into nine parts then mark them accordingly.

Q/A : Identifying features in each division.

 

Photographs.  

PAGES

57-58

   

6

1

Uses of photographs

&

Limitations of photographs.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State uses of photographs.

Highlight limitations in the use of photographs.

Q/A and discussion.    

PAGE 59

   

2

Interpretation of photographs.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain what interpretation of photographs entails.

Class exercise: estimating the time and season when the photograph was taken, direction and sizes of features. Photographs.  

PAGE 59

   

3,

1

Studying physical features on photographs.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe physical features on photographs. 

Q/A and discussion:

relief, drainage, natural vegetation, climate and soils.

Photographs.  

PAGES

59-61

   

7

2

Human activities on photographs.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify various human activities on a photograph.

Oral questions on types of farming and supportive evidence.

Written exercise.

   

PAGE 61

   

3

C.A.T.

           

8

1

Industrial activities, mining activities & forms of transport.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify industrial and mining activities & forms of transport in a photograph.

Oral questions on presence of industrial and mining activities & modes of transport and communication.

 

Photographs.  

PAGE 61

   

2

Sketching diagrams from photographs.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Sketch diagrams from parts of photographs.

Teacher highlights the steps to be followed.

Supervised exercise &

written exercise.

Photographs.  

PAGE 61

   

3

STATISTICAL METHODS.

 

Comparative line graphs.

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Construct comparative line graphs.

State advantages and disadvantages of comparative line graphs.

Q/A: review methods of presenting statistical data.

Activity: construct a comparative line graph.

Assignment.

   

PAGES

64-65

   

9

1

Comparative bar graphs.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Construct comparative bar graphs.

State advantages and disadvantages of comparative bar graphs.

Q/A: review methods of presenting statistical data.

Activity: construct a comparative bar graph.

Assignment.

Chart –

Comparative bar graphs.

 

PAGES

65-67

   

2

 

3

Divided bars

     &

 

Divided rectangles.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Present statistical data using divided bars and rectangles.

State advantages and disadvantages of divided rectangles.

 

Exposition.

Supervised practice.

Oral questions.

 

   

PAGES

67-69

   

10

1

Analysis of statistical tables.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Analyse data in statistical tables.

Table analysis.

Assignment.

   

PAGES

67-69

   

10

2

KENYA’S CLIMATIC REGIONS.

 

Definition of weather, climate and elements of weather.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

 

 

Define climate.

Define weather.

Identify elements of weather.

 

 

 

 

Brain storming.

Q/A & brief discussion.

 

 

 

 

Diagrams and maps.

Combined temperature rainfall diagrams.

 

 

 

 

PAGE 70

   

3

Factors influencing climate.

latitude, altitude and continentality.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the influence of latitude, altitude and continentality on the climate of an area.

 

Brain storming.

Exposition, Q/A  & discussion.

  PAGES

70-73

   

11

1,2

Factors influencing climate.

aspect and ocean currents.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the influence of aspect and ocean currents on the climate of an area.

 

Exposition of new aspects & brief discussion.    

PAGES

70-73

   

3

Factors influencing climate.

wind and air masses & configuration of the coastline.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the influence of wind and air masses & configuration of the coastline on the climate of an area.

 

 

Exposition of new concepts, oral questions & discussion.    

PAGES

73-74

   

12

13

                                         END OF  TERM  TWO  EXAMS

 

       
 

 

 

SCHEMES OF WORK                      FORM    TWO   GEOGRAPHY               TERM       THREE             YEAR 20……..  

 

WK

NO

 

L/

NO

TOPIC/

SUBTOPIC

LESSON / SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES

 

TEACHING / LEARNING

ACTIVITIES

MATERIALS

&

RESOURCES

 

REF.  

REMARKS

 

1

1,2

KENYA’S CLIMATIC REGIONS (contd)

ITCZ

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define the term ITCZ.

Explain the effect of shifting of the ITCZ on the climate of a zone.

Exposition of new concepts.

Explanations.

       

3

Forests & microclimate.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define the term microclimate.

Explain the effects of forests on climate of area.

Q/A & discussion. Map of Africa: the ITCZ and prevailing winds.  

PAGES

75-76

   

2

1

Description of climate.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe climate using aPagesropriate terminology.

Tables: general terms and the corresponding statistical data.

Exercise: rainfall –temperature graphs.

       

2

Climate regions of Kenya.

Modified equatorial climate.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify regions that experience Modified equatorial climate.

Describe Modified equatorial climate.

Detailed discussion. Map of Kenya: climatic regions rainfall-temperature graphs.

 

 

 

PAGES

77-78

   

3

Tropical climate & tropical Northern climate.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe the modified tropical climate.

Identify regions that experience modified tropical

Detailed discussion Map of Kenya: climatic regions rainfall-temperature graphs.

 

 

PAGE 78

   

3

1

Desert climate.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe the modified tropical climate.

Identify regions that experience Modified tropical climate.

Detailed discussion & assignment. Map of Kenya: climatic regions rainfall-temperature graphs.

 

 

 

P 79

   

2

 

CLIMATE (2) WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS.

Equatorial climate.

 

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State characteristics of equatorial climate.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs.

Maps: world climatic regions.  

PAGES

79-80

   

3

Equatorial monsoon.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State characteristics of equatorial monsoon.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs

   

PAGES

79-80

   

4

1

Tropical monsoon.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State characteristics of tropical monsoon.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs.

   

PAGES 80-81

   

2

Tropical marine & Tropical continental.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State characteristics of tropical marine & tropical continental.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs.

   

PAGES 81-83

   

3

Tropical Desert climate.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State characteristics of tropical desert climate.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs.

   

PAGE 83

   

5

1

Warm climates.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify types of warm climates.

State characteristics of warm climates.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs

   

PAGES 84-85

   

2

Cool  & cold climates.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify types of cool climates.

State characteristics of  cool climates.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs.

 

   

PAGES 84-86

   

3,

1

Mountain climates.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

State characteristics of mountain climates.

Exposition of new concepts, explanations and Q/A.

Assignment: rainfall-temperature graphs.

 

 

   

PAGE 91

   

6

2

Microclimates.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify human activities largely responsible for development of local climates.

 

Brief discussion.

Assignment.

       

3

VEGETATION 1 VEGETATION ZONES.

Categories of vegetation.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

 

Define the term vegetation.

Identify the three categories of vegetation.

 

 

 

Exposition and Q/A.

 

 

Photographs of various types of forests.

 

PAGES

99-100

   

7

1

Influence of topographical factors on vegetation.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the Influence of topographical factors on vegetation.

Discussion & Q/A.    

PAGES

100-101

   

2

Influence of climatic factors on vegetation.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the Influence of climatic factors on vegetation.

Probing questions & Discussion.    

PAGES

101-102

   

3

Influence of edaphic factors on vegetation.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Define the term edaphic.

Exposition of new concepts.

Q/A on physical and properties of soil.

Brief discussion.

 

   

PAGES

102-103

   

8

1

TEST  & MID-TERM BREAK          

2

Biotic factors.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Explain the influence of biotic factors on vegetation modification and /or destruction.

Q/A: review microclimate.

Brief discussion.

   

PAGES

103-104

   

3

Vegetation in Kenya.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe forest, vegetation & savanna vegetation in Kenya.

Q/A and discussion.    

PAGES

104-105

   

9

1

Mountain vegetation.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Outline types of mountain vegetation.

State characteristics of various types of mountain vegetation.

Identify locations of mountain vegetation.

State uses of mountain vegetation.

 

Q/A & elaborate discussion.    

PAGES

105-122

   

2

Field work on vegetation.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Carry out a fieldwork on vegetation.

Q/A: review the procedures followed in carrying out a field study.

Carry out the field study on vegetation.

 

   

PAGES

123-124

   

3

FORESTRY

 

Natural and planted forests.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Differentiate between natural and planted forests.

Q/A: definition of a forest.

Discussion: natural and planted forests; indigenous and exotic forests.

 

Photographs: natural and derived forests.  

PAGE 126

   

10

1

Types of natural forests.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe types of natural forests.

State characteristics of trees in particular types of forests.

Q/A & descriptive aPagesroach. Photographs: vegetation in various types of forests.

 

 

 

PAGES

127-128

   

2

Importance of forests and forests’ products.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify importance of forests and forests’ products.

Q/A & discussion: economic, environmental, cultural values of forests.

 

 

   

PAGE 129

   

3

Problems facing forestry in Kenya.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Identify the problems facing forestry in Kenya.

Q/A & detailed discussion. Newspaper cuttings & photographs illustrating some problems facing forestry in Kenya.

 

 

PAGE 130

   

11

1-2

Management and conservation of forests.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Describe management and conservation practices carried out in Kenya.

State the importance of management and conservation of forests.

 

Discussion: measures taken to manage and conserve forests and their importance.    

PAGES

130-131

   

3

Softwood forests in Kenya and Canada.

By the end of the lesson, the leaner should be able to:

Compare and contrast development of softwood forests in Kenya and in Canada.

Identify factors favouring / militating against exploitation of softwoods in both countries.

Identify benefits of softwoods.

 

 

 

 

Map – location of Canada.  

PAGES

132-135

   

12-13

 
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT TEST

 

         

 

KCPE 2003 ANSWERS, MARKING SCHEMES, FOR ALL SUBJECTS- OFFICIAL KNEC NEWSLETTER

KCPE-2003 N EWS LETTER MARKING SCH EMES
NUMBER MATHS ENGLISH KISWAHILI SCIENCE SST C.R.E I.R.E
1 B C C D A C C
2 C A B B B B B
3 B D A B B D D
4 D A B D B A A
5 C B D C B B B
6 C B C B C A A
7 A C A A D A A
8 D A D D A B B
9 C C B C C C C
10 C D D B C D D
11 D A C A C A A
12 C B B D B A A
13 B D A B A B B
14 A A D D A A A
15 D B C A D C C
16 B C C B B A A
17 D B D C D D D
18 C A B A C B B
18 D A A D C C C
20 B D C B B A A
21 D B B D A B B
22 C D A C D C C
23 D A D B A A A
24 A B C C D B B
25 C C B C C D D
26 A C D A D C C
27 B D A A C A A
28 D C D D A D D
29 B D C C B D D
30 A D B A A B B
31 B B A D A
32 A B D C C
33 D D C A B
34 A A B C A
35 A C A D C
36 B B D A D
37 B A C D A
38 B C A B A
39 C B B B A
40 B A D C C
41 C B C B C
42 C A A C A
43 D D D B C
44 B C B A A
45 A B C D C
46 D C A B C
47 A D D D B
48 C C B A B
49 D C C A C
50 A D A C C
51 C
52 A
53 D
54 A
55 B
56 D
57 D
58 A
59 C
60 A

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FORM 4 BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES

BIOLOGY FORM 4 REVISION NOTES

  1. a) i) Define the term genetics
  • the study of heredity(inheritance) and variation or study of mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring 

iii) List some characteristics which are inherited

  • size
  • height/length
  • colour/type
  • shape
  • yield

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iii) State the importance of genetics

  • helps to explain differences between organisms of the same species
  • helps to explain the transmission of characters from generation to generation
  • improvement in livestock
  • improvement in crops
  • can be used to treat some difficult diseases

 

  1. b) i) Explain the meaning of the following terms

Heredity

  • the resemblance among individuals related by  descent
  • transmission of traits from parents to offspring

Trait

  • also called character
  • A character of the organism e.g. type of ear, colour of eyes, height, yield etc.

Gene

  • unit of inheritance
  • it is the heredity factor which transmits traits from parents to offspring
  • genes are located at fixed points on chromosomes
  • each point is called a locus (loci)

Allele

  • genes can exist in a series of alternative forms at a particular locus
  • allele refers to alternative forms of genes controlling a particular characteristic

Chromosomes

  • threadlike structures found in nuclei of all plants and animals
  • they carry genes which are hereditary materials
  • they consist of substances called DNA and proteins called histosones

DNA

  • deoxyribonucleic acid
  • substances that make up chromosomes
  • double helix(strand) molecule that contains genes
  • DNA consists of nucleotides
  • A nucleotide consists of an inorganic phosphate, ribose sugar and a base
  • There are four bases in a DNA molecule i.e. Adenine(A), guanine(G), thymine(T) and cystosine (C)
  • Ribose sugar has four bases attached to it i.e. adenine, cystosine, guanine and thymine
  • Adenine pairs with thymine while guanine pairs with cystosine
  • Nucleotide initiates and controls protein synthesis
  1. ii) List the types of chromosomes
  • somatic (body) chromosomes also called autosomes
  • sex chromosomes (related to reproduction)
  1. c) i) What is variation?
  • sequence of differences occurring among individuals of the same species

 

  1. ii) State the causes of variation in organisms
  • random assortment of genes during meiosis
  • crossing over
  • fertilization
  • doubling of chromosome numbers(mutation)
  • environmental conditions

iii) Name the types of variation

  • Continuous variation (differences not clear cut) e.g. height, length, weight, skin colour, intelligence etc. They are quantitative and show intermediates
  • discontinuous variation(differences are clear cut) e.g. ability to roll tongue, ABO blood grouping system, RH factor, patterns of fingerprints, and ability to taste PTC. They are qualitative and have no intermediates
  1. iv) Explain the following terms

Acquired characteristics

  • they are as a result of adaptations due to the  environment and are not inherited

Inherited characteristics

  • are passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction

Genotype

  • genetic constitution of an individual/genetic makeup

Phenotype

  • characteristics of an individual  observed or discernible by other means i.e. observable character

Dominant gene (character)

  • expressed in the phenotype when homozygous or heterozygous

Recessive gene

  • only expressed in homozygous state

Homozygous

  • when two alleles are identical e.g. LL,ll

Heterozygous

  • when two alleles are different at a particular locus e.g. Ll

F1 and F2

  • F1 means first filial generation i.e. the first generation produced when two varieties can be crossed
  • F2 means second generation i.e. product of offspring or from F1 generation
  1. d) i) Explain Mendels first law of inheritance
  • also called law of segregation
  • it states that genes are responsible for the development of individual characters
  • these characters are transmitted individually without any alterations
  • Only one character from a contrasting pair can be carried in a gamete, hence only one character can be inherited.

 

 

 

 

  1. ii) Give an example of this law
  • In an experiment, Drosophila (fruit fly) with long wings were crossed with those having short wings. Assume letter L denotes gene for wing size. The gene for long wings is dominant to that  for short wings
  • the genes for dominant are LL and for recessive ll.
  • State the expected results for the first cross

 

iii) What is monohybrid inheritance?

  • when inheritance of one character is studied one at a time e.g. wing size only
  • the F2 generation (when selfed) always gives a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in a complete dominance
  1. What is complete dominance?
  • refers to where only one dominant character is expressed while the other character which is recessive is not expressed in the heterozygous state e.g. the case of wing size above

 

  1. e) i) What is meant by co dominance?
  • When genes produce independent effects when heterozygous/none of the genes is dominant over the other/where two or more alleles does not show complete dominance/recessiveness due to the failure of any allele to be dominate in a heterozygous condition.

 

  1. ii) Give an example of co dominance

In a certain plant species, some individual plants may have only white, red or pink flowers. In an experiment a plant with white flowers was crossed with a parent with red flowers. Show results of F1 generation. Use letter R for red gene and W for white gene.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

If the plants form F1 were selfed, work out the phenotype ratio for the F2 generation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Phenotypic ratio   1red:2pink:1white

Genotypic ratio 1:2:1

 

 

 

 

  1. f) i) What is a test cross?

– A cross between an individual showing a character for a dominant gene(that is homozygous or heterozygous) with a homozygous recessive individual

OR

  • a cross between individual(organism) of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual
  1. ii) State the importance of a test cross in genetics
  • helps in determining the genetic constitution/genotype of an organism

iii) What are multiple alleles?

  • a set of more than two alleles that may determine a character
  • example is blood group which can be determined by any two of three alleles i.e. A,B and O

 

 

  1. iv) Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups
  • in humans blood groups are determined by three alleles i.e. A,B and O
  • it is only possible to have two genes at a time
  • genes A and B are co-dominant while gene O is recessive to genes A and B

 

Give a worked example using parents with heterozygous blood groups AO and BO

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Explain the inheritance of Rhesus factor (Rh) in human beings
  • in humans blood is either Rh positive or Rh negative
  • people who have Rh antigen are Rh(+ve) while those without Rh antigen in their blood are Rh(-ve)
  • Rh(+ve) is due to a dominant gene while the recessive gene causes lack of Rh factor. When a person who is homozygous dominant marries a person who is homozygous recessive the result is as shown below

 

Let the gene for dominant Rh factor be R while gene for recessive be r

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • How is sex determined in human beings?
  • there are two sex chromosomes in humans, x and y
  • males are xy and females are xx
  • in females all ova have x chromosome
  • in males 50% of sperms contain x chromosomes while 50% of sperms contain y chromosome
  • when a sperm containing x chromosome fuses with an ovum this results into a girl
  • when a sperm containing y chromosome fuses with an ovum the result is a boy
  • an example is given below

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. g) i) What does the term linkage mean?

– These are genes which occur together on a chromosome and are passed to offspring without being separated

  1. ii) Define the term sex-linked genes
  • genes carried in the sex chromosome that are transmitted along with genes that determine sex

iii) What is meant by the term sex linkage?

  • genes are located on the sex chromosome
  • they are transmitted along with those that determine sex
  1. iv) Name the sex-linked traits in humans
  • colour blindness
  • haemophilia
  • Hairy ears. pinna, nose
  • Baldness
  • Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) muscular wasting
  1. v) Give an example of a sex linked trait in humans on:

Y Chromosome

  • tuft of hair sprouting from pinna/baldness

X Chromosome

  • colour blindness/haemophilia

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. vi) In humans red-green colour blindness is caused by a recessive gene C, which is sex-linked. A normal man married to a carrier woman transmits the trait to his children. Show the possible genotypes of the children.

Let C represent the gene for normal colour vision (dominant)

Let c represent the gene for colour blindness

Parental phenotype Norman man x carrier woman

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. State the importance of sex linkage
  • possible to determine sex of day old chicks
  1. Haemophilia is due to a recessive gene. The gene is sex-linked and located on the x chromosome. The figure below shows sworn offspring from phenotypically normal parents

 

 

 

 

 

 

What are the parental genotypes?

  • XY and XhX

Work out the genotypes of the offspring

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. h) i) What is mutation?
  • sudden change in the structure of DNA at a particular locus/chromosome/gene

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. ii) Describe how mutations arise
  • mutations arise due to alterations in normal number of chromosomes
  • change in a portion of a chromosome affecting one or more genes
  • by chromosomal aberration e.g. dleltion/duplication/substitution/inversion/translocation/crossing over
  • caused by mutagenic agents e.g. radiation (x-rays, ultra violet light, gamma rays) and chemicals e.g. mustard gas/colchicines

 

 

iii) State the factors that may cause mutation

  • these are chemicals and radiations

Radiations                                                Effects

X-rays                                           gene/chromosome alteration

Ultra violet rays                           structural distortion of DNA

 

Chemicals                                                 Effect

– colchicines                                 prevents spindle formation

Cyclamate                                     chromosome aberrations

Mustard gas                                  chromosomes aberrations

Nitrous acid                                  adenine in DNA is deaminated so behaves like guanine

Acridone orange                           addition and removal of bases of DNA

Formaldehyde

 

  1. iv) State the characteristics of mutations
  • arise suddenly
  • are unpredictable
  • random
  • generally rare
  • may breed true
  • some are desirable while others are lethal

 

  1. v) Explain chromosomal mutation

– Change in nature, structure or number of chromosomes

 

  1. vi) Explain how the following types of chromosomal mutations occur

 

Duplication

  • a section of a chromosome is repeated/replicates
  • therefore genes are repeated

Inversion

  • occurs when chromatids break at 2 places and when rejoining the middle piece rotates and joins in  an inverted position

Deletion

  • portion of a chromosome is left out after it breaks off
  • alters number and sequence of genes

 

 

 

Translocation

  • occurs when a section of a chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid of another chromosome

 

Non-disjuntion

Failure of homologous chromosomes/sister chromatids to separate/segregate during meiosis

 

Polyploidy

  • where number of chromosomes double or triple
  • beneficial in plants due to the following
  • increased yields/hybrid vigour//heterosis
  • resistance to pests
  • early maturity
  • resistance to drought
  • resistance to diseases

 

vii) What are gene mutations?

  • an alteration in the structure of a gene
  1. Explain how the following occur during gene mutation

 

Deletion

  • some bases/nucleotides of a gene are removed

Inversion

  • the order of some bases/nucleotides of a gene is reversed

Insertion

  • addition of a base between two existing bases

Substitution

  • a portion of a gene is replaced by a new portion

 

  1. Name the disorders in humans caused by gene mutation
  • albinism
  • sickle cell anaemia
  • achondroplasia/chondordystorphic dwarfism
  • haemophilia
  • colour blindness
  • phenylketonuria

 

  1. State the practical applications of genetics
    1. Breeding programmes (research)
  • high yielding/hybrid vigour/heterosis
  • resistance to diseases
  • resistance to drought/salinity
  • early maturing

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Genetic engineering
  • genetic manipulation to produce desired characteristics
  • Law

– legal questions of paternity knowledge of blood groups or blood transfusion

 

  1. iv) Genetic counseling
  • aimed at reducing harmful traits e.g. albinism, congenital idiots, colour blindness e.t.c

 

  1. v) Others

– Pre-sex determination

Understanding human evolution and origin of other species.

 

  1. a) i) Explain the meaning of evolution
  • a gradual change in living organisms from simple life forms to more complex forms over a long period of time.

 

  1. ii) Differentiate organic evolution from chemical evolution as theories of origin of life
  • organic evolution refers to the emergence of present forms of organisms gradually from pre-existing forms (some of which no longer exist)
  • chemical evolution explains the origin of life as having occurred when simple chemical compounds reacted to form the simplest life forms

 

iii) What is special creation?

  • maintains that the whole universe and all living organisms came into being due to the act of a supernatural being

 

  1. b) Discuss the various kinds of evidence for evolution

 

  1. Fossils
  • fossils are remains of organisms preserved in naturally occurring materials for many years
  • they give evidence of types of plants/animals that existed at certain geological age/long ago/millions of years ago
  • gives evidence of morphological/anatomical/structural changes that have taken place over a long period of time e.g. human skull, leg of horse

 

  1. Comparative anatomy
  • gives evidence of relationship among organisms/gives evidence of a common ancestry of a group of organisms
  • organisms have similar structures/organs performing the same function e.g. digestive system/ urinary system/nervous system/vestigial structures and vertebrate heart
  • Divergence where the basic structural form is modified to serve different functions e.g. vertebrate forelimb/beak structure in birds/birds feet/parts of a flower. These are called homologous structures
  • homologous structures have a common embryonic origin but are modified to perform different functions e.g. the pentadactyl limb
  • adaptive radiation is a situation where organism have a homologous  structure with common  embryonic origin which is modified to perform different functions to adapt organisms to different ecological niches/habitats e.g. beaks of Darwinian finches(birds)

 

 

 

 

  • Convergence is where different structures are modified to perform a similar function e.g. wings of birds and insects/eyes of humans and octopuses. These are called analogous structures
  • Vestigial structures are greatly reduced in size and have ceased to function e.g. human appendix/caecium/coccix in humans, wings of kiwi (flightless bird), presence of hind limb pad in python, halters in insects, human hair nictitating membrane in human eye, human ear muscle, pelvic girdle in whale and third digit of wing of bird.

 

  • Comparative embryology
  • some embryos of different animals appear very similar thus showing relationship and possibility of a common ancestry
  • e.g. different classes of vertebrates larvae of annelida and mollusca are similar (tocophere)

 

  1. Comparative serology/physiology
  • these show biochemical and immunological comparisons of blood groups/components to show immunological similarities of tissues therefore showing relatedness of different organisms
  • e.g. antigen antibody reactions, human blood groups/Rh factor reveal some phylogenic relationship among organisms/common ancestry

 

  1. Geographical distribution
  • organisms differ in various geographical regions
  • present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined together/pangea/Eurasia/Gondwanaland
  • present continents drifted apart from one land mass/continental drift
  • as a result of continental drift isolation of organisms occurred bring about different patterns of evolution
  • organisms in each continent evolved along different lines hence emergence of new species/divergence/convergence

 

Examples

  • marsupials in Australia
  • illama, jaguar, panther in S. America
  • lion, camel in Africa
  • tiger in Asia

 

  1. Cell biology (cytology)
  • structures and functioning of cells are similar
  • occurrence of organelles e.g. mitochondria in all cells/both plant and animal cells
  • these point at a common ancestry

 

  1. c) i) State the evolutionary characteristics that adopt human beings to the environment

– Brain

– Eyes

– Upright posture/bipedal locomotion

– prehensible arm/hand

– Speech

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. ii) State the ways in which Homo sapiens differs from Homo habilis
  • standing upright/erect posture
  • intellectual capacity/higher thinking capacity/bigger brain/higher brain capacity
  • communication through language/speech

 

  1. d) i) Explain Larmarck’s theory of evolution
  • Inheritance of acquired characteristics/environment induces production of a favorable trait which is then inherited
  1. ii) Explain why Lamarck’s theory of evolution is not accepted by biologists today
  • evidence does not support Lamarck’s theory
  • acquired characteristics are not inherited/inherited characteristics are found in reproductive cells only

iii) Explain Darwin’s theory of evolution

  • inheritance of genetically acquired characteristics
  • a character happens to appear spontaneously which gives advantage to an organism therefore adapted then inherited through natural selection
  1. e) i) What is natural selection?

– Organisms with certain characteristics are favoured by the environment

Such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring

Others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations

 

  1. ii) With examples, explain how natural selection takes place
  • organism with certain characteristics are favored by their environment
  • such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring
  • others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations
  • as the environmental conditions change the survival value of a character may alter with time so that characteristics which were favored may no longer have advantage and other characters may then become favorable
  • if a favorable character is inherited, then offspring produce generations which are better adapted to survive in a population
  • more offspring are produced than can survive which results in struggle for survival
  • the fittest survive

 

iii) State the advantages of natural selection to organisms

  • assist to eliminate disadvantageous characteristics/perpetuates advantageous characteristics
  • allows better adapted organisms to survive adverse changes in the environment/less adapted organisms are eliminated

 

  1. iv) State the ways in which sexual reproduction is important in the evolution of plants and animals
  • brings about useful variations/desirable characters
  • variations make offspring better adapted for survival/more resistant to diseases
  • may lead to origin of new species

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. v) Explain the significance of mutation in evolution

– Mutation bring about variation which can be inherited

– Some of these variations are advantageous to the organism

– Others are disadvantageous

– The advantageous variations favour the organism to compete better in the struggle for survival

– This results into a more adapted organism to its environment or new species/varieties

– Those with disadvantageous characters will be discriminated against therefore eliminated from the population/death/perish

 

  1. vi) Plain why it is only mutations in genes of gametes that influence evolution
  • gametes form the new offspring

 

vii) How would you prove that evolution is still taking place?

  • resistance of organism to antibiotics, pesticides and drugs
  • new varieties of bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics such as penicillin
  • houseflies and mosquitoes are resistant to DDT

 

  • Explain why some bacteria develop resistance to a drug after they have bee subjected to it for some time
  • bacteria mutates/develops a new strain/chemical composition is altered hence is able to produce enzymes/chemicals which degrade the drug rendering it non-susceptible to the drug
  • the new strain is favoured by selection pressure/ natural selection

 

  1. f) How has industrial melaninism i.e. peppered moth contributed towards the mechanism of evolution

 

– This is an example of natural selection

– The peppered moth exists in two distinct forms, the speckled white form (normal form) and a melanic form (the black/dark)

– They usually rest on leaves and barks of trees that offer camouflage for protection

– Originally the “speckled white” form predominated the unpolluted area of England

– This colouration offered protection against predatory birds

– Due to industrial pollution tree barks have blackened with soot

– The white form underwent mutation

– A black variety/mutant emerged suddenly by mutation

– It had selective advantage over the white forms that were predated upon in the industrial areas

– The speckled white form is abundant in areas without soot/smoke

 

  1. a) i) Define irritability, stimulus and response irritability

-also called sensitivity

– Responsiveness to change in environment

 

Stimulus

A change in the environment of organism which causes change in organism’s activity

Response

  • change in activity of an organism caused by a stimulus
  1. ii) State importance of irritability to living organisms
  • Adjusting to environmental conditions. Sensitive/defect/responding

 

 

 

  • List the examples of external stimuli to organisms
  • air/oxygen (aero)
  • light(photo)
  • osmotic pressure (osmo)
  • current (Rheo)
  • chemical concentration (chemo)
  • \water/moisture (hydro)
  • Touch/contact (hapto/thigmo)
  • Gravity/soil (geo)
  • Temperature (thermo)
  1. b) i) What are tactic responses?
  • response in which whole organism or its motile parts move e.g. gamete

 

  1. ii) What causes tactic responses?
  • caused by unidirectional stimulus
  • usually doesn’t involve growth
  • response is either positive or negative
  • named according to source of stimulus
  • g phototaxis, aerotaxis, chemotaxis

 

iii) State the importance of tactic response to:

Members of kingdom protista

  • move towards favorable environment/move away from unfavorable environment
  • move towards their prey/food

Microscopic plants

– escape injurious stimuli/seek favorable habitats

 

  1. Name the type of response exhibited by:

Euglena when they swim towards the source of light

  • phototaxis
  • sperms when they swim towards the ovum
  • chemotaxis

 

  1. State the advantages of tactic responses to organisms
  • to avoid unfavorable environment/injurious stimuli
  • escape from predators
  • to seek favorable environment
  • to seek for food/prey

 

  1. c) i) Define the term tropism
  • growth movement of plants in response to external unilateral/unidirectional stimuli
  1. ii) Explain the various types of tropism in plants

Phototropism

  • growth movements of plant shoots in response to unilateral sources of light
  • the tip of the shoots produce auxins down the shoot
  • light causes auxins to migrate to outer side/darker side causing growth on the side away from light hence growth curvature towards source of light roots are negatively phototrophic

 

 

 

 

 

 

Geotropism

  • response of roots/parts of a plant to the direction of force of gravity
  • auxins grow towards the direction of force of gravity causing positive geotropism in roots while shoot grows away from force of gravity (negatively geotrophic)

Thimotropism/Haptotropism

  • growth response of plant when in contact with an object
  • contact with support causes migration of auxins to outer side causing faster growth on the side away from contact surface
  • this causes tendrils/stem to twin around a support

Hydrotropism

  • growth movement of roots in response to unilateral source of water/moisture
  • the root grows towards the source of water/ positively hydrotropic while leaves are negatively hydrotropic

chemostropism

  • growth movement of parts of plant to unilateral source of chemicals
  • the chemicals form a gradient between two regions e.g. pollen tube growing towards the ovary through the style

iii) State the ways in which tropisms are important to plants

  • expose leaves/shoots in positions for maximum absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis
  • enables roots of plants to seek/look/search for water
  • enables plant stems/tendrils to obtain mechanical support especially those that lack woody stems
  • enables roots to grow deep into the soil for anchorage
  • enables pollen tube grow to embryo sac to facilitate fertilization

 

 

  1. iv) Explain the differences between tropic and tactic responses
Tropisms Taxes
–        growth curvature in response

–        slow

–        influenced by hormones

–        locomotory response

–        fast

–        external influence

 

 

 

  1. d) The diagram below represents growing seedlings which were subjected to unilateral light at the beginning of an experiment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

R

 

 

 

  1. State the results of P, Q and R after 5 days
  • P will bend/grow towards light
  • Q will remain straight/have little or no growth
  • R will remain/grow straight/grow upwards

 

  1. Account for your results in (i) above

P- Growth substance/growth hormone/IAA/auxin are produced by the stem tip

  • they move (downwards and get distributed) to the side away from light where they cause rapid/more growth/cell division/elongation that results in bending

Q- Source of auxin has been removed

R- The auxins cannot be affected by light because the tip has been covered

 

  • If the tin foil were removed from the tip of seedling R, what results would be observed after two days
  • it will bend/grow towards light

 

  1. State the expected results after 3 day is if the box were removed
  • all seedlings will grow straight/upwards

 

  1. e) In an experiment to investigate a certain aspect of plant response, a seedling was placed horizontally as shown in diagram I below. After seven days the appearance of the seedling was as shown in diagram 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Account for the curvature of the shoot and root after the seven days

  1. Shoot
  • auxins accumulate on the lower side of the seedling due to gravity
  • high concentration of auxins in shoot stimulates faster growth causing more elongation on the lower side than the upper side hence curvature occurs upwards
  1. Root
  • the high concentration of auxins inhibits growth hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side therefore the curvature occurs downwards

 

 

 

 

 

  1. f) What is etiolation?
  • phenomenon exhibited by plants when grown in darkness
  • such plants are pale yellow due to absence of chlorophyll, have small leaves, long stems/hypocotyle and slender stems
  • plants exhibit etiolation to reach light/obtain light
  • this is a survival response

 

  1. a) i) What is coordination in animals

– The linking together of all physiological activities that occur in the body so that they take place at the right time and in the correct place

 

  1. ii) Name the main systems for coordination in animals

– Nervous system/sensory system

– Endocrine (hormonal system)

 

iii) List the components of the mammalian sensory system

– Central nervous system (CNS), brain & spinal cord

– Peripheral nervous system (PNS) cranial and spinal nerves

– Sense organs

– Autonomic nervous system (ANS) nerve fibers and ganglia

 

iv).Explain the terms receptors, conductors and effectors

– Receptors are structures that detect stimuli i.e. sense organs

– Conductors transmit impulses from receptors to effectors e.g. neurons

– Effectors are the responding parts e.g. muscles, glands

 

  1. v) What are the functions of the central nervous system?

– provides a fast means of communication between receptors and effectors

– coordinates the activities of the body

 

  1. vi) State the differences between somatic and autonomic systems of peripheral nervous system

– Somatic is concerned with controlling the conscious or voluntary actions of the body i.e. skin, bones, joints and skeletal muscles

– the autonomic (automatic) nervous system controls involuntary actions of internal organs, digestive system, blood vessels, cardiac muscles and glandular products.

 

  1. b) i) What is a neurone?
  • the basic unit of the nervous system
  • also called  nerve cell
  • conducts impulses
  • include monitor sensory and relay neurons

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. ii) Name the parts of a typical neurone and state the functions of each part
  • cell body/centron contains nucleus and cytoplasm
  • axon transmits impulses away from cell body
  • dendrites relays impulses across adjacent neurons
  • myelin sheath insulates axon and speeds up transmission of impulses
  • schwan cells forms myelin sheath and aid in nutrition and regeneration of axon

 

 

 

  • node of ranvier occur between schwan cells, where axon is not covered, speeds up impulse transmission
  • nissils granules contain mitochondria that provide cell body with energy for metabolic process

 

  1. Describe the structure and function of a motor neurone
  • motor neurone relays impulses from CNS (brain/spinal cord) to effectors ( muscles/glands)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Describe the structure and function of sensory neurone
  • sensory neurone relays impulses from receptors (sense organs) to CNS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • State structural differences between motor and sensory neurons
  • Cell body in motor neurone is terminal (at the end) and inside central nervous system.
  • Cell body in sensory neurone is terminal but has axon at both ends (bipolar)

 

  1. Describe the structure and function of a relay neurone

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • also called intermediate/internuncial/associate/connector/interneurone
  • locate inside central nervous system and spinal cord
  • usually lack myelin sheath

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. c) State the functions of the major parts of the human brain

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. i) Cerebrum
  • called forebrain
  • occupies most of the brain
  • consists of four lobes each with specific function
  • temporal lobe controls taste smell hearing learning and memory
  • partial lobe controls sensory output and touch
  • occipital lobe controls vision, motor output and speech
  • frontal lobe controls personality, learning thought and speech
  • also has parts called thalamus and hypothalamus
  • thalamus helps to sort sensory information
  • hypothalamus controls hunger, heartbeat body temperature and aggression

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. ii) Mid brain
  • quite small in humans
  • relay centre for audio and visual information
  • also involves in some sight, hearing and orientation responses

 

  1. Hind brain
  • consists of cellebral and medulla oblongata
  • cerebellum is responsible for coordinating impulses, posture and balance, motor coordination and muscle tone
  • medulla oblongata controls heartbeat, blood pressure breathing rate, coughing and sneezing

 

  1. i) What is reflex action?
  • an automatic response to an external stimulus e.g. sneezing or withdrawing hand from a hot object

 

 

 

  1. ii) Describe a reflex action that will lead to the withdrawal of a hand from a hot object
  • Receptors in the skin respond to stimuli. Are stimulated
  • an impulse is transmitted through the sensory neurone, across a synapse to the central nervous system (white matter), through the relay neurone into grey matter, then to the motor neurone and finally to the effect muscle which contracts
  • the hand is then withdrawn

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

iii) Explain how an impulse is transmitted across the synapse (gap)

  • impulse initiates release of transmitter substance acetylcholine at the end of the sensory neurone
  • acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and generates an impulse in the next neurone

 

  1. Briefly describe the transmission of a nervous impulse across a neuro-muscular junction
  • impulse arrives at synoptic knob and causes vesicle to move to the pre-synaptic membrane
  • vesicle discharges transmitter substance into synaptic cleft
  • transmitter substance/acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft and attaches to post-synaptic membrane
  • the membrane is depolarized, generating the action potential

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • What are the functions of a synapse?
  • allows transmission of nerve impulses from neurone to neurone
  • ensures nerve impulses travel in only one direction
  • in the brain they store information/memory

 

  1. i) What is a conditioned reflex?
  • A response caused by a unilateral stimulus (associated stimulus) which substitutes the normal stimulus

 

  1. ii) Explain a conditioned reflex
  • it is automatic
  • it involves the spinal cord
  • it is usually learned e.g. writing, cycling, dancing
  • it involves the interaction of highly specialized centers of the brain with a large number of neurone  necessary to bring about conditioning
  • example is experiments carried out by Pavlov using dogs

 

iii) Compare a simple reflex action with a conditioned reflex

 

Simple reflex Conditioned reflex
  • independent of experience
  • one stimulus to evoke response
  • some sensory and motor neurons used
  • reflex is simple
  • dependent on experience
  • both substitute and original reflex evoke response
  • sensory component replaced but motor remains unchanged
  • reflex is modified

 

 

  1. i) What are endocrine glands?
  • ductless glands that produce hormones in animals
  • hormones are chemical substances which help to coordinate the functions of the body

 

  1. ii) State the functions of hormones in animals
  • regulate growth and development
  • control behavior during breeding
  • proper functioning of cells
  • regulate metabolic activities

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

iii) Name the main endocrine glands, their secretions and functions in the human body

Gland Hormone Functions
Thyroid Thyroxine Increases rate of metabolism
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Regulates calcium and phosphate levels
Pituitary Hormone growth Regulate growth of body
  Gonadotrophic hormone Stimulates the development of male and female sex organs
Lactogenic hormone (prolactin) Stimulates secretion of milk after child birth
Thyrotropic hormone(TSH) – proper functioning of thyroid gland/thyroxine production
Adrenocorthicotropic hormone (ACTH) – stimulates release of adrenal cortex hormone
Oxytocin
  • regulates blood pressure
  • stimulates smooth muscles
  • stimulates contraction of uterus during childbirth
  • aids in flow of milk from mammary glands
Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)
  • causes maturation of egg in females
  • stimulates sperm production in males
Vasopressin (ADH) Antiduretic hormone – regulates water balance by kidneys
Adrenal Adrenaline (epinephrine)
  • for emergency
  • prepares body to cope up with stress
  Aldosterone – maintains balance of salt and water in blood
  Cortisone
  • breaks down stored proteins to amino acids
  • aids in breakdown of adipose tissue
  • regulates sugar level in blood
  • prevents inflammation

 

 

 

  Sex hormones
  • supplements sex hormones produced by gonads
  • promotes development of sexual characteristics
Pancrease Insulin
  • regulates level of sugar in blood
  • enables liver to store sugar
Glucagons
  • regulates level of sugar in blood
Ovaries Oestrogen
  • causes sexual secondary characteristics in females
  • prepares uterus for pregnancy
Progesterone
  • growth of mucus lining of uterus
  • maintains uterus during pregnancy
Testes Androgens(testosterone)
  • causes secondary sexual characteristics in males
Stomach cells Gastrin
  • stimulates release of gastric juice
Intestinal cells Secretin
  • stimulate release of pancreatic juice

 

 

  1. iv) Give the differences between nervous and endocrine (hormonal) communication
Nervous Hormonal (endocrine)
Response confined to effector organs (localized targets) Response more widespread (various targets)
Speed of response is rapid Response less rapid
Nervous impulse thro\\ugh nerves/nerve cell/neurons Hormones transferred through blood
Duration of response is short Persist for long
Speed of transmission is rapid Speed of transmission is slower
Transmission is electrical Transmission is chemical
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. v) State the effects of over secretion and under secretion of adrenaline and thyroxine in humans
Hormone Over secretion Under secretion
Adrenaline
  • thin toneless muscles
  • high blood pressure
  • weak bones
  • obesity
  • early onset of sexual development
  • low blood pressure
  • inability to withstand stress
  • fatigue
  • muscular weakness
  • muscle wasting
  • increased dark pigmentation of skin
Thyroxine
  • increased metabolism
  • increased heartbeat
  • physical restlessness
  • mental restlessness
  • protruding eyeballs
  • enlarged thyroid gland
  • cretinism(retarded growth and low mental development
  • lowered metabolism
  • low ventilation rate of lungs
  • low body temperature
  • lowered mental activity
  • coarse hair
  • puffy eyes
  • enlarged thyroid gland

 

 

 

  1. g) i) Define the following terms

Drug

  • a substance that causes a change in body function

Drug abuse

  • indiscriminate use of drugs without minding their side effects
  • misuse or wrong use of drugs

 

  1. ii) State the types of drugs, examples and side effects

Sedatives

  • also called depressant
  • a drug that decreases the action of the central nervous system
  • reduce anxiety, and tension, induce sleep and act as muscle relaxants
  • when abused they cause withdrawal effects such as anxiety, delirium and death
  • includes barbiturates, other sedatives, tranquilizers and alcohol

Pain-killers

  • suppress centers of pain in the brain

Hallucinogens

  • given to people with hallucination or mentally ill patients to calm then down
  • when abused they lead to a feeling of confusion, agitation, depression and violent behavior that can lead to murder or suicide
  • examples include valium, LSD, bhang, narcotics and cannabis

 

 

 

Stimulants

  • drugs that temporarily increase the action of the central nervous system
  • they create a feeling of alertness, wakefulness, a sense of self confidence and well being
  • used to decrease fatigue and mild depression
  • when abused they cause feelings of persecution, hallucination and addiction
  • include amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, miraa and nicotine

 

iii) State the general effects of drug abuse on human health

  • damage to body organs e.g. liver cirrhosis
  • drug addiction
  • impaired judgment resulting in clumsiness
  • socio-economic problems e.g. crime, loss of jobs, divorce, prostitution, HIV/AIDS
  • may cause poor health

 

 

  1. h) i) List the special sense organs in mammals and the major function of each

– Eye for sight

– Ear for hearing and balance

– Nose for smell

– Skin for touch, temperature detection, pain detection

 

 

  • How is the human eye adapted to its function?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • conjunctiva is thin/transparent/tough to allow light to pass through/to protect the eye
  • Sclerotic layer is made up of (collagen) fibers/fibrous. It maintains shape of the eyeball/protects the eye
  • cornea is transparent/curved thus refracts light rays/allows light to pass through
  • Choroid is a layer of tissue with black pigment/dark pigment. Prevents internal reflection of light in the eye/contains blood vessels that supply oxygen/nutrients/remove (metabolic) wastes from the eye
  • retina has cones/rods for bright colour vision/low light vision
  • yellow spot has a high concentration of cones for accurate vision/visual acuity
  • Blind spot has no cones and rods. Place where optic nerve leaves/enters the eye
  • optic nerve has (sensory) nerve fibers for transmission of impulses to the brain (for interpretation)
  • Lens is biconvex/made up of elastic material/transparent. Adjust focus on far or near objects allow light to pass through/for refraction of light rays
  • ciliary body is made up of muscle fibers/glandular which contract/relax to change shape
  • suspensory ligaments are inelastic to hold lens in position/attach it to ciliary body
  • iris(is the coloured part of the eye it) has radial and circular muscles which control size of pupil
  • pupil is the small hole at the centre of iris through which light passes into the eye
  • aqueous humor is a fluid through which oxygen/nutrients pass to the cornea/lens/maintains shape of the eyeball/refracts light rays
  • vitreous humor is a fluid which maintains shape of eye/refracts light rays

 

 

iii) What is accommodation of the eye?

  • ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from a near or far object into sharp focus on the retina

 

 

  1. iv) Explain how an eye viewing a near object adjusts to viewing a far object
  • ciliary muscles relax
  • suspensory ligaments become taut/tight
  • lens decreases curvature/becomes thinner
  • radial muscles relax
  • circular muscles contract
  • size of pupil decreases to reduce amount of light

 

 

  1. v) What changes occur in the eye if it changes from observing an object at a distance to one at a closer range?

– ciliary muscles contract

– Tension in suspensory ligaments reduces/relax/ slackens

– Lens bulges/thickens/increases curvature

– Radial muscles contract

– Circular muscles relax

– Size of pupil becomes large to allow in more light.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • State the changes which would take place in the eye if a person in a dark room had lights switched on
  • circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax
  • pupil becomes small to allow less light into the eye
  1. Explain how the eye forms an image
  • the mammalian eye works like a camera
  • light rays enter the cornea pass through the pupil, aqueous humor, lens and vireous humor
  • light rays are refracted by the aqueous and humor and lenses
  • finally light falls on the retina to form an image
  • the image is real and inverted and smaller than object, back to front/reversed
  • Retina forms a fine image when light rays reach it.

 

  1. Name the defects of the eye and state how they can be corrected

Short sight (Myopia)

  • eye cannot focus on far objects
  • image is formed in front of the retina because light rays converge in front of retina
  • the lens is too thick, curve and eyeball too long
  • corrected by wearing concave/biconcave/lenses
  • these lenses diverge light rays onto retina

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Long sight (Hypermetropia)

  • eye lenses are unable to focus because they are flat, thin and weak hence unable to focus image on the retina
  • they are unable to accommodate/change the focal length
  • near image is formed behind the retina but a distant one is correctly focused on the retina
  • corrected by wearing convex/biconvex/converging lenses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Presbyopia

  • occurs in old age hence called old sight
  • caused due to loss of elasticity of lenses, weakness of ciliary muscles hence lack of focus of light rays
  • this causes long sight
  • corrected by wearing biconvex/convex/converging lenses

Squinting

  • eyeballs are uncoordinated/do not turn at the same time
  • eye muscles move in different directions
  • this makes accommodation and focusing difficult
  • corrected through surgery

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Astigmatism

  • surface of cornea is uneven
  • leads to weak focus of light raise on retina
  • corrected by using cylindrical lenses/lenses with combined curvature

 

  1. State the advantages of having two eyes in human beings
  • stereoscopic vision
  • gives a wider angle of binocular vision
  • if one is damaged human is not blinded

 

I i) What are the functions of the human ear?

  • hearing
  • maintaining body balance and posture

 

 

  1. How are the structures of the human ear suited to perform the function of hearing?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • Pinna is funnel shaped allows collection of sound waves and channels them down the auditory canal/auditory mateus
  • auditory canal is a tube that concentrates and directs sound waves to tympanic membrane/ tympanum/eardrum
  • Eardrum is thin and tight. It sets into vibration/vibrates/converts sound waves into vibrations
  • the vibrations are transmitted to the ear ossicles/malleus, incus and stapes that amplify the sound vibrations
  • the vibrations are then transmitted to the fennestra ovalis/oval window
  • Oval window is a membrane which amplifies/transmits vibrations to the fluids (perilymph and endolymph) then to cochlea.
  • The cochlea is coiled to occupy a small space and accommodate a large number of sensory cells
  • The sensory cells/hairs (in the cochlea) are set into vibrations/stimulated producing nerve impulses in the auditory nerve
  • Impulses in the auditory nerve are transmitted to the brain for interpretation for hearing
  • Eustachian tube connects the inner ear to the throat. It equalizes air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure (in outer ear)
  • Fennestra rotundus/round window dissipates/discharges/discards vibrations from inner ear to middle ear

 

iii) Explain how the structure of the human ear performs the function of balancing

  • there are three semi-circular canals/utriculus/succulus/vestibular apparatus arranged in planes at right angles to each other
  • at the end of each canal is a swelling called ampulla which contains receptors
  • the movement of the head causes movement of the fluid/endolymph in at least one canal
  • the fluid movement causes stimulation of the receptors/sensory hairs
  • sensory impulses are generated
  • the auditory nerve transmits the impulses to the brain for interpretation for the position of body/posture/balance

 

  1. iv) State what would happen if the auditory nerve was completely damaged
  • deafness
  • loss of body balance
  • impulse not transmitted to the brain

 

 

 

  1. a) i) What is support?
  • to support is to carry part of the weight/mass of an organism

 

 

  1. ii) What is locomotion?
  • progressive change in the position of an organism

iii) State the importance of support systems in living organisms

  • they provide a framework for the body of organisms and help to determine their shape
  • provide land animals with means for support to their weights against gravity
  • organs are attached to the skeleton for support and stability to avoid entanglement and crushing each other
  • they protect very important and delicate organs whether inside or outside the body e.g. eyes, heart
  • in large plants the rigid trunks of trees support the greater mass of leaves and fruits
  1. iv) State the importance of locomotion in animals
  • in search of food
  • search for mates
  • escaping predators

 

  1. b) i) Name the tissues in higher plants that provide mechanical support
  • sclerenchyma
  • collenchyma (not lignified)
  • xylem/tracheids and vessels

 

  1. ii) State the importance of support in plants
  • exposing the surface area of leaf to sunlight for photosynthesis
  • ensure flowers are exposed to pollination agents
  • expose fruits and seeds to agents of dispersal
  • to resist breakages due to their own weight and that of other organisms
  • for proper transport and translocation of materials

 

iii) Name the types of plant stems

  • herbaceous e.g. shrubs
  • woody e.g. trees
  • weak stems in creepers, twining plants and plants bearing tendrils

 

  1. iv) Name the tissues in plants that are strengthened with lignin
  • sclerenchyma
  • xylem vessels/tracheids/xylem

 

  1. v) What makes young herbaceous plants remain upright?
  • turgidity
  • presence of collenchyma

 

  1. vi) State the ways by which plants compensate for lack of ability to move from one place to another
  • ability to pollinate
  • response to nastic and tropic movement
  • ability to exploit localized nutrients
  • ability to disperse seed or fruit propagation

 

 

 

  1. c) i) Explain the ways in which erect posture is maintained in a weak herbaceous stem

– This is the function of turgidity and presence of collencyma

Cells take in water and become turgid

 

 

 

  1. ii) Explain how support in plants is achieved
  • Turgor pressure due to absorption of water keeps cells firm hence hold herbaceous plants upright
  • collenchyma and clerenchyma tissues are closely packed in stem and roots to provide support
  • inelastic cuticle on epidermis is covered by a waxy layer hence keeping shape of plant and setting inward pressure against turgid cells and this causes a force to hold plant upright
  • xylem vessels and tracheids are lignified to provide support to stems, roots and leaves
  • climbing plants obtain mechanical support from other plants and objects
  • they have climbing structures like tendrils which hold on to other objects

 

  1. d) i) Give the reasons why support is necessary in animals
  • for attachment of muscles
  • For attachment of other body organs
  • to protect delicate body organs
  • to maintain body shape/form
  • to enable movement/locomotion

 

  1. ii) Why is movement necessary in animals?
  • enables animals to search for food
  • enables animals to search for shelter
  • enables animals to escape predators/harmful conditions
  • enables animals to search for water
  • enables animals to search for mates
  • enables animals to search for breeding sites

 

  1. e) i) Name the organ used for support by animals

– Skeleton

 

  1. ii) Name the different types of skeletons in animals, giving an example of an animal for each type of skeleton named
  • exoskeleton e.g. arthropoda (crab, insect)
  • endoskeleton e.g. chordata (cat, fish)

 

iii) State the difference between exoskeleton and endoskeleton

  • endoskeleton is a rigid framework covered by body tissues of an animal
  • exoskeleton is a rigid framework found on the surface of an animal

 

  1. iv) State the advantages of having an exoskeleton
  • supports/protects delicate inner parts
  • water proof/prevents drying up of body
  • provided surface for muscle attachment

 

  1. v) Explain the importance of having an endoskeleton
  • support the body
  • give body its shape
  • protect delicate organs e.g. skull, brain, ribs
  • used in locomotion e.g. bones serve as levers
  • red blood cells are formed in bone marrow
  • minerals are stored in bones e.g. calcium and phosphorus

 

 

 

  1. f) i) Explain how a fish is adapted to living in water
  • streamlined body for easy movement in water
  • swim bladder controls depth of swimming
  • fins for movement, balance, direction and stability
  • gills for gaseous exchange in water
  • presence of lateral line to sense vibrations
  • scales provide protection
  • colour which offers camouflage against predators

 

  1. ii) Explain how a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water
  • streamlined body to reduce resistance/friction )to swim smoothly)
  • the vertebral column consists of a series of vertebrae held together loosely so that it is flexible
  • myotomes/muscles associated with vertebral column produce movement
  • the sideways and backwards thrust of the tail and body against water results in resistance of water pushing the fish sideways and forwards in a direction opposed to thrust
  • heat not flexible so as to maintain forward thrust
  • presence of fins help in propulsion/balance/paired fins (pectoral and pelvic) for controlling pitch and slow down movement/unpaired fins (dorsal, ventral, anal) for yawing and rolling (caudal) for swimming/propulsion and steering/change of direction
  • presence of swim bladder to make fish buoyant
  • scales tip towards the  back to provide smooth surface
  • body covered with mucus to reduce friction
  • flattened surface for easy floating

 

  1. g) i) Name the main parts of the vertebral column giving the types of bones found in each part

Axial skeleton

  • forms the main axis of the body
  • formed by the skull, sternum, ribs and vertebrae

Appendicular skeleton

  • composed of limbs and girdles
  • the forelimbs are connected to the trunk by the pectoral girdles (shoulder bones)
  • hind limbs are connected to the pelvic girdle (hips)
  • bones are scapular, clavicle, humerus, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, carpals, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, ilium, ischium and pubis

 

  1. ii) What are the vertebrae?
  • bones of the vertebral column

 

iii) State the functions of the vertebral column

  • gives flexibility
  • absorbs shock
  • protects spinal cord
  • supports weight of body
  • provide surface for muscle attachment
  • between the vertebrae are soft discs which offer cushioning called interverterbral discs

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. iv) State the general characteristics of vertebrae
  • have solid structure called centrum to support weight of body
  • has transverse process lateral to centrum for muscle attachment
  • neural spine is dorsal to centrum and provides surface area for muscle attachment
  • neural canal a passage for spinal cord and offers protection to it
  • has facets for articulation with other vertebrae
  • neural arch encloses neural canal

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. v) Name the bones of the vertebral column

– Cervical vertebra

– Thoracic vertebra

– Lumbar vertebra

– Sacral vertebra

– Caudal vertebra

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. vi) Describe how the various vertebrae are adapted to their functions
Bone Structure Function
Skull
  • cranium and jaw bones
  • made of several bones joined together
  • large box called cranium and smaller paired boxes for eyes, ears, nose, jaws
  • has large hole called foramen magnum for the passage of spinal cord
  • attachment of jaws
  • protect brain and other delicate parts
Cervical region

Atlas (first cervical)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • ring shaped
  • no Centrum
  • broad, flat transverse processes
  • vertebraterial canal for passage of vertebral artery
  • facet for articulation of condyles of skull
  • protect spinal cord
  • attachment of muscles
  • allow nodding of head
Axis (second cervical)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • adontoid peg projects from Centrum
  • large flattened neural spine
  • vertebrasterial canal
  • small transverse process
  • allows head to rotate
  • protects spinal cord
  • provides surface for muscle attachment
Cervical (others)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • short neural spine
  • branched transverse process for neck muscles
  • vertebraterial canals
  • wide neural canal
  • support weight of head
  • protect spinal cord
  • neck muscle attachment
Thoracid

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • long backward pointing neural spine
  • transverse process that points sideways
  • facets for articulation of ribs
  • notch for spinal nerves to pass through
  • forms rib cage
  • articulation with one end of a rib
  • protects, spinal cord
  • muscle attachment
Lumbar

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • short neural spine
  • long transverse process pointing towards abdomen
  • large Centrum
  • extra processes e.g. prezygapophysis, hypapophysis, anapophysis, metapophysis
  • protect organs of abdomen
  • support upper part of body
  • protect spinal cord
  • muscle attachment
Sacral

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • fused bones to form sacrum
  • well developed transverse process of first vertebra
  • vertebraterial canals
  • short neural spine
  • protects alimentary canal
  • attachment of hip girdles
  • protect spinal cord
  • muscle attachment
Rib

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • long
  • flattened
  • attached to sternum from front
  • protect internal organs
  • muscle attachment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vii) Describe the bones that form the appendicular skeleton

Bone Structure Function
Pectoral girdle scapular (shoulder bone)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • Broad i.e. Flattened blade
  • glenoid cavity to articulate with humerus
  • metacromion/acromion for muscle attachment
  • hard to provide support
  • socket with cartilage/smooth surface to reduce friction
Support

Muscle attachment

Articulates with humerus

Humerus

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • long shaft for muscle attachment
  • round head to articulate with glenoid cavity
  • trochlea for articulation with ulna
  • olecranon fosa to prevent arm bending the other way
  • movement
  • muscle attachment
Ulna and radius

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • ulna longer and on side of little finger
  • has sigmoid notch and olecranon process to form hinge joint with humerus
  • radius is smaller and lies along thumb side and does not join ulna
  • allows articulation with wrist bones
  • movement
  • muscle attachments
Pelvic girdle(hip bone)

 

 

 

 

 

  • composed of three fused bones (ilium, ischium, pubis)
  • upper end fused to sacrum
  • lower end has acetabalum for articulation with femur
  • has abturator foramen for passage of nerves and blood vessels
  • movement
  • muscle attachment
  • support
  • absorbs pressure exerted by ground when animal moves
Femur

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • rounded head to fit in acetabulum of pelvis
  • projections called trochanter for attachment of thigh muscles
  • condyles at lower end for articulation with tibi
  • patella that covers knee and prevents leg from bending backwards
  • movement
  • muscle attachment
Tibia and fibula

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • tibia is longer than fibula
  • tibia is outer bone and fibula is inner bone
  • tibia lies on side of large toe
  • fibula is fused to tibia (on outer side)
  • movement
  • muscle attachment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. a) What is a joint?
  • the point where bones meet

 

  1. ii) State the functions of joints
  • provide a point of articulation between bones

 

iii) Name the main types of joints

  • immovable joints e.g. skull, pelvic girdles and sacrum
  • slightly movable joints e.g. between vertebrae
  • Freely movable joints e.g. knee, elbow

 

  1. iv) Give the features of movable joints
  • ends of bones covered with articular cartilage
  • ends bound by capsules of ligaments
  • have joint cavity filled with lubricating fluid called synovial fluid secreted by synovial membrane
  • they are called synovial joints

 

  1. b) Describe the synovial joints
  1. Ball and socket
  • allow movement in all planes /directions i.e. 360o
  • rounded end of bone fits into a rounded cavity in another bone
  • e.g. shoulder joint and hip joint

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Hinge joint
  • convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another bone
  • this allows movement in only one plane/direction 180o
  • e.g. elbow joint and knee joint

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Pivot joint
  • allows rotation e.g. where atlas pivots on olecranon process of axis
  1. c) i) What is synovial fluid?
  • lubricating fluid produced by synovial membrane at movable joints

 

 

 

 

  1. ii) State the functions of synovial fluid
  • absorbs shock
  • reduces friction/gives lubrication
  • nourishment
  • distributes pressure

 

  1. Explain the following terms
  2. Ligament
  • connective tissue joining one bone to another
  1. Cartilage
  • supporting soft tissue found at joints
  • they cushion the bones and absorb shock
  • Tendon
  • tissue that connects muscle to bones

 

  1. Muscles
  1. i) What is a muscle?
  • fleshy part of body
  • composed of long cells enclosed in a sheath
  • specialized cells capable of contracting

 

  1. ii) State the functions of muscles
  • cover the skeleton
  • provide shape
  • contract and relax to enable body to move

 

  1. Describe the structure and function of various types of muscles
  2. skeletal muscles
  • also called voluntary/striated/stripped muscles
  • they are attached to skeleton
  • they consist of striated, multinucleated, ling fibers and are cylindrical shaped
  • found on legs, arms, eyes, neck where they cause movement
  1. Involuntary muscles
  • also called smooth/visceral/unstriated/unstripped
  • their movement is not controlled by the will
  • they are unstriated, nucleated, short fibred and spindle shaped
  • are found in alimentary canal, blood vessels, secretory glands, other tubular visceral organs, bladder, uterus, urinary tract, reproductive system, respiratory tract, ciliary body, iris
  • Cardiac muscles
  • also called myocardium
  • found in the walls of the heart
  • are not under control of the will
  • composed of long cylindrical cells with special junctions
  • myogenic i.e. generate their own contraction
  • they are not fatigued
  • their function is contraction of the heart to pump blood

 

 

 

  1. Explain how muscles cause movement of the human arm
  • the muscles which bring about these movements are called biceps and triceps
  • biceps are attached to scapula and radius for bending
  • triceps are attached to scapula, humerus and ulna for stretching
  • when the biceps contracts, it pulls the radius (forearm) and the hand bends
  • the triceps relaxes at the same time
  • when the triceps contracts and biceps relaxes(extends) the arm is stretched
  • biceps flexes the arm (flexor) and triceps extend(extensor muscle) the arm

 

  1. i) State the structural differences between skeletal muscles e.g. biceps and smooth muscles e.g. gut muscle
Skeletal (biceps) Smooth (gut) muscle
  • multinucleated
  • striated/stripped
  • long muscle fibers
  • block/cylindrical
  • uninucleated
  • unstriated
  • short muscle fibers
  • spindle shaped

 

  1. ii) Name the cartilage found between the bones of the vertebral column
  • intervertebral disc
  1. What are the functions of the cartilage named in (d) ii) above
  • acts as a cushion/absorbs shock
  • reduces friction
  • flexibility of vertebral column

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JINA:…………………………………………………. NAMBARI YA USAJILI……………

SHULE:……………………………………………………………………………………….. DARASA:……………

 

KISWAHILI

KIDATO CHA KWANZA

 

MUDA: SAA 2 ½

 

JARIBIO LA TATHMINI YA PAMOJA

MUHULA WA TATU

MAAGIZO KWA MTAHINIWA

JIBU MASWALI YOTE

 

 

KWA MATUMIZI YA MTAHINI PEKEE

SWALI UPEO ALAMA
1.     UFAHAMU 15  
2.     SARUFI 40  
3.     ISIMU JAMII 10  
4.     FASIHI 15  
JUMLA 80  

 

 

  1. UFAHAMU (Alama 15)

Ulimwengu mzima ulisimama ghafla na shughuli za kawaida zikakwama katika mataifa yote duniani. Walimwengu walipata kibarua kigumu mno huku shughuli za uchukuzi wa kimataifa zikitatizika kwa njia zisizomithilika. Ikumbukwe pia kuwa masomo yalitatizika pakubwa huku viwango vyote vya shule vikifungwa.

 

Vituo vya afya navyo vilifurika kwa msongamano mkubwa wa watu huku wahudumu wa afya wakilemewa na idadi kubwa ya magonjwa. Wahudumu hao walijipata kwenye wadi na vyumba vya wagonjwa mahututi na wengine wengi walifariki. Wengineo walikosa nafasi ya matibabu au ya kulazwa katika hospitali wanazohudumu.

 

Uchumi uliathirika pakubwa. Watu wengi walipoteza kazi zao. Wengine walitumwa nyumbani kwa likizo bila malipo nao wengine wakikatwa mishahara kwa asilimia kubwa. Biashara nazo hazikusazwa na gonjwa hili kwani nyingi zilifungwa wengine wakipata hasara chungu nzima. Benki zilijipata kwa njia panda kwa wateja kushindwa kulipa mikopo.

 

Usisahau kuwa maelfu ya watu walipoteza maisha yao huku wengine wengi wakiendelea kukabiliana na makali ya ugonjwa wa Covid-19 ambayo kwa sasa ni uhakika kuwa umejua kuwa ndio ninaozungumzia. Kenya, kama mataifa mengine ulimwenguni inaendelea kukabiliana na janga hili.

 

Miongoni mwa dalili za mapema za maambukizi ya gonjwa hili ni kukohoa, kushindwa kupumua au ugumu wa kupumua, joto jingi au baridi kali mwilini, maumivu ya misuli au mwili, kutapika au kuendesha, kupoteza hisia za kuonja na kunusa miongoni mwa mengine. Yeyote anayeonyesha dalili hizi anashauriwa kujitenga na kwenda hospitalini mara moja.

 

Ni muhimu kujilinda dhidi ya virusi hivi. Vaa barakoa wakati unapoenda kwenye watu. Kumbuka kuosha mikono yako kwa maji yanayotiririka na sabuni au kutakasa. Epuka mikusanyiko ya watu na uzingatie umbali wa mita moja unapokumbana na watu. Kaa nyumbani kama inawezekana. Wenye magonjwa mengine kama shinikizo ya damu, ukimwi, saratani, kisukari miongoni na pia watu wa umri wa juu wanashauriwa na wataalamu wa afya wawe makini Zaidi kwani wamo hatarini Zaidi.

Hebu tugeukie mikakati mbalimbali iliyowekwa na serikali ya Kenya tangu kuliporipotiwa kisa cha kwanza nchini. Serikali ilitangaza kufungwa kwa shule. Kando na kufungwa huko, kafyu ya saa moja usiku hadi saa kumi na moja asubuhi iliwekwa hapo awali, hatua iliyolegezwa baadaye. Kufungwa kwa uchukuzi wa kimataifa ulitangazwa huku uchukuzi nchini ukidhibitiwa kwa kupunguzwa kwa idadi ya watu kwenye uchukuzi wa uma. Mikusanyiko ya watu ilipigwa marufuku nazo kanisa zikifungwa japo kwa muda. Idadi ya watu katika arusi na mazishi ilipunguzwa mno. Maeneo ya burudani pia yalifungwa kwa muda nayo maeneo ya maabadini yalifungwa miongoni mwa mikakati mingine

 

Baada ya miezi kadhaa makali ya janga hili tandavu yalizidi kuwakumba wakenya huku kufungwa kwa nchi kukiendelea kuathiri shughuli ya kawaida za kujikimu. Serikali iliweka mikatati ya kuinua uchumi. Wakenya wa viwango vya chini walitumiwa pesa za kujikimu huku wafanyibiashara wadogo wakiinuliwa kwa mikopo. Serikali pia ilizuia benki kuzungumza na madeni wao na kuwasongezea nyakati za kulipa. Ikumbukwe pia serikali ilipunguza ushuru kwa wakenya wenye kipato cha chini. Serikali pia ililazimika kulegeza mikakati kadhaa ili kuwapa wakenya nafasi ya kujichumia. Saa za kafyu zilipunguzwa huku uchukuzi wa kitaifa na kimataifa ukifunguliwa upya. Shule pia zilianza kufunguliwa japo kwa watahiniwa. Wamiliki wa maeneo ya burudani walinufaika na kufunguliwa kwa maeneo hayo.viongozi wa kidini na wafuasi wao walikuwa na kila sababu ya kutabasamu baada ya serikali kuwafungulia maeneo ya kuabudu.

 

Wakenya wanaendelea kuhimizwa kufuata kanuni za wizara ya Afya dhidi ya Covid-19. Hii inaendelea huku wakenya wakilaumiwa kwa kutovaa barakoa, kuendelea kutangamana katika mikutano ya kisiasa, kutoosha wala kutakasa mikono, kutozingatia saa za kafyu miongoni mwa mengine.

Ulimwengu unaendeleza mchakato wa kutafiti na kutafuta chanjo ya korona huku baadhi ya mataifa wakitangaza kupiga hatua kubwa na kwamba tutakwamuliwa hivi karibuni. Kujilinda kunabaki kuwa chanjo kuu.

 

Maswali

  1. Nini kilisababisha ulimwengu kusimama ghafla.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….                                                                                                                                                (al.1)

  1. Eleza kinaya kinachojitokeza kwa Covid-19 na wahudumu wa afya.             (al.1)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 

  1. Covid-19 imesababisha madhara mengi ya kiuchumi. Thibitisha ukweli wa kauli hii kwa hoja tatu.             (al.3)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

 

  1. Taja dalili zozote mbili za maambukizi ya virusi vya korona.             (al.2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. Eleza matendo matatu kulingana na kifungu hiki ambayo yanamweka mtu kwenye hatari ya maambukizi ya ugonjwa huu.             (al.3)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Taja mikakati minne iliyowekwa na serikali ya Kenya kukabiliana na virusi hivi. (al.2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. Serikali ya Kenya ililegeza mikakati yake vipi?             (al.1)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. Eleza maana ya maneno yafuaayo jinsi yalivyotumika kifunguni;             (al.2)
  2. Kafyu

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. Mchakato

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. SARUFI (ALAMA 40)
  • a) Taja viyeyusho viwili.       (al.1)

……………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. b) Taja vipasuo viwili vya midomoni.       (al.1)

………………………………………………………………………………………..

  • Weka shadda katika maneno yafuatayo.                                                       (al.2)
  1. ua
  2. kumbukumbu
  • nafsi
  1. mwanafunzi
  • Onyesha aina za maneno katika sentensi zifuatazo.                               (al.4)

i.Walahi! Nikimuona Kamau nitampiga.

 

 

ii.Mimi nilimwambia jana asubuhi.

 

 

 

  • Taja matumizi mawili ya herufi kubwa na utolee mfano kwa kila matumizi. (al.4)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

  • Bainisha ngeli za maneno yafuatayo;                                                       (al.3)

sanduku –

rangi –

uteo –

  • Kanusha sentensi ifuatayo;                                                                   (al.2)

Mwalimu amekuwa akitufundisha.

………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Toa dhana ya vitate na utolee mfano.                                                       (al.2)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

  • Andika kwa udogo.                                                                               (al.2)

Mtoto amevuka mto ule.

……………………………………………………………………………………….

  • Eleza maana mbili za sentensi ifuatayo.       (al.2)

Bibi yake ni mgonjwa.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Onyesha viambishi awali na tamati katika neno lifuatalo       (al.2)

Amesomeshwa

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Bainisha hali na nyakati katika sentensi zifuatazo.       (al.4)

Mama ameenda shambani –

Nikimpata nitamwambia –

Mwalimu anafundisha –

Juma atafika kesho –

  • Andika maneno yafuatayo katika kauli uliyopewa.       (al.4)
  1. anika (tendua) –
  2. piga (tendana) –
  • soma (tendeshwa) –
  1. ogopa (tendesha) –
  • Tenga silabi katika maneno yafuatyo.       (al.2)
  1. nafsi –
  2. oa –
  • shukuru –
  1. kwao –
  • Andika kinyume cha sentensi ifuatayo;       (al.2)

Mwalimu mrefu ameketi chini.

………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Toa dhana ya kiimbo.       (al.1)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Sentensi zifuatazo zinaleta dhana zipi za kiimbo.       (al.2)
  1. Juma alifika saa ngapi?

……………………………………………………………………………….

  1. Salale! Kumbe alikuwa mwizi.

………………………………………………………………………………..

 

  1. ISIMU JAMII ALAMA 10

Nanii kuku …? Sosi poa leo… mate ndo! Ndo! Ndo! Ukimanga hii hutaona daktari kwa miaka kumi… Ng’ombe je? Nani …. Nani? Ni wewe… poa basi naja…

 

  1. Hii ni sajili gani? Toa sababu.                                                                   (al.2)

……………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. Taja sifa sita za sajili uliotaja.                                                                   (al.6)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Kando na sajili uliyoitaja, tambua sajili zingine mbili za lugha.                   (al.2)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………….

  1. FASIHI SIMULIZI ALAMA 15
  • Toa dhana ya maneno yafuatayo.             (al.3)
  1. Hadhira

………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Fasihi

………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Ngano

………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Taja aina mbili za fasihi.             (al.2)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Taja aina nne za nyimbo.                                                             (al.4)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  • Eleza umuhimu wa fasihi katika jamii.             (al.6)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

MUHULA WA TATU

KIDATO CHA KWANZA

MWONGOZO WA KUSAHIHISHA

 

UFAHAMU

  1. Ugonjwa wa Covid-19 na makali yake (1×1)
  2. Wanahudumu wa afya walikosa nafasi ya matibabu au nafasi ya kulazwa katika hospitali wanazohudumu wenyewe.     (1×1)
  3. – Watu wengi kupoteza kazi zao.
  • Watu wengine kutumwa kwa likizo bila malipo.
  • Wengine kukatwa mishahara kwa asilimia kubwa.
  • Biashara nyingi kufungwa nyingi zikipata hasara chungu nzima.
  • Benki kuathirika kwa wateja kushindwa kulipa mikopo.   (3×1)
  1. -Kukohoa
  • Kushindwa kupumua au ugumu wa kupumua.
  • Joto jingi au baridi kali mwilini.
  • Maumivu ya misuli au mwili.
  • Kutapika au kuendsha, kupoteza hisia za kuonja na kunusa.   (2×1)
  1. – Kutovaa barakoa kila wakati unapoenda kwenye watu.
  • Kutoosha mikono yako kwa maji yanayotirirka na sabini au kuitakasa.
  • Kwenda kwenye mikusanyiko ya watu.
  • Kutozingatia umbali wa mita moja unapokumbana na watu.   (3×1)
  1. – Serikali ilitangaza kufungwa kwa shule.
  • Kafyu ya saa moja usiku hadi saa kumi na moja asubuhi iliwekwa hapo awali.
  • Kufungwa kwa uchukuzi wa kimataifa ulitangazwa.
  • Kudhibitiwa kwa uchukuzi nchini kwa kupunguzwa kwa idadi ya watu kwenye uchukuzi wa uma.
  • Mikusanyiko ya watu ilipigwa marufuku.
  • Kanisa kufungwa japo kwa muda.
  • Idadi ya watu katika arusi na mazishi kupunguzwa mno.
  • Maeneo ya burudani pia yalifungwa kwa muda.   (4×1/2)
  1. – Saa za kafyu zilipunguzwa.
  • Uchukuzi wa kitaifa na kimataifa ulifunguliwa upya.
  • Shule pia zilianza kufunguliwa japo kwa watahiniwa.
  • Kufunguliwa kwa maeneo ya burudani.
  • Maeneo ya kuabudu yalifunguliwa japo kwa masharti ya kiafya.   (2×1/2)
  1. i) Kafyu- Amri ya kutotoka nje nyakati fulani kama vile usiku hadi asubuhi. (1×1)
  2. ii) Mchakato –Hatua za kufuata wakati wa kufanya jambo                        (1×1)

 

SARUFI ( alama 40)

  1. a) /w/, /y/ (1×1/2)
  2. b) /p/, /b/ (1×1/2)
  3. i) ‘ua
  4. ii) kumbu‘kumbu

iii) ‘nafsi

  1. iv) mwana‘funzi (1×1/2)
  2. walahi- kihisishi (I)

nilimuona kitenzi (T)

Kamau –nomino  (N)

nitampiga – kitenzi (T)    (4×1/2)

 

ii.mimi – kiwakilishi (W)

nilimwambia –kitenzi ( T)

jana – kielezi (E)

asubuhi – kielezi (E)       (4×1/2)

  1. Mwanzoni mwa sentensi mf. Mwalimu ameingia darasani.

Kuandika nomino za pekee mf. Kenya, Tana, Juma.

(Majina ya watu, milima, mito, miji, nchi, mwezi, siku)    (matumizi alama mbili mifano alama mbili)

  1. Sanduku LI-YA

Rangi        I-I

Uteo          U-ZI      (3×1)

  1. Mwalimu hajakuwa akitufundisha. (2×1)
  2. vitate ni maneno yanayotatanisha kimatamshi.

Mfano. Paa  baa  bata  pata (Maana alama moja,mfano alama moja)

  1. Kitoto/kijitoto kimevuka kijito kile. (2×1)
  2. Mke wake ni mgonjwa.

Nyanya yake ni mgonjwa.    (2×1)

  1. Ame- viambishi awali

eshwa – viambishi tamati     (2×1)

  1. Hali timilifu

‘ki’ ya masharti

Wakati uliopo

Wakati ujao      (4×1)

  1. i) anua
  2. ii) pigana

iii)someshwa

iv)ogofya        (4×1)

  1. Naf-si

o-a

shu-ku-ru

kwa-o       (2×1)

  1. Mwalimu mfupi amesimama juu. (2×1)
  2. Kiimbo ni kupanda na kushuka kwa mawimbi ya sauti mtu anapozungumza. (1×1)
  3. i) Swali
  4. ii) Mshangao (2×1)

ISIMU JAMII

  1. sajili ya hotelini/mkahawani. (Kutaja alama moja sababu alama moja)

 

  1. matumizi ya msamiati maalum mf. Karanga, sosi

matumizi ya misimu mf. Ukimanga

matumizi ya tanakali za sauti mf. Mate ndo!ndo!ndo!

matumizi ya sentensi fupifupi

lugha ya ucheshi na utani

kuchanganya ndimi

lugha si sanifu.  ( Kutaja ½ mfano alama ½)

 

  • sajili ya uwanjani

sajili ya darasani

sajili ya kanisani.    (2×1)( mwalimi akadilie jibu la mwanafunzi)

FASHI SIMULIZI (ALAMA 15)

  1. hadhira- ni wasikilizaji au watazamaji wa kazi yoyote ya fasihi.

Fasihi – ni Sanaa inayotumia lugha kwa ufundi kuwasilisha ujumbe kwa mwanadamu.

Ngano – hivi ni visa vya kubuni au vya kweli ambavyo huwasilishwa kwa lugha kinathari kuhusu watu, matukio na mahali mbalimbali.    (3×1)

  1. Fasihi simulizi

Fasihi andishi      (2×1)

  1. Nyimbo za siasa

Bembea/bembelezi/pembelezi

Nyimbo za kazi/hodiya

Nyimbo za watoto (chekechea)

Nyiso

Nyimbo za sifa (sifa)

Nyimbo za mapenzi.    (4×1)

  1. Kuhifadhi na kuridhisha maarifa ya jamii.

Husaidia kukuza lugha

Fasihi hupumzisha (huburudisha na huliwaza)

Fasihi ni kitambulisho cha jamii za binadamu

Husaidia kukuza au kujonga tabia

Kumburudisha na kumstarehesha binadamu

Kuichochua na kuelimisha jamii

Huadilisha/kukuza maadili

Huunganisha na kuibua hisia za mzalendo.    (6×1)

Biology Form 4 Best Notes for all Topics

BIOLOGY FORM  4

 

TOPIC                                         PAGE

 

  • GENETICS       2

 

  • EVOLUTION       45

 

  • RECEPTION, RESPONSE & CORDINATION                          54
  • SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN

PLANTS AND ANIMALS                96                               

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • GENETICS
  • It’s a branch of Biology that deals with the study of inheritance. The science of genetics attempts to explain why organisms differ from one another and at the same time show similarities within the same species.
  • Members of the same family may differ in appearance of face, shape of the nose, ears, skin colour etc this is due to a variety of hereditary factors that each of them acquires from their parents.
  • Variation
  • It refers to observable differences among living organisms. There are two types of variations among individuals of a given species;
  • Discontinuous variation
  • In this type of variation there are definite/distinct groups of individuals with no intermediate forms e.g.
  • In human population an individual is either a male or a female
  • The ABO blood group system in man-an individual  can only belong to one of the groups  A,B, AB or O
  • Ability to roll the tongue into a U-shape-some people can roll their tongues while others cannot
  • The presence of long hair in the nose and in the ear pinna
  • Some people have a free ear-lobe while in others it’s attached.
  • Finger prints-In humans there are 4 main types of finger print patterns i.e. arch, loop, whorl and double whorl. Each individual inherits only one of the 4 main types of finger prints.
  • Ability to taste a chemical substance called phenylthiocarbamide (PTC).Some individuals are able to taste (tasters) while others are unable (non-tasters).
  • In plants, a pawpaw tree is either male or female
  • NB Discontinuous variation is basically determined by the genetic factors.
  • Practical Activities
    • Activity 1-Investigating tongue-rolling in humans
  • Members of the class to try and roll their tongues
  • Count and record the number of rollers and non-rollers and tabulate your results
–         Tongue-rolling –         Tally –         Frequency
–         Tongue-roller –           –          
–         Non- Tongue-roller –           –          

 

  • Activity 11-Investigating finger prints in humans
  • Place the tip of your right thumb on the ink-pad and press lightly on it
  • Press the inked thumb gently on the plain paper to make an impression of your thumb print. Members of  the  class  to  make  a  print  on the  same  piece  of 
  • Observe the finger prints using a hand lens. Identify each print and name it using the figure below as reference.
–         Finger print type –         Tally –         Frequency(No of  individuals)
–         Arch –           –          
–         Loop –           –          
–         Whorl –           –          
–         Double-whorl –           –          

 

  • Continuous variation
  • This type of variation exhibits a wide range of differences for the same characteristic from one extreme end to the other e.g.
  • Height- Height within a group of people ranges from the shortest to the tallest with several intermediates.
  • Skin colour (pigmentation) – Some people are very dark- skinned while others have very light-skins with several intermediates
  • Body weights.
  • NB Continuous variations arise from the interactions between the genetic and environmental factors e.g. a plant possessing genetic factors for tallness may fail to grow due to unsuitable soil and climate.
  • Causes of variation
  • Gamete formation
  • Two processes contribute to variations;
  • Independent Assortment
  • During Metaphase1 the homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and subsequently segregate into daughter cells independently of each other. This produces a wide variety of gametes. The number of combinations is 2n  where n is the haploid number of chromosomes. In man this is  223  which is 8388608. That’s why even brothers are not exactly alike!
  • Crossing-Over
  • During prophase1 when the homologous chromosomes are in intimate contact with one another, the chromatids of the homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at certain points called chiasmata
  • During Crossing-Over important genetic exchanges take place at the chiasma resulting in more variations.
  • Fertilization
  • It permits parental genes to be brought together in different combinations. This way different quality of parents can be combined in the offspring.
  • Mutations
  • These are Spontaneous changes in the genetic make up of an organism
  • The Chromosome
  • Chromosomes contain the hereditary material or factors that are transmitted from the parents to the offspring. These factors are called genes.
  • There is a definite constant number of chromosomes in each cell for every species of animal or plant e.g.

 

–         Species –         Common name –         No. of Chromosomes

–         Somatic Cells (2n)

 

–         Gamete(n)
–         Ovis  auries –         Sheep –         56 (28 pairs) –         28
–         Bos taurus –         Cow –         60 (30 pairs) –         30
–         Drosophila melanogaster –         Fruit fly –         8 (4 pairs) –         4
–         Zea mays –         Maize –         20 (10 pairs) –         10
–         Pisum sativum –         Garden pea –         14 (7 pairs) –         7
–         Mus musculus –         Mouse –         40 (20 pairs) –         20

 

 

  • GENES AND DNA
  • Genes occupy definite position on the Chromosome known as gene loci (gene locus).
  • The gene is chemical in nature and it is in the form of a nucleic acid molecule called Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
  • DNA
  • It’s a complex molecule composed of 3 different components i.e.
  • a 5-Carbon sugar
  • a Phosphate Molecule
  • a Nitrogenous base- There are 4 types of bases i.e.
  • Adenine (A)
  • Guanine (G)
  • Thymine (T)
  • Cytosine (C)
  • A combination of the 3 above form a nucleotide. Nucleotides join together to form long chains called DNA strands. Two parallel DNA strands twist on one another forming a double helix.
  • Adenine always combines with Thymine (A-T) while Cytosine combines with Guanine (C-G) when forming the double helix structure of the DNA because they are equal. Therefore DNA is like a twisted ladder with Nitrogen bases forming the steps or rungs e.g.
  • The Role of DNA
  • Stores genetic information in a coded form.
  • Enables the transfer of genetic information unchanged to daughter cells through replication.
  • Translates the genetic information into the characteristics of an organism through protein synthesis.
  • DNA Replication
  • This is the process through which a DNA molecule forms an exact replica of itself.
  • Mechanism of Replication
  • DNA double helix consists of two long separate strands joined together by the base pairs. When the molecule is due to replicate the double helix unwinds and the two strands unzip themselves. This is made possible by the presence of the weak Hydrogen bonds that link the bases of the two strands.
  • After unzipping the information on the DNA strands (base sequence) is copied out onto a new DNA structure using the parent DNA as template e.g.
  • The replication makes it possible to pass on the DNA molecule together with its exact genetic information to the daughter cells during cell division in the organism.
  • ROLE OF DNA IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
  • The sequences of the bases along the DNA strands are important. It acts as the alphabet or code that spells out the sequence of the amino acids when they join up to form protein polypeptide chains.
  • The set of a base triplet is known as a codon and is said to code for a particular amino acid of a protein molecule e.g.
  • AAA-Codes for amino acid Phenylalanine
  • TTT- Codes for amino acid Lysine
  • The cell has got a special molecule that mediates between the DNA and the cytoplasm. This molecule is also a nucleic acid molecule and is known as Ribonucleic acid (RNA). Since its role is to carry genetic information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm, it is referred to as Messenger RNA (M-RNA) and is formed from the DNA strands.
  • In the formation m-RNA an appropriate section of the DNA strand serves as a template. The double helix of the DNA unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the template. The base sequence of the template is copied onto a new strand which then becomes an RNA strand.
  • In the RNA, Thymine is replaced by the base Uracil (U). The transfer of DNA base sequence onto the m-RNA strands is described as
  • After its formation, m-RNA leaves the nucleus with the full instructions from the DNA about the kind of Protein to be synthesized by the cell. This instruction is in the form of base triplets or codons which are used to assemble the amino acids on the protein polypeptide chains.

 

 

 

 

  • Information on the m-RNA is translated by ribosome and is used to assemble the amino acids into specific proteins molecules. Proteins molecules determine the inherited characteristics in organisms.
    • The First Law of Heredity
    • Mendel’s Experiments
  • An Austrian monk known as Gregory Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics. He carried out various breeding experiments and observed variations in different characteristics of the garden pea.
  • Mendel selected a group of dwarf plants & self pollinated them by dusting mature pollen grains onto stigmas of the same plant. He then collected the resulting seeds and planted them. He then noted that these seeds germinated and grew into dwarf plants only.
  • He repeated these experiments for several generations and observed the same results. This showed that dwarf garden pea plants could only produce only their own type i.e. they were pure breeds i.e.

 

 

  • In another experiment, Mendel selected tall plants and self pollinated them. He then planted the resulting seeds and observed that they grew into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants.
  • He took seeds from the tall offspring only and repeated the experiment, for many generations until he obtained tall plants only.
  • He then cross-pollinated pure bred tall garden pea plants with the pure bred dwarf variety. He planted the resulting seeds and observed that the offspring were all tall plants e.g.

 

 

 

  • He crossed two of these tall offspring and planted the resulting seeds. He observed that this 2nd generation consisted of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. He counted these plants and noted that the ratio of the tall to dwarf plants was approximately 3: 1 respectively.

 

 

 

 

 

  • Mendel concluded that the characteristics of an organism are determined by hereditary factors which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. This is known as Mendel’s 1st law, the law of segregation.
  • This law states “The characteristics of an organism are determined by genes which occur in pairs. Only one member of the gene pair can be carried in a single gamete”
  • Mendel’s successes can be attributed to the following;
  • He used favourable materials i.e. garden pea which is self-fertilised.
  • His study focused on particular traits.
  • He kept accurate data on all his experiments.
  • The pea plant he used had several observable contrasting characteristics (traits)
    • Monohybrid inheritance
  • In his experiments, Mendel postulated that the inheritance of one characteristic like height in garden pea plant is controlled by a single pair of hereditary factors contributed by both parents. This type of inheritance is known as Monohybrid inheritance.
  • It involves the transmission of just one pair of contrasting characteristics (traits) e.g. tallness and dwarfness for height
  • A single pair of hereditary factors known as genes controls such a trait.
  • Genes occur in pairs on the chromosomes and such gene pairs are known as alleles.
  • The genetic constitution of an organism is known as genotype while the outward appearance of the organism is called phenotype.
  • The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols where the capital letter represents the dominant gene while the small letter represents the recessive gene.
    • NB The conventional symbol for male is ♂ while that of a female is ♀
  • The inheritance of dwarfness in garden pea plant can be illustrated diagrammatically by a genetic cross e.g.
  • Cross between two pure-bred dwarf plants
  • Cross between two pure-bred tall plants
  • Cross between a pure-bred tall and pure-bred dwarf plants
  • NB In the genetic cross above, the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross is reversed so that the female is tall and the male a dwarf, this is referred to as reciprocal cross. The F1 results will be the same for either cross.
  • However, when these F1 offspring are self-pollinated, they produce offspring that grow into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. These offspring are known as 2nd filial generation (F2 generation) e.g.
  • From the genetic crosses above, the following components of a genetic cross are obtained;
  • Parental phenotypes.
  • Parental genotypes- Crossing (X) should be shown between two genotypes.
  • Gametes –Must be circled.
  • The fusion process (fertilization).
  • The filial generation types.
  • An alternative method of making genetic crosses is a punnet square i.e.

 

  • When the allelic genes are identical as in TT and tt, the condition is known as homozygous. An individual with such condition is referred to as a homozygote.
  • When the allelic genes are not identical as in Tt the condition is known as heterozygous. An individual with such condition is referred to as a heterozygote.
  • An individual with genotype Tt will be phenotypically tall because the gene T is dominant over the gene The allele t is recessive.
  • A dominant gene is that which can express itself in both its homozygous (TT) and heterozygous (Tt) state, while a recessive gene is that which can only express itself in its homozygous (tt) state. Therefore the genotypic condition TT is referred to as homozygous dominant while tt is homozygous recessive.
  • The ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf in the F2 generation is characteristic of monohybrid inheritance where one gene is completely dominant over the other. This is complete dominance. The monohybrid crosses are based on Mendel’s 1st law, which states that, the characteristics of an organism are determined by internal factors (genes) which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete.
    • Ratios and probability
  • The 3:1 ratio in monohybrid inheritance can be presented in the form of probability i.e.
  • ¾ or 75% of the offspring are tall while ¼ or 25% are dwarf.
  • The inheritance of characteristics involves probability. The chance that a particular gamete will fuse with another is a random occurrence. In genetic crosses this is done by showing all possible fusions.
  • Similar monohybrid results as those of Mendel have been obtained by using a common insect, the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). The fruit fly is a suitable organism for genetic study due to;
  • (i) The female lays many eggs resulting in a large number of offspring. This increases the sample size.
  • (ii) Have many observable characteristics that are distinct and contrasting.
  • (iii) It is easily bred in the laboratory with minimum requirements.
  • (iv) It has a short generation time i.e. 10-14 days. Therefore many generations can be studied in a short period.
  • (v) Offspring can be crossed with their parents at will (back crossing).
  • (vi) The flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit any known human diseases.
    • Practical activities
    • Homozygote X Heterozygote
  • Label 4 beakers 1-4
  • Put 50 blue beads into beaker 1
  • Put 25 blue and 25 red beads into beaker 2 and mix them up thoroughly.
  • Close your eyes and take a bead from each beaker. Put the beads together (offspring). Open your eyes.
  • If the offspring is homozygous (either blue or red) then put it into beaker 3 and if heterozygous then put it into beaker 4.
  • Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all beads have been transferred.
  • Count and record the number of;
  • (i) Homozygous offspring…………
  • (ii) Heterozygous offspring………
  • What do the beads represent? genes
  • What conclusion do you make from the results obtained in 7 above?
  • Assume that the characteristics shown by the blue bead is dominant and is represented by B.
  • Complete the cross below;
  • Parents
  • Genotype ……….      ………
  • Gametes ………      ……….
  • Offspring (F1)
  • Genotypes ……        ………..
  • Ratio ……….     ………..
  • Heterozygote X Heterozygote

 

  • Put 50 blue and 50 red beads into each of the two beakers 1 and 2 and mix them thoroughly.
  • Close your eyes and then take a bead from each beaker. Put the two beads together.
  • If the offspring is homozygous dominant (both blue) put them into beaker 3 and if heterozygous put into beaker 4. if homozygous recessive (both red) put into beaker 5.
  • Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the beads have been transferred, a pair at a time into beakers 3, 4 and 5.
  • Now count the number of;
    • Homozygous dominant offspring…………
    • Heterozygous offspring………
  • Homozygous recessive offspring………………
  • What conclusion do you make from the results obtained in 5 above?
  • Assume that the characteristics shown by the blue bead is dominant and is represented by B.
  • Complete the cross below;
  • Parents(heterozygous )
    • Genotype   …Bb     …Bb……
    • Gametes …Bb      Bb…….
    • Offspring (F1)
    • Genotypes 1BB……2Bb 1bb
    • Ratio …
  • Why is it important to to keep your eyes closed when picking the beads?
  • Incomplete dominance
  • In the experiments above, the tall plant with the genotype TT (homozygous) could not be distinguished from an individual with the genotype Tt (heterozygous). Thus although the genotypes were different, the phenotypes were identical, indicating that the gene determining tallness is completely dominant over that determining dwarfness.
  • However, in some plants such as Mirabilis jalapa (4 o’clock plant) a cross between red and white flowered plants results in F1 generation with all the offspring bearing pink flowers thus showing the blending of colour.
  • Selfing of F1 individuals gives a phenotypic ratio of 1 red; 2 pink; 1 white. This shows that there is no allele which completely dominates the other. This is an example of incomplete dominance.
  • NB in genetic crosses involving incomplete dominance, two different capital letters are used to represent the 2 genes. E.g.
  • Let R represent gene for red flower colour
  • Let W represent gene for white flower colour
    • Selfing F1

 

  • An example of incomplete dominance in animals ;
  • In short-horned cattle, the gene for the red coat colour is co-dominant to white coat colour. A cross between them produces a mixture of red and white coat colour referred to as roan.
    • Assignment
  • In a particular species of tropical beetle, the wings had either red or orange marks. A cross between red marked beetles with orange marked beetles produces offspring with yellow marks only. When the F1 offspring were selfed, they produced F2 generation in the ratio of 1 red; 2 yellow; 1 orange.
  • (a) Explain the absence of red and orange marks in the F1 offspring.
  • (b) Using a genetic cross show how F2 generation was obtained.
  • In a plant breeding experiment, a tall pea plant was crossed with a dwarf pea plant. All the F1 generation plants were tall. The F1 generation plants were selfed that resulted in 325 dwarf plants out of 898 plants.
    • (a) (i) How many plants in F2generation were tall (1 Mark)

 

  • What was the dominant character in the cross above?
  • (b) Using letter T to denote the gene for height, work out the genotypes of F2 generation     (3 Marks)
  • Inheritance of ABO blood groups
  • In man ABO blood group system is an inheritable characteristic that is transmitted from the parents to the offspring.
  • The ABO blood groups are determined by 3 genes (multiple alleles) and they are responsible for the presence of antigen types on the red blood cells.
  • These are;
  • Gene A responsible for the presence of antigen A.
  • Gene B responsible for the presence of antigen B.
  • Gene O responsible for no (zero) antigen on the red blood cells.
  • Genes A and B have equal degree of dominance i.e. they are co-dominant and both express themselves when present together as in AB blood group. Gene O is recessive and will only express itself in the homozygous condition.
  • The genotypes for the 4 blood groups in the ABO system are thus formed by allelic pairs of genes e.g.
–         Blood group (Phenotype) –         Genotype –         Antigens
–         A –         AA, AO –         A
–         B –         BB, BO –         B
–         AB –         AB –         A&B
–         O –         OO –         O(zero)
  • A marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B. If both parents are heterozygous, they will produce;
  • A man who is homozygous for blood group A married to a woman who is homozygous for blood group B would produce;
  • A Mrs. Abuto claims that her child was wrongly identified at the hospital so that she took away the wrong baby. Both Abuto and his wife are blood group A. the child’s group is O. Is Mrs. Abuto justified in her claim? Make a genetic cross to explain your answer.

 

  • Inheritance of Rhesus factor
  • In human beings, possession of rhesus antigen makes one Rhesus positive (Rh+) and this is dominant over absence of Rhesus antigens which is Rhesus negative (Rh-). This is an example of complete dominance in man.
  • If a woman who is Rh- is married to a Rh+ man, when she becomes pregnant the child will be Rh+. The Rhesus antigens cross the placenta into the mother’s blood stream prompting the mother’s immune system to produce Rhesus antibodies.
  • When the antibodies get into the foetal circulation an antigen-antibody reaction takes place and the red blood cells of the foetus are destroyed (haemolysed). When the baby is born it is very pale.
  • In the 2nd pregnancy the antibodies are more and cause a lot of damage to the foetal red blood cells resulting in death. This is called haemolytic disease of the new born (Erythroblastosis foetalis)
    • Determining unknown genotypes
  • In the garden pea the gene that determines red colour is dominant over that determines white colour, hence a plant with red flowers may either be homozygous or heterozygous for this characteristic.
  • To establish the genotype it is crossed with a homozygous recessive plant. If the offspring bear red flowers then it indicates that the red flowered plant is homozygous (pure line) e.g.
  • If the offspring bear a mixture of red and white flowers in equal proportions giving a ratio of 1:1 this indicates that the red flowered plant was heterozygous e.g.
  • A cross between an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of recessive genotype is known as a test cross. A test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parent is known as back cross.
  • Unknown genotypes can also be determined by carrying out selfing experiments e.g. a phenotypically tall plant is either genotypically homozygous or heterozygous for this trait. If selfed and all its offspring are phenotypically tall, then the parental genotype is TT (homozygous dominant).
  • If after selfing both tall and dwarf offspring are produced in the 3:1ratio, then the parental genotype is Tt (heterozygous) e.g.
    • Sex determination
  • Sex determination in higher animals is controlled by a specific pair of chromosomes e.g. in man, there are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in every body cell. The genes that determine whether a child becomes a male or female are located on the specific pair of sex chromosomes called X and Y chromosomes (named after their shape).
  • The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes and are responsible for other inheritable characteristics.
  • A male human being carries XY (heterogametic) while a female carries XX (homogametic) combination.
  • After meiosis in a male, the spermatozoa can either contain the X or Y chromosome while the female ova will contain only the X chromosome.
  • The sex of a child is a chance occurrence because it depends on whether the ovum is fertilised by an X or Y chromosome therefore there is a 50% chance that fertilization can result in either XY (boy) or XX (girl) e.g.
  • In the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) sex determination is exactly as in human beings i.e.
  • Males XY
  • Females XX
  • Practical activities; To study sex determination in human beings
  • Materials
  • 2 coins of similar denomination
  • 4 labels
  • Procedure
  • Obtain 2 coins
  • Label one side of the coin X and the other as Y
  • Label the other coin X on both sides
  • Spin the 2 coins simultaneously and note the letter on top when they stop. Enter the results in the table below. Repeat the procedure 50 times.
–         Sperm –         Ovum –         Tally –         Totals
–         X –         X
–         Y –         X
  • Which is the approximate ratio of XX: XY?
  • In birds male is XX and female XY; and in some insects the female is XX and the male is XO; the Y chromosome is missing altogether.
  • Linkage
  • Genes located on only 23 pairs of chromosomes control all the thousands of characteristics in human beings. Those genes found on the same chromosome are called linked genes. All the linked genes constitute a linkage group.
  • Linked genes are inherited together and therefore do not segregate during meiosis.
  • Sex-linked genes
  • All genes located on the sex chromosome are said to be sex-linked and therefore are transmitted together with those that determine sex.
  • Most sex-linked are carried on the X-chromosome whereas the Y chromosome carries very few genes and is almost empty.
  • In human there are a few genes located on the Y chromosome which control the characteristics that are exclusively male e.g.
  • -Premature baldness
  • -Tuft of hair in the ear pinna and in the nose.
  • Characteristics controlled by genes located on the X-chromosome include;
  • -Colourblindness
  • -Haemophilia
  • These characteristics can arise in either males or females.
  • Sex-linked genes in man
  • Colourblindness
  • It’s the inability to distinguish red and green colours by some people. This trait is linked to the X-chromosome.
  • The genes that determine normal colour vision is dominant over that for colour blindness.
  • A marriage between a colourblind man and a woman homozygous for normal colour vision results in their daughters being carriers, but with normal colour vision. The daughters are described as carriers because they are heterozygous. All the sons of the two parents however are normal e.g.
  • Let N represent gene for normal colour vision
  • Let n represent gene for Colourblindness
  • Since the gene is linked to X chromosome, its alleles are represented as XN and Xn.
  • If a carrier daughter from the above parents married a normal man, some of their sons will suffer from Colourblindness while the daughters will be either carriers or homozygous for normal colour vision e.g.
  • The above example shows that the gene for Colourblindness is passed from the mother to the sons. This is because the only X chromosome the male offspring inherits is from the mother.
  • There are more male sufferers in a population compared to females. Females only suffer when in homozygous condition of the recessive gene.
  • Inheritance of Colourblindness through several generations can be illustrated using a pedigree. Pedigree is a record in a table form showing the distribution of one or more traits in different generations of related individuals e.g

 

 

 

 

  • Haemophilia
  • It’s also referred to as bleeder’s disease. The blood of a person suffering from the disease takes an abnormally long time to clot in the event of a cut, resulting in prolonged bleeding.
  • Haemophilia is caused by a recessive gene on the X chromosome e.g. if a normal man marries a carrier woman for Haemophilia, there is a probability of ¼ that if their child is a boy he will be haemophiliac and if a daughter she will be a carrier e.g.
  • Let H represent gene for normal clotting condition
  • Let h represent gene for Haemophilia
  • Both genes are located on the X chromosomes eg XH or Xh
  • Assignment
  • If a haemophiliac man marries a carrier woman ;
  • (a) Use a genetic cross to work out the product of the above marria
  • (b) What is the probability that their daughter will be haemophiliac
  • (c) The above disorder is more common in males than females. Explain
  • X
  • Also X and Y chromosomes bring about the primary and secondary characteristics e.g. feminine characteristics are controlled by genes on the X chromosome e.g
    • -Enlargement of the breasts
    • -Widening of hips
    • -Growth of pubic hair
    • -Onset of menstrual cycle
  • In males secondary sexual characteristics include;
  • -Breaking of the voice
  • -Growth of pubic hair and beard
  • -Widening of shoulders (masculine characteristics).
  • Other traits influenced by Y-chromosome include;
    • -“Porcupine man”- This was the historical man who had patches of hard spiny skin like a porcupine. This trait was passed to sons only.
    • -“Hairy ears”- This is where a tuft of hairs sprout out from the pinna of the ear and in the nose. This trait is common in parts of India and is confined to males only.
    • Premature baldness is limited to males only.
  • Effects of crossing-over on linked genes
  • Linked genes are carried on the same chromosome but some of the linked genes separate and are transmitted on different chromosomes. This happens during crossing-over when sections of chromatids of a bivalent intertwine and may break off.
  • Some of these sections get rejoined to different chromatids thus separating genes that were previously linked.
  • Fusion of the few gametes containing chromatids whose genes have changed places in this way will produce new combinations (Re-combinants).
  • However majority of the gametes that fuse contain chromatids whose gene linkage has not been interfered with by crossing-over e.g.
  • X KLB PG 28 Fig 1.26
  • Mutations
  • These are the sudden changes which occur on the chromosome or genes resulting in change in the individual’s genetic make-up. Such an individual is called a mutant e.g.
  • In man, a haemophiliac might suddenly be produced from quite normal parents.
  • Resistance to DDT by some insects e.g. mosquitoes.
  • Mutations are normally due tom recessive genes hence mutations occur naturally but are extremely rare. However they can be induced by certain factors of environment called mutagenic agents e.g.
  • Exposure to gamma rays, ultra-violet (UV) and a variety of chemicals such as colchicines and mustard gas.
  • Types of mutations
  • There are two types i.e.
    • -Chromosomal mutations/chromosome aberrations
    • -Gene mutations
  • Chromosomal /chromosome aberrations
  • Involve changes in the structure or number of chromosomes.
  • Types of Chromosomal mutations
  • Deletion
  • This occurs when some sections of homologous chromatids break off and fail to reconnect to any of the chromatids. In this case, these sections are completely lost and genetic material they contain is said to be deleted out.
  • The consequence includes gross interference in the structure and development of an individual.
  • Most deletions are lethal since the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of some vital protein molecule e.g.
  • X KLB PG 29 Fig 1.27(a)
  • Duplication
  • A section of chromatid replicates and adds an extra length to itself, this adds a set of genes e.g.
  • X KLB PG 29 Fig 1.27(b)
  • If the gene duplicated were responsible for certain traits, these traits may be over-emphasized in the organism.
  • Inversion
  • It occurs when a chromatid breaks at two places. When rejoining, the middle piece rotates and rejoins in an inverted position. This reverses the gene sequence along the chromatid e.g.
  • X KLB PG 29 Fig 1.27(c)
  • Inversion might bring closer together genes whose combined effects are advantageous or disadvantageous.
  • (iv) Translocation
  • This occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid but of the non-homologous pair. Hence translocation involves movement of genes from one non-homologous chromosome to another.
  • X KLB PG 30 Fig 1.27(d)
    • (v) Non-disjunction
  • This is the kind of Chromosome abnormality that is caused by addition or loss of one or more whole chromosomes. It occurs during anaphase of the 2nd meiotic division when two homologous chromosomes fail to segregate and move on into the same gamete cell. This results in half of the gametes containing two of the same chromosome whilst the others have none e.g.
  • X KLB PG 31 Fig 1.28(c)
  • The fusion of the gametes with two of the same chromosome with a normal gamete of the opposite sex will result in an individual with three such chromosomes i.e. the normal homologous pair plus one extra chromosome (trisomic).
  • A number of human diseases are known to come as a result of non-disjunction e.g.
  • Down’s syndrome/mongolism
  • This is where there is an extra somatic chromosome number 21.
  • The term mongolism was applied to the disease because the affected individuals have slit-eyed appearance typical of the Mongolian race.
  • Other characteristics are;
  • Reduced resistance to infection.
  • Reduced physical and mental development.
  • Thick tongue.
  • Cardiac malfunctions
  • Short body with stubby fingers
  • Flat nasal bridge
  • Higher incidence is among children of older mothers above 40 years old and may be due to depletion of nutrients in the eggs.
  • Fathers aged 55 years old and above also have increased risk of producing offspring with Down’s syndrome.
  • Klinefelter’s syndrome
  • In this case, individuals have an extra sex chromosome hence they have a total of 47 chromosomes in their cells i.e. XXY (male) and XXX (female).
  • This results when a gamete with an extra sex chromosome fuses with a normal gamete from the opposite sex e.g.
  • X
  • Symptoms of Klinefelter’s syndrome
  • People with this disorder are externally male (XXY) but they have female features e.g.
  • Female-like breasts, a condition called gnaecomastia.
  • Testes are underdeveloped and produce very few or no sperms (infertility)
  • Reduced facial hair
  • Taller than average with signs of obesity.
  • XXX (females) are females who appear relatively normal in most characteristics.
  • Turner’s syndrome
  • It’s where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there are only 45 chromosomes (XO) or (YO) in the cells instead of the normal 46 chromosomes.
  • YO zygotes do not develop due to the absence of many vital genes.
  • Individuals with Turner’s syndrome (XO) are females that show underdeveloped female characteristics e.g.
  • -Are infertile due to lack of ovaries and small uterus.
  • -No breast development
  • -Short in stature
  • Other abnormalities arising from non-disjunction of the sex chromosomes lead to the genotype XYY. Individuals with this genotype are males and are known to have a predisposition for violence.
  • Polyploidy
  • This refers to the presence of more than two sets of chromosomes in a cell. It can come about due to the failure of a cell to divide after the 1st stage of meiosis.
  • If it divides into two after the 2nd stage of meiosis, diploid gamete results. Fusion of a diploid gamete with a normal haploid gamete of the opposite sex results in an individual whose cell has 3 sets of chromosomes i.e. triploid (3n).
  • If two diploid gametes fuse, the result is tetraploid (4n). This is what is called polyploidy. Polyploidy can also occur if the whole set of chromosomes doubles after fertilization.
  • Polyploidy is rare in animals but is common in plants e.g. in species of wheat and rice it has various advantages e.g.
  • Increased yields
  • Early maturity
  • Resistance to drought, pests and diseases
  • Polyploidy can artificially be induced by using chemical called colchicines which prevents spindle formation during mitosis thus leading to a cell with double the number of chromosomes (4n).
  • Gene mutation (point mutation)
  • A gene mutation arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of the gene. The change may involve some alteration n the DNA molecule.
  • Types of gene mutation
  • Insertion
  • Its the addition of an extra base onto an existing DNA strand e.g. if the base Guanine (G) is inserted between the 1st two Adenines (A) at the beginning of the DNA chain, the resulting M-RNA base triplet and the subsequent amino acid alignment will be altered e.g.
  • By inserting Guanine at the position indicated, no polypeptide chain is formed because none of the intended amino acids have been linked.
    • (ii) Deletion
  • It’s the removal of a gene portion. If the base thymine (T) is deleted from its position at the indicated section of the DNA strand, the base sequence becomes altered at this point e.g.
  • This results in the alteration of the sequence of the amino acids on the polypeptide chain hence production of a wrong protein.
  • Substitution
  • This is the replacement of a portion of the gene with a new portion. If Adenine (A) is substituted with Guanine (G) on a DNA strand the base sequence is altered at this particular portion e.g.
  • Inversion
  • This is where the portion of the DNA strand rotates through 180o. The inversion results in the alteration of the base sequence at this point e.g.
    • The following are short messages (SMS) on a cell phone communication and can be used as analogies of gene mutation.
–         Intended message –         Actual message –         Mutation
–         Buy me a skirt –         Buy me a shirt –         Substitution
–         Mary went shopping –         Mary went hopping –         Deletion
–         This is my team –         This is my mate –         Inversion
–         Auntie is staying –         Auntie is straying –         Insertion
  • (a) For each of these messages identify the type of gene mutation illustrated
  • (b) In the messages above show the changes that cause the distortion in the intended message
  • Disorders due to gene mutation
  • Albinism
  • This is a condition where the synthesis of the skin pigment melanin, fails and is characterized by;
    • -A light skin
    • -White hair
    • -Pink eyes
  • Such an individual is described as an albino.
  • Melanin is a derivative of an amino acid phenylalanine and tyrosine and is synthesized through a series of reactions. Each of these reactions is controlled by a specific gene.
  • In albinism, one of these genes (designated by letter A) is substituted by a recessive gene (designated by letter a). gene a in the homozygous condition aa blocks in one or two places of the chain reactions involved in the synthesis of melanin, hence melanin is not formed resulting in albinism.
  • The genotype of an albino is homozygous recessive aa. A carrier for the trait is heterozygous with the genotype Aa and has normal skin pigmentation e.g.
  • X
  • The skin of an albino person is susceptible to sunburn and the eyes are sensitive to bright light.
  • Use of sunglasses and sunscreen lotions help them to lead a normal life.
  • Sickle-cell anaemia
  • Normal adult humans contain haemoglobin A in their red blood cells and have the genotype Hb AHbA. In the sickle-cell anaemia, haemoglobin A is substituted by a different type called haemoglobin S. such patients have genotype Hb SHbS.
  • Haemoglobin S is defective and has a marked difference from the normal one e.g.
–         Normal haemoglobin (Hb A) –         Defective haemoglobin (Hb S)
–         A position in each polypeptide chain is occupied by glutamic acid –         A similar position in each polypeptide chain is occupied by valine
–         Does not easily crystallize in low O2 concentration –         Easily crystallizes in low O2 concentration
–         The haemoglobin is efficient in O2 loading and transportation –         The haemoglobin is not efficient in O2 loading and transport
–         Red blood cells carrying them have the normal biconcave shape –         Red blood cells carrying them have are crescent or sickle shaped.
  • Most of the individual’s red blood cells are therefore sickle shaped and the person frequently experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues hence cannot carry out strenuous physical exercises.
  • The sickle-shaped cells are not able to squeeze through capillaries; thus they end up clogging blood vessels preventing normal blood flow. This blockage results in to severe pain in the joints, arms, legs and the stomach.
  • With close medical attention, sickle cells persons lead a relatively normal life. However, most deaths are due to infections from other diseases or damage to tissues.
  • A less serious condition is the sickle cell trai This is a heterozygous condition where less than half the number of red blood cells is sickle shaped. The rest of the cells are normal and are efficient in O2 loading.
  • Individual with sickle cell trait experiences a mild case of anaemia but leads a normal life. Such individuals have an adaptive advantage in surviving malarial attacks as compared to those who have normal haemoglobin.
  • Inheritance of sickle cell trait
  • X
  • Haemophilia
  • It’s due to a recessive gene on the X-chromosome produced by gene substitution. The condition is caused by a haemophiliac gene that prevents the production of the necessary clotting factors especially clotting factor viii called antihaemophiliac globulin (AHG).
  • Remedies include the introduction of clotting factors e.g. factor viii and ix from blood donated by normal persons into haemophiliacs.
  • Colour-blindness
  • This is where an individual is not able to distinguish between red and green colours.
  • Colour-blindness is brought about by the presence of a gene in its recessive form causing total absence or shortage of the respective cones for colour perception.
  • The gene for colour vision is located on the X chromosome. Due to the occurrence of the gene on the X chromosome, there are more male sufferers than females.
  • Older parents transmit a slightly greater number of mutations to their offspring than younger parents. This increased chance maybe as a result of X-rays or other radiations used in medical diagnosis and treatment.
  • Achondroplasia
  • It’s a disease that is characterized by a shortened body, legs and hands. Its transmitted by a dominant gene thus both the homozygous dominant (AA) and heterozygous (Aa) individuals show the disease. Homozygous recessive individuals are perfectly normal.
  • Approximately 80% of achondrodystrophic dwarfs die within one year of birth but those that survive show normal mental development and can have children.
  • Effect of environment on heredity
  • The development of an organism depends on its genetic make-up or genotype and environment.
  • The interaction between the genotype of an organism and the environment will modify the phenotype of the organism.
  • The degree of modification or influence of gene expression by the environmental factors such as disease and food can be observed and measured e.g. the effects of protein and vitamins in the development of young children has been observed.
  • Mental development and performance depends on both the inherited patterns and the total effect of the environmental influences.
  • Practical application of genetics
  • Plant and animal breeding
  • Offspring resulting from a cross between two genetically dissimilar lines often posses’ beneficial characteristics not shown by either of the parents. This principle is known as hybrid vigour and it has been put to good use in plant and animal breeding e.g.
  • In cattle, Hereford, an English breed contributes high beef production and quick maturation. The boran from Kenya contributes disease resistance and the ability to feed and grow on dry pastures. A cross between Hereford bull and a boran cow yields a suitable hybrid with all these qualities.
  • Early maturity in both plants and animals.
  • Resistance to diseases e.g. Cassava resistant to cassava mosaic
  • Increased length of productive season e.g. chicken breeds with long egg laying durations and kales which can be harvested over a long period.
  • Adaptations to local conditions e.g. maize varieties for various ecological zones.
  • vi) Flowers such as roses, orchids etc are selectively bred for their Colour, shape and aroma.
  • Blood transfusion
  • For transfusion, we consider only the effect that the recipient’s antibodies in blood plasma will have on the donor’s antigens on the red blood cells. The plasma of the donor will be so diluted that it will not affect the red blood cells of the recipient. Blood typing is necessary before transfusion. This includes both the ABO and the Rhesus antigens.
    • -Settling legal disputes
  • By matching the blood groups of a baby with those of alleged parents is sometimes possible to settle legal disputes about parentage e.g. an unmarried girl gives birth to a child and accuses a well known politician of being the biological father. The girl has blood group A, genotype AO and the baby is blood group O. The accused man has blood group AB. Could the accused man be the biological father?
  • A more advanced method of settling such disputes is to match the DNA of the baby to that of the alleged parents. Such a match will show regions where the base sequence of the baby matches perfectly with those of its parents. This is called DNA fingerprinting.
    • -Crime detection
  • The DNA is unique to each individual. Through a series of genetic techniques, the pattern of DNA base sequence is prepared and produced in film. The pattern for each individual is very specific and therefore a “DNA fingerprint”.
  • At the scene of crime, a specimen from the suspect e.g. hair, blood, semen in the case of rape is obtained and DNA extracted from the developed hairs or blood cells.
  • By comparing this DNA pattern, it’s possible to isolate the culprit from several suspects.
  • Genetic counseling
  • This is the use of genetic information to advice couples who have hereditary diseases about the chances of their offspring inheriting the diseases. Hereditary diseases include;
  • -Albinism
  • -Sickle-cell anaemia
  • -Haemophilia
  • -Haemolytic disease of the newborn
  • Examples
  • Susan is a carrier of Haemophilia and is worried that her children will turn out to be haemophiliacs. What would you advice her if she marries;
  • a normal man
  • X (skip 5 lines)
  • She will have a normal daughter and son, carrier daughter and haemophiliac son.
  • a haemophiliac man
  • X (skip 5 lines)
  • She will have a normal son, carrier daughter, and haemophiliac son and daughter.
  • Advice; It would be better if she marries a normal man
  • A woman about to be married had a brother who died of sickle-cell anaemia. When samples of her blood were taken and placed in low oxygen concentration, her red blood cells became sickled. This means she is heterozygous. However, her prospective husband’s blood remains normal. What would you advise her about her children?
  • X
  • Some children will be normal while others will be affected in low oxygen concentration.
  • It’s advisable for people to go for medical tests for blood groups, hereditary diseases and defects to avoid complications in future.
  • (d) Genetic engineering
  • This deals with the identification of a desirable gene, altering, isolating and transferring it from one organism to another.
  • Genetic engineering has also made it possible to produce genetically modified organisms (transgenic) which have resulted in increased production in crops and domestic animals.
  • Genetic engineering has been applied in the following fields;
  • Farming
  • Genetically modified maize and Soya beans have been produced which have resistance against insect pests.
  • Attempts have been made to transfer the gene for nitrogen fixation from bacteria into cereal crops to increase yields without use of fertilizers.
  • Bovine somatotrophin is a hormone that increases milk production in cows.
  • Medicine
  • A strain of Escherichia coli has been made which makes insulin. The gene in man that codes for insulin is transferred to the bacterium thereby producing insulin that is purer and in large quantities.
  • Human somatotrophic hormone (human growth hormone) for treatment of dwarfism is now extracted from genetically modified strain of Escherichia coli.
  • Sheep have been genetically modified to produce milk which contains medicinal proteins used to relieve Haemophilia and emphysema patients.
  • Effective vaccines from the viruses can be made which contain only outer coats of viruses instead of weakened viruses. Viral coats are mass produced and used in the development of vaccines that do not pose a danger of causing the disease.
  • Some genetically modified plants e.g. bananas are being targeted for the production of orally administered vaccines against rabies and cholera.
  • Biological warfare-“genetic guns”
  • Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax in cattle, sheep and goats and through them can reach man. It forms spores which are not easily destroyed since they can withstand boiling, freezing and destructive digestive juices.
  • The bacterium affects internal and external parts of the body. If inhaled it can cause pneumonia with bleeding in lungs, ulcers of the stomach and intestines. Internal infections can cause death in 72 hours. Thrown into enemy territory it cause havoc.
  • Other micro-organisms used in warfare include;
  • Vibrio cholerae– causes cholera
  • Clostridium tetani- causes tetanus
  • Salmonella typhi– causes typhoid
  • Gene therapy
  • It’s the replacement of faulty genes with normal ones aimed at correcting genetic disorders.
  • In somatical gene therapy, genetically modified organisms e.g. viruses are used to carry the normal gene and introduce it into the affected tissue cells. The defective gene in the tissue cell is thereby corrected by the genes in the carrier. This is being used in the treatment of lung cystic fibrosis.
  • Cloning
  • This is a type of reproduction where a group of cells arise from a single individual cell without fertilization. The offspring are called clones and are genetically identical.
  • In the recent past, cloning was carried out in sheep. In this process, a nucleus from a fertilized ovum was removed and replaced with a diploid nucleus of a cell from the mammary glands of another sheep. The ovum was implanted into the sheep’s uterus.
  • The lamb, Dolly was a clone from the sheep which donated the mammary gland cell.
  • Cloning of plants is more common and successful. It has resulted in tissue culture techniques through which new varieties of crops such as pyrethrum and bananas have been produced.
  • Designs to produce human-like creatures (human cloning) to be reared as a source of human spare parts in surgeries and transplants.
  • Human genome
  • Genome is the total genetic content of any cell in an organism. It comprises of all genes on all the chromosomes. In human there are up to 100,000 genes. The human genome project aims at;
  • -Gene mapping
  • This is identifying specific positions occupied by specific genes on a chromosome e.g. Haemophilia is located on the X chromosome.
  • -Sequencing of gene
  • It involves analyzing DNA to reveal the order of bases in all chromosomes
  • Importance of human genome project
  • Identification of defective genes hence facilitating their correction.
  • Identification of genes that is susceptible to certain diseases so that individuals can take preventive measures

 

 

 

 

  • EVOLUTION

 

  • Evolution attempts to explain the origin, diversity and unity of life.
  • It’s a gradual change of living organisms from simple life forms to more complex forms over a long period of time.
  • The origin of life
  • Theories to explain origin of life
  • Special creation
  • This is a belief that is held by all the world’s major religions and also found in folklore.
  • This theory narrates that the whole universe and all that it contains was created by the action of a supreme being (God). To “create” means to bring into existence something out of nothing.
  • This belief holds the following views on the origin and nature of life;
    • -That life was brought into existence by a Supreme Being
    • -That life forms were created in a perfect form and have remained unchanged over time.
    • -That this knowledge is based on faith and cannot be disputed
    • -The belief cannot be contradicted by science since it is not scientifically testable.
  • Chemical evolution
  • This theory suggests that life probably began through a catalytic effect of light bringing together elements to form simple molecules such as water (H2O), Ammonia (NH3) and Methane (CH4).
  • It can be theorized that, millions of years ago simple molecules such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc in the universe combined in various proportions to form different simple compounds such as water and ammonia.
  • Further combinations of such compounds resulted in the formation of complex molecules e.g. DNA. Successive replication of the molecules led to the formation of simple forms e.g. viruses and bacteria.
  • The period during which the chemicals combined to form the 1st living organisms is called the period of chemical evolution of life.
  • This theory holds the following views on the origin and nature of life;
    • -Life came into existence through combinations of chemicals.
    • -The initial life forms were simple and have changed over the years to form the present complex organisms. This is the principle of organic evolution.
    • -Scientific evidence in the form of experiments, artifacts and fossils back this theory.
  • Its theorized that the universe came into existence some 15 billion years ago. Our solar system seems to have been formed about 6 billion years ago.
  • Our planet earth is supposed to have been formed 4 billion years ago from the debris of a burnt out star.
  • Since then, it has undergone cooling and structural changes on its outer crust providing an environment for the development of living organisms.

 

 

  • Evidence for organic evolution
  • Fossil records
  • Fossils are remains of ancestral forms that were accidentally preserved in some naturally occurring material e.g. sedimentary rocks.
  • The study of fossils is called palaentology.
  • The most common method of fossil formation is petrification i.e. changing into rock. This is usually possible for hard body parts such as bones, teeth etc
  • The fossils give direct evidence of the type of animals and plants that existed at a certain geological age.
  • The earliest fossil are of Monera, then Protoctista, Fungi, plants and finally animals.
  • The age of fossils can be determined through radioactive dating. For recent fossils, carbon-14 (C14) is used hence called radioactive carbon dating.
  • The age of very old fossils is obtained by determining the age of the rocks where the fossils are found using the potassium-argon method.
    • Limitations of fossil records
  • There are several missing fossil records (missing links) due to;
    • -Some parts or whole organisms decomposed.
    • –Some were scavenged upon
    • -Not all had conditions suitable for fossilization.
  • Distortion of parts during sedimentation which may give wrong impression of the structures.
  • Destruction of fossils by geological activities such as earthquakes, faulting etc
    • Fossil record of humans
  • In his book “The Descent of man” Charles Darwin proposed that man descended from ape-like creatures. The earliest primate stock from which man is supposed to have evolved is Proconsul (20million years ago). The proconsul gave rise to Pongidae and
  • Pongidae gave rise to the present day apes while Hominidae gave rise to the human
  • The earliest hominids belonged to the genus Australopithecus. It seemed to have had an almost upright gait. No evidence of culture (fire-making, tool making) has been associated with it.
  • Its representatives discovered recently include;
    • Australopithecus anamensis– from L. -Turkana dated 3.9 million years old.
    • Australopithecus afarensis– Also called “Lucy” found in Hadar Ethiopia dated 3.6 million years old.
    • Australopithecus africanus– dated 3 million years old and Australopithecus robustus dated 2 million years old. Both were found in South Africa.
    • Australopithecus boisei– dated 1.3 million years old and was found by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
    • -Zinjanthropus boisei (nut –cracker man) dated 1.8 million years old found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
  • The next genus was Homo. The species in this genus are;
    • Homo habilis (Handy man)
  • Discovered by Richard Leakey and kamoya kimeu at koobi fora (eastern part of L. Turkana) dated 2-1.5 million years old
  • There is evidence of tool making e.g. hand axes.
  • Cranial capacity (brain size) 700cm3.
    • Homo erectus (erect man)
  • Discovered in Africa, Asia and Europe.
  • There is evidence of;
    • Tool making
  • -Use of fire
  • -Some mode of communal life and work.
  • Had a prominent brow-ridge over the eyes.
  • Small stature
  • Small brain size (775-1200cm3)
  • Recently a skeleton of Homo ergaster nick named “Turkana boy” has been found dated 1.56 million years old.
  • Fossils of Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man) has been found in Germany dated 300,000 years old.
    • Homo sapiens (Rationalising man)
  • The present day species of humans is thought to have arisen some 130,000 years ago.
  • Another fossil form of Homo sapiens called “Cro-Magnon man” dated 40,000 years in Europe is almost identical to modern man.
    • Characteristics
  • High intellectual capacity
  • Ability to vocalise sound or communicate through language.
  • Express moral judgements and develop ideas.
    • Structural differences between apes and humans
–          Ape –          Human
–          Cranium enlarged; brain size 500cm3; low learning capacity –          Cranium greatly expanded; brain size 1350cm3; high intellectual capacity
–          Large incisor and canine teeth useful in defense and killing prey; omnivorous –          Small incisor and canine teeth unsuitable for self-defense or for killing prey; omnivorous
–          Locomotion quadrupedal (on 4 limbs) –          Locomotion bipedal (on 2 limbs)
–          Forelimbs used for arboreal locomotion and walking; opposable thumb –          Forelimbs (hands) used for manipulation e.g.  tool making; opposable thumb
–          Hind  foot has opposable toe for grasping branches –          Non-opposable toe in foot; used mainly for stability on the ground

 

 

  • Comparative Anatomy
  • This is comparing the form and structures of different organisms. Those organisms which show similarities suggest that they have a common or related ancestry.
  • Where one basic structural form is modified to give rise to various different forms the phenomenon is called divergent evolution.
  • Adaptive radiation– This is where the divergent forms originating from a single ancestral form may become adapted to different ecological niche in a given habitat.

 

  • Examples of adaptive radiation

 

  • Homologous structures
  • They are those parts that have a common embryonic origin but may be modified to perform different functions e.g. form and anatomy of the forelimb differ in various vertebrate groups while the basic pentadactyl (5 digit) structure is retained.
  • Examples of homologous structures
  • Forelimbs in vertebrates
  • The forelimb of a bat is modified to form a wing for flight.
  • The forelimb of a horse is elongated to enhance speed in running.
  • The forelimb in whale/turtle is modified to form a swimming flipper.
  • Forelimb of man modified for grasping/holding
  • Beak structure in birds
    • Beaks in birds have a common embryonic origin and basic structure. Depending on the type of food and mode of feeding this basic structure is modified in length, shape and size e.g.
    • -Short stout beaks are common in seed eaters e.g. weaver birds.
    • -Long slender beaks for nectar feeders e.g. sunbirds.
    • -Strong hooked beaks for carnivorous birds e.g. eagles
  • Foot structure in birds
    • They are modified for various functions and habitats although they have a common embryonic origin e.g.
    • -The webbed feet of ducks are used for wading.
    • -Heavy clawed feet of eagles are used for grasping and tearing prey.

 

  • II Convergent evolution
  • This is where different structures are modified to perform similar functions. E.g.
  • Analogous structures
    • They are those structures that have different embryonic origin but have evolved to perform similar functions due to the exploitation of the same kind of environment.
      • Examples of analogous structures
    • Wings
      • The wings of birds and those of insects have different embryonic origin but both are adapted for flight.
    • (ii) Eye structure
      • The eye structures of humans and that of octopus are similar but their embryonic origin is different.

 

  • III Vestigial
  • structures
  • They are those structures that have in the course of time ceased to be functional and therefore have become reduced in size or rudimentary.
  • Examples of vestigial structures
    • Appendix in man has no digestive function while in herbivores e.g. rat, its well developed and functions as the cellulose-digesting part of the alimentary canal.
    • The python and the whale have no externally visible hind limbs but their original presence is evidenced by the existence of a rudimentary pelvic girdle.
    • The kiwi (flightless bird) of New Zealand has reduced wings beneath the body plumage.
    • A vestigial tail is present in humans in the form of a much reduced coccyx.
    • The nictitating membrane in the eye of the mammals is now reduced and functionless; but in birds and fish it can move over the eye and act as the 3rd

 

  • Comparative embryology
  • The embryos of different vertebrate groups (fish, birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals are morphologically similar during the early stages of development. This relationship is as a result of their common ancestry.
    • The closer the resemblance between the early stage embryos, the closer is their evolutionary relationship. This theory is called recapitulation theory. It can also be atated as “ontogeny recapiturates phylogeny”

 

  • Geographical distribution of organisms
    • The theory of “continental drift” supposes that at one time the present continents formed one large single land mass which later broke up and the parts drifted away from each other.
    • Before drifting occurred there had been migration of animals from the centre of the land mass mainly fro Asia to Australia. After the drift, animals with a common ancestry became isolated and evolved into different species.
  • Examples
    • Amazon forest in South America is inhabited with monkeys with long tails while in African forests there are the short-tailed monkeys.
    • The panthers and the jaguars in the forests represent the cat family while in Africa we have the leopards and cheetahs and in Asia there are the tigers.
    • The llamas of the Amazon forest and modern camels of Africa and Asia are thought to have had a common ancestry in North America. It’s believed that from their common points of origin, they migrated into different continents thus became isolated and evolved into different species.
    • The process of initial migration and subsequent isolation by physical barriers such as oceans, dry deserts and mountains seems to have given rise to a wide variety of animal and plant types.

 

  • (v)Cell biology
  • The cells of all higher organisms show basic similarities in their structure and functions. Thus all these cells contain cell membranes and organelles such as ribosome, Golgi bodies, mitochondria etc.
  • They also have some biological chemicals in common e.g. ATP and DNA. This strongly indicates that all cell types have a common ancestral origin.
  • Also plant cells contain cellulose cell wall, cell sap, chloroplast etc. all these features are absent in animal cells.
  • Among animals blood pigments are of universal occurrence. These include haemoglobin (vertebrates and invertebrates), haemocyanin (moluscs and crustaceans) and chlorocruorin (annelids).
  • (vi)Comparative serology
  • Experiments with serum (serological tests) are used to show phylogenetic relationships e.g.
  • -If human serum is injected into a rabbit, the proteins in the serum act as antigens. The rabbit produces antibodies against the human proteins. When blood with antibodies is drawn from the rabbit and mixed with serum from different animals, an immunological reaction occurs forming a precipitate. The amount of precipitate formed varies from one animal to the other. The greater the amount the closer the phylogenetical relationship between the animal and the human being.

 

  • Mechanism of evolution

 

  • Lamarck’s theory (Theory of use and disuse)
  • This theory was proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1815). He proposed that when the environment demanded the need for a particular structure in an organism, the organism develop it in response to the demand. This led to the natural use and disuse of structures producing changes in the individual during its life time.
    • He further proposed that these changes or structures that were acquired during the life time of an individual were then transmitted to their offspring and subsequent generations resulting in the emergence of new forms or new species.
  • Examples
  • He cited the example of development of the long neck of the giraffe which developed as a result of stretching upwards by some short-necked ancestral forms towards the higher levels of vegetation in competition with other browsers for food. The longer neck trait developed was passed on to successive generations giving them advantage over the short-necked forms.
    • The appearance of flightless birds e.g. ostriches, kiwi etc. their reduced and functionless wings resulted from their disuse in an environment not requiring flight.
    • NB This theory was rejected because phenotypically acquired characteristics which do not affect the genotype of an individual cannot be inherited.
  • Darwin’s theory of Natural selection
    • This theory was proposed by Charles Darwin (1859).
  • Main features of the theory
    • He observed that variations arose by chance and from within the individual. Through sexual reproduction the characteristics are transmitted to successive offspring. Some of the variations confer an advantage to the individual while others are disadvantageous.
    • He proposed that in nature there exist a phenomenon known as “Natural selection” which “selects” those individuals best suited to an environment.
    • He observed that the number of offspring by far outnumber the parental generation but due to eliminating factors  such as predation, diseases, competition for food, breeding conditions  etc only a few survive to adulthood and are able to reproduce. He explained that in nature there exists a “struggle for existence” and those best suited for an environment survive. He called this “The survival of the fittest”.
    • He proposed that “Natural selection” is a chance occurrence. Neither the environment nor the individual controls the direction of change.
    • Those individuals that are selected for reproduction thus transmit the variations to their offspring. The gradual accumulation of small variations from generation to generation over a long period of time leads to the emergence of new forms of species.

 

  • Natural selection in action
    • Strains or varieties could offer evidence of evolution in progress e.g. i
      • Peppered moth (Biston betularia)
    • This moth occurs in Britain. They occur in two forms i.e. speckled white form and black melanic form.
    • Before the industrial revolution, the speckled white form was well camouflaged against tree trunks with similar pattern and colouration. But around 1848 during industrial revolution the environment was darkened by soot. Due to this change the black melanic form blended well against the bark of trees which had been darkened by soot and smoke.
    • These darker forms were better protected in the industrial area against predation from birds than the lighter forms.
    • In the smoke and soot polluted areas there is greater frequency of black melanic form while in the soot free areas the speckled white form predominates. Thus the agent of natural selection was selective predation on the unprotected forms.

 

  • g. ii Sickle cell trait
  • It’s known that there is a high frequency of this mutant gene in places where malaria incidence is high. This is because those who are heterozygous HbAHbS have immunity to malaria a situation called heterozygous advantage.
  • g. iii Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics
  • Some pathogens and pests usually survive and reproduce even when they are exposed to the antibiotics and pesticides repeatedly. These instances show that within the population some individuals posses the gene for resistance or acquire it through mutation hence survives the chemical. Those that survive transmit this characteristic to their offspring thus establishing a new population of resistant forms.
  • -Mosquitoes posses a gene that makes them synthesise an enzyme against DDT.
  • -The control of plasmodium has been made difficult due to the ability of the plasmodium to rapidly change its coat surface antigens. This makes the plasmodia resist the drug meant to kill them.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • RECEPTION, RESPONSE, CORDINATION
  • Sensitivity / irritability – it’s the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment.
  • Stimuli (singular stimulus – it’s a variation in condition which can produce a change in activity in part or the whole organism.
  • Response – it’s a change in activity by the organism
  • Receptors – the part of the body which receives stimuli
  • Effectors – those parts of the body that bring about response.
  • In order for sensitivity and response to be effected there must be receptors to receive the stimuli, coordinators to integrate information received transmission system to conduct the stimuli &effectors to respond to the stimuli e.g.
  • Response to a variety of stimuli
  • Responses can be grouped according to the type of stimuli. This may involve the movement of the whole organism or a part of it in response to the stimuli. If the movement is towards the stimuli, then it is called a positive (-ve) response but if it’s away from it its called negative responseE.g.
  • Taxis – this is a locomotory response of a motile cell e.g. gamete or a whole organism in response to an external stimuli. The stimuli is unidirectional i.e. a stimuli from one direction. The responses are grouped according to the stimuli which cause them.
  • Phototaxis – this is a response to variation in light intensity and direction e.g. when Euglena, spirogyra and fruit flies move towards light; wood lice, maggots and termites usually move away from the light.
  • Aerotaxis – this is response to variation in oxygen concentration e.g. amoeba moving from an area of low oxygen concentration to high oxygen concentration.
  • Osmotaxis – response to variation in osmotic pressure as shown by marine crabs burrowing in the sand to avoid dilution of the body fluids.
  • Rheotaxis – response to variation in direction of water or air currents.
  • Fishes and planarians move against currents in water while butterflies and moths fly into wind currents in order to detect the scent of flowers.
  • Chemotaxis – response to variation in chemical substance e.g. movement of male gametes towards the female gametes. Sperms (antherozoids) of mosses and ferns are attracted to move towards chemical produced by the ovum in the archegonia. Mosquitoes will fly away from insecticide repellants.
  • Thermotaxis – it is the locomotory response o temperature (150c) to moderate warmth (250c)
  • Survival value of tactic responses
  • Enable organisms escape from harmful stimuli e.g. excessive heat, predators.
  • Organisms are able to seek favorable habitats and acquire resources e.g. nutrients, mates e.t.c.
  • Chemo taxis enables fertilization to take place
  • Reception, response coordination in plants
  • The sensitivity of plants is brought about by responses on part of the plant. This response is in form of growth movement or tropisms.
  • Tropisms
  • This is a growth movement of parts of plants in response to unidirectional external stimulus.
  • The growth movements are often slow because growth rate is usually controlled by plant hormones(auxins)
  • Types of Tropisms
  • Phototropism
  • This is a growth curvature in response to the direction of intensity of light. Shoots are positively phototropic while roots show negative phototropism.
  • Chemotropism
  • This is a growth curvature in response to a gradient of chemical concentration e.g. pollen tubes grow towards chemicals secreted by the embryo sac.
  • Geotropism
  • This refers to the growth curvature in response to gravity. Roots are positively geotropic while shoots are negatively geotropic.
  • Hydrotropism
  • It refers to the curvature in response to water or moisture. Plant roots are positively hydrotropic.
  • Haptotropism/ Thigmotropism
  • This is growth curvature in response to contact with a solid object. It is shown by tendrils or climbing stems which twine around objects e.g. branches or tree stems.
  • Root tips show negative thigmotropism when they grow avoiding solid obstacles such as rocks.
  • Survival value of tropic responses
  • Phototropism exposes the leaves in position to maximize light absorption thereby enhancing photosynthesis.
  • Hydrotropism enables the roots of the plant to seek water.
  • Haptotropism enables the plant to obtain mechanical support especially in those plants lacking woody stems.
  • Geotropism enables plants roots to grow deeper into the soil thus offering firm anchorage to the plant.
  • Chemotropism enables the pollen tubes to grow towards the embryo sac thereby facilitating fertilization.
  • Comparison of tropic and tactic responses.
  • Tropism and taxes are both adaptive responses that enable the organism to survive better in their environments.
  • Both responses are due to similar external stimuli such as light, water temperature.
  • Both responses are due to unidirectional stimuli.

 

–         Tropisms –         Taxes.
–         i. Results in growth curvature responses which are more permanent –         Results in Locomotory responses which are temporary.
–         ii. Responses are slow –         Reponses are fast
–         iii. Are brought about by influence of growth  hormones –         Absence of hormonal influence.

 

  • (b) Nastic responses
  • These are non-directional movements of parts of plants in response to diffuse stimuli. Such responses include folding of leaves in hot weather, opening and closing of flowers in response to intensity of light, closing of leaves of Mimosa pudica when touched.
  • These movements are brought about by turgor pressure changes at the leaf and petal bases of certain plants. At these bases there are pressure sensitive swellings called pulvini which through loss or gain of turgidity bring about these movements.
    • Types of Nastisms
  • Nyctinasty (Sleep movement)
  • These are movements in response to differences in light intensity and temperature changes of the day and night e.g. sunflower.
  • If the response is specifically for light then it is called photonasty where it opens in the presence of light and close in its absence.
  • If the response is specifically for temperature changes then it is called thermonasty.
  • Haptonasty
  • This is the response to touch e.g.:-
  • (i)Mimosa pudica:- The leaves of this plant will close rapidly if they or their stem are touched. A sudden change of temperature will initiate a response.
  • (ii)Venus fly-trap (Dionaea)- This is an insectivorous plant that grows in soil deficient in Nitrogen so it gets its Nitrogen by trapping and digesting insects. When the sensitive (trigger) hairs on the leaves are touched by a landing insect, the mid-rib cells lose water rapidly causing the trap to spring hence closing the leaf with the spines interlocking.
  • Chemonasty
  • This is the response to the presence of specific chemical substances of nitrogenous compounds such as urea and ammonium compounds found in insectivorous plants e.g. sundew (Drosera)
  • When an insect is trapped by the tentacles of Drosera, the insect provides the chemical stimulus for the release of digestive enzymes by the plant.
  • This is a response to changes in humidity. This type of response is seen in some flowers e.g. Dandelion genus which close when the air is moist.
  • Survival value of nastism
  • Protection of the inner delicate parts of the flowers.
  • Reduction of transpiration
  • Regulation of temperature
  • A way of obtaining some limited mineral nutrients
    • Coordination in plants
    • Role of auxins in Tropisms
  • Auxins are a group of plant growth hormones and one of the commonest auxins is indole-acetic acid (IAA). Auxins are produced at the apical meristems of the shoots and roots.
  • IAA stimulates growth in both shoots and roots at the region of elongation. Roots are more sensitive to auxins than shoot i.e. requires smaller concentration to stimulate growth compared to shoots.
    • Auxins and phototropism
  • Under uniform light distribution auxins produced from the shoot apex are translocated evenly down the shoot therefore there is equal growth rate in the height of the shoot. E.g.
  • When a shoot is exposed to unidirectional light, the shoot tip bends towards the light source. This is because light causes lateral migration of auxins from the lit side of the shoot to the darker side. This leads to higher concentration of the auxins on the darker side. This higher concentration of the auxins stimulates rapid cell elongation and hence faster growth rate than the lit side. Eventually the shoot curves towards the source of light hence the positive phototropic response to light in shoots e.g.
    • Auxins and geotropism
  • If the seedling is placed in a horizontal position in the dark, it has greater accumulation of auxins on the lower side.
  • Gravity causes a greater concentration of auxins to migrate and accumulate on the lower side of growing stems and roots. In the stems such high auxins concentration promotes faster growth but in roots it inhibits growth. Therefore greater auxin concenntation on the lower side in the shoot promotes faster growth on the lower side than on the upper side causing the shoot to bend upwards; while in the root lower auxin concentration on the upper side promotes faster growth on the upper side than on the lower hence the root bends downwards. Eg
    • Auxins and thigmotropism
  • In plants when climbing stems or tendrils come into contact with a suitable hard object, the contact causes them to curve and coil round the hard object. The part of he stem in contact with the hard object has a lower auxin concentratation than the outer part. Contact causes lateral migration to the outer side of the stem.
  • Since the higher auxin concentration promotes faster growth in shoots, the greater auxin concentration in the outer part causes faster growth than the part in contact with the object hence the shoot continues to coil round the object.
    • Co-ordination in animals
  • Irritability in animals is caused by the nervous system.
  • In arthropods the nervous system consists of peripheral nerves and a ventral nerve cord.
  • In higher animals such as vertebrates, irritability is brought about by a more elaborate nervous (neuro-sensory) system and the endocrine (hormonal) system. The nervous (neuro-sensory) system provides the quickest means of communication in animals.
    • Nervous systems in mammals.
  • It consists of:
  • Central Nervous System (CNS)
  • It is made up of the brain and the spinal cord It receives and integrates impulses from the receptors and then relays them to the effector organs. It is the centre of coordination
  • Peripheral Nervous System
  • It is made up of sensory nerves and transmits nerve impulses from the receptors in the sensory organs to the CNS and motor nerves that transmit impulses from the CNS to the effector organs.
  • Structure and function of Nerve Cell
  • The nerve cell (neurone) is the basic functional unit of a nervous system. It’s a cell which is modified to transmit impulses
  • A nerve impulse is an electric signal that is transmited along a nerve fibre.
  • The neorone consists of :
  • The cell body (Centron)
  • Extensions called dendrites
  • In some neurons one of the dendrites is elongated to form an axon.
  • Each axon is filled with a specified cytoplasm called axoplasm, which is usually continous with the cytoplasm of the cell body.

 

 

 

 

  • The axon is enclosed by a fatty sheath called myelin or medullated sheath. The myelin sheath is surrounded by the neurilemma which is the membrane of the schwann cell.
  • Myelin sheath is broken at one millimeter intervals by constrictions called nodes of ranvier.
  • Nodes of ranvier help to propagate the nerve impulse and speed up the transmission of an impulse.
  • Myelin sheath helps to insulate the axon.
  • Neurones are described as unipolar, bipolar or multipolar according to how many dendrites project from the cell body. Eg.

 

 

  • The dendrites of the cell body make contact with neighbouring neurones in the CNS while the terminal dendrites at the end of axon make contact with effector organs.
  • Types of Neurones
  • There are three types of neurones grouped according to the direction of impulse conduction i.e.
  • Sensory Neurones (Afferent)
  • This nerve cell links the sense organs such as the ear, eye skin, nose and tongue with the CNS.
  • Its cell body is situatsd off the axon and outside the C NS.
  • Its receptor dendrites are located in the sense organ while the terminal dendrites are located in the CNS
  • Its function is to transmit nerve impulse from sense organs to the CNS
    • Motor neurones
  • This nerve cell links the CNS with the effectors such as muscle fibres and glands.
  • Its cell body is located at one end of the axon with the CNS
  • its motor end plates terminate in a muscle or gland.
  • It transmits nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors.
    • Relay neurone
  • This neurone links a sensory nerve with a motor neurone through small gaps or neural junctions called synapses. It’s therefore a bipolar or multi-polar nerve.
  • The entire neurone is located within the CNS.
  • They are non-myelinated.
  • The main function of a relay neurone is to relay nerve impulses between sensory and motor neurone.

 

  • Central Nervous System (CNS)
  • Its composed of:
  • The brain
  • It’s encased in a bony structure called the skull or cranium.
  • It is enveloped by a system of protective membranes called meninges.
  • The meninges consist of:
  • Dura matter.
  • It’s the tough outer membrane covering the brain and the spinal cord of vertebrates.
  • It’s composed of connective tissues and rich network of capillaries.
  • Pia matter
  • It’s the inner most membrane covering the brain and the spinal cord.
  • It possesses many blood capillaries and lymph vessels.
  • Arachnoid layer
  • It is a narrow space between the dura and pia matter.
  • It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, from which oxygen and nutrients diffuse into the brain cells
  • Within the brain there is a system of cavities called ventricles which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid is continuous with the spinal fluid of the central cord of the spinal cord. This fluid is similar to lymph.
  • It provides nourishment to brain tissues
  • Serves as a shock absorber from mechanical damage.

 

  • Functions of major parts of the brain
  • The brain is divided into three major regions i.e.
  • Fore brain
  • Largest part of the brain about .⅔ of the brain
  • It consists of:
  • Cerebrum
  • Thalamus
  • Hypothalamus
  • Pituitary gland
  • Cerebrum
  • It is a highly developed part consisting of left and right cerebral hemispheres. It is important for;
  • Integration of sensory impulses such as vision, hearing and taste- responsible for emotions i.e. joy and sorrow
  • It controls voluntary body movements e.g. Limbs, lips and neck.
  • It also controls learning, memory and human individuality, imagination and intelligence, thoughts and reasoning
  • NB Plasmodium may enter the brain causing cerebral malaria leading to mental disorder.
  • Thalamus – it contains receptors for pain and pleasure
  • The center for integration of sensory information
  • Hypothalamus – it is located below the thalamus.
  • It has receptors for homeostatic functions such as thermoregulation and osmoregulation.
  • It controls appetite, thirst and sleep.
  • Pituitary gland – it is attached to the hypothalamus and projects downwards from it.
  • It is the master endocrine gland controlling the rest of the endocrine glands.
  • Mid Brain – (Corpora quadrigemia)
  • It is the connecting stalk between the fore brain and hind brain.
  • It relays impulses between nerves from the spinal cord and the fore brain
  • Hind brain
  • The major parts of the hind brain are:
  • Cerebellum
  • The main function is maintenance of body posture and balance. This is achieved by controlling and coordinating muscular movement.
  • Dexterity in fine movements.
  • Medulla oblongata.
  • Controls involuntary activities such as breathing, swallowing, salivation and vomiting.
  • Controls dilation or constriction of blood vessels thereby influencing blood pressure
  • Spinal cord.
  • It is the posterior extension from the brain to the tail.
  • It is enclosed in the meninges and protected by the vertebral column.
  • It’s made up of grey matter and white matter.
  • The grey matter is H-shaped and surrounds a central canal which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. This grey matter relays information between the sensory & motor neurones.
  • It consists of cell bodies & dendrites of relay and motor neurones which give it its darker appearance hence the term “grey” matter.
  • White matter– it surrounds the grey matter and consists of the sensory & motor neurones.
  • The myelin sheath of these neurones gives this part its shiny white appearance.
  • Arising from the spinal cord are dorsal and ventral roots of spinal nerve.
  • Transverse section of the spinal cord

 

  • PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
  • It’s made of
  • Cranial nerves
  • They arise from the brain and form part of peripheral nervous system associated with receptors & effectors in the head.
  • In human beings there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves confined to the head and neck. Examples of cranial nerves are optic, auditory, facial and olfactory nerves.
  • There are also sensory & motor nerves which innervate the jaws and face.
  • The 10th cranial nerves, vagus nerve, innervate the heart, lungs, diaphragm and the gut.
  • Spinal nerves
  • They innervate the skeletal muscles of the limbs and trunk.
  • In association with cranial nerves they control all the organs of the body below the head e.g. urinary bladder, the gut, liver, kidney and lungs.
  • Reflex action
  • It’s a rapid automatic response to a certain stimulus. There are two types of reflex action
    • Simple reflex action
  • In a simple reflex action there is a specific single automatic response to a particular stimulus. It is the simplest form of reflex and does not depend on learning
  • Examples
  • Withdrawal of a finger from the hot or sharp object.
  • Blinking of the eye when an object passes close to it.
  • Coughing
  • Sneezing
  • Knee jerk reflex when the knee is tapped
  • Salivation
  • Secretion of tears when an onion is cut.
  • The structural basis of a reflex action is called the reflex arc, which is the pathway followed by the nerve impulse. The simplest reflex arc is made up of the 3 neurones; the receptors (sensory), relay and motor. They link the receptors with the effectors through the spinal cord.
  • When somebody accidentally touches a hot object the pain receptor in the skin are stimulated. This generates an impulse which is conducted by a sensory neurone to the spinal cord. Here the impulse is passed to the motor neurones via the relay neurones.
  • The impulse travels along the motor neurones to the biceps which contract resulting in the withdrawal of the hand from the painful stimulus.
  • The sensory neurone is also connected to an ascending neurone (longitudinal inter-neurones) which transmits impulse to the brain. This makes one to become aware of the pain a fraction of a second after withdrawal of the hand.
    • CONDITIONED REFLEX
  • This is as automatic response which can be evoked from an animal by unrelated stimulus substituted for one which normally elicits the response.
  • The 1st experiments on conditioned reflex were carried out by Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov in 1902 using dogs.
  • Ordinarily the sight or smell of food initiates salivation in dogs. This is a normal reflex action called the salivation reflex.
  • In this experiments Pavlov rang a bell whenever he was feeding his dogs. He continued doing this for several weeks and the dogs learnt to associate bell ringing with food.
  • Later on he rang the bell in the absence of food. He found out that this stimulated salivation in dogs, thus the original stimulus (sight or smell of food) was replaced by a different and unrelated stimulus (Ringing the bell) through learning.
  • A conditioned reflex usually weakens with time therefore it must be reinforced by repeated stimulus. This forms the basis of learned behaviour.
  • Examples of conditioned reflex
  • Walking
  • Playing
  • Cycling
  • Writing
  • Swimming
  • Driving
  • Everyday practical applications of conditioned reflex action include. Training of dogs, learning processes.
  • Differences between conditioned and simple reflex

 

–         Simple reflex action        –         conditioned reflex action
–         i)    single stimulus to bring about response –         Repeated stimulus to bring about response
–         ii) Simplest form of behavior and is independent of experience. –         Involves modification of behaviors depending on experience.
–         iii) sensory and motor components are the same at all times –         Primary and sensory components are replaced by a secondary component but the motor component remains unchanged.

 

  • Transmissions of nerve impulse
  • A nerve impulse is an electrical charge or wave of electrical disturbance arising from changes in ionic concentrations across the surface membrane of a nerve fibre (axon or dendrite).
  • The ions involved in impulse transmission are sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+)
    • Resting Potential
  • A non- conducting nerve fibre is described to be in a resting potential. In this state there is more Na+ outside the axon membrane than inside in relation to the concentration of K+ which is higher within the axoplasm.
  • There are also relatively more anions (negatively charged ions) within the axoplasm. The net effect of this unequal distribution of ions is that there is positive charge outside the axoplasm and negative charge inside the axoplasm so that the membrane is said to be polarised.
  • During resting potential, Na+ are actively pumped out by a mechanism called sodium pump e.g.
    • Action potential
  • It’s a localised change in electrical potential between the inside and the outside of the nerve fibre when stimulated. The inside becomes positively charged while the outside becomes negatively charged. This is called depolarisation e.g.
  • The membrane becomes more permeable. The sodium pump ceases causing an influx by diffusion of Na+ into axoplasm. This raises the concentration of Na+ ions within the axoplasm relative to the outside, causing the k+ ions to diffuse out.
  • This localised charge stimulates the depolarisation of the membrane adjacent to it, thus propagating the depolarisation process. This is immediately followed by the recovery to the polarised state. The movement of this action potential along a nerve fibre constitutes an impulse.
    • Synapse/ Neuro-junction
  • A synapse is a point at which two nerve cells come into contact. At this point, a dendrite from one of the nerve cell forms an enlargement called a synaptic knob.
  • The function of the synapse is to allow the transmission of nerve impulses from neurone to neurone.
  • The transmission of impulses across a synapse is a chemical process that is mediated by chemical substances called neuro-transmitter substances.
  • The synaptic knob contains numerous sac-like structures called synaptic vesicles and mitochondria. The vesicles contain neuro-transmitter substances.
  • Mitochondria supply the energy necessary for continuous synthesis of neuro-transmitter substances.
  • The terminal part of the synaptic knob is called pre-synaptic membrane.
  • The membrane of the adjoining nerve cell is called the post-synaptic membrane.
  • Between the two membranes is a gap called the synaptic cleft.
    • Transmission of an impulse
  • When an impulse reaches the synaptic knob, it stimulates the vesicles to move towards the pre-synaptic membrane releasing neuro-transmitter substances (acetylcholine). Acetylcholine makes the membrane permeable.
  • Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft to the post-synaptic membrane which then becomes depolarized.
  • Na+ ions from the cleft then flow through the post-synaptic knob causing an action potential here.
  • The action potential is then transmitted as a nerve impulse along the neurone.
  • Immediately afterwards acetylcholine liberated in the synaptic cleft is destroyed by an enzyme called cholinesterase into inactive end products (choline and acetic acid (ethanoic acid).
  • These are then reabsorbed by the axon terminals and reconstituted into acetylcholine using energy in the form of ATP provided by mitochondria.
  • The rapid breakdown of acetylcholine is necessary to repolarise the pre-synaptic membrane for the next nerve impulse propagation so that there is no merging of successive nerve impulses from neurone to neurone.
    • Accommodation of synapses
  • If a synapse is stimulated continuously for a long time, a point comes when no impulses are transmitted in the post-synaptic neurone.
  • The synapse is then said to accommodate or adapt to the stimulus e.g.
  • When one wears a rough shirt, an unpleasant sensation is initially felt. After sometime the sensation is not felt any more.
  • Accommodation is thought to result from exhaustion of the neuro-transmitter substance which cannot be synthesized as fast as it is required.
    • Synaptic inhibitors
  • These are the substances that interfere with transmission of nerve impulses across the synapse e.g.
  • Atropine and curare block the post-synaptic membrane preventing it from being stimulated by neuro-transmitter substances
  • Organophosphates e.g. malathion inhibit enzyme cholinesterase. This prevents the destruction of acetylcholine leading to overstimulation of the post-synaptic membrane
  • Endocrine system
  • The system comprises of endocrine glands that are ductless and secrete hormones.
  • Hormones are organic compounds which are either protein or steroids in nature. They are produced in minute quantities in cells in one part of the body and transported by blood stream to the other parts of the same organism where they produce the response.
  • Those parts of an organism that respond are called target organs.
  • Hormonal feedback mechanism
  • g. if thyroid gland is producing too much thyroxine hormone, the signal level will be sent to the pituitary gland to secrete less thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) also called thyrotrophin. The amount of thyroxine therefore falls.
  • This coordination is called negative feedback mechanism.
  • The hormones produced by the human body are:
  • Thyroxine
  • It is produced by the thyroid gland found at the neck region. It is a compound of iodine.
  • Functions
  • Controls basal metabolic activities by increasing glucose oxidation
  • Enhances the effect of growth hormone (Somatotrophin). This ensures normal growth and mental development.
  • It also works in conjunction with adrenaline to enhance involuntary activities such as increased circulatory rates.
  • Effects of under – secretion (Hypothyroidism)
  • It leads to insufficient iodine in the diet or defective enzymatic reaction concerned with its formation.
  • It leads to:
  • Cretinism in children
  • -The children have deformed legs
  • -Dry leathery skin
  • -Large tongue
  • -General body sluggishness
  • -Poor mental development resulting in low intelligence
  • Myxoedema in adults
  • -Swelling of the thyroid gland called goitre. This is due to overworking of the thyroid gland in an attempt to synthesize enough thyroxine
  • -Due to the low thyroxine concentration, individuals have low metabolic rate as shown by reduced heart beat, breathing rate and body temperature.
  • -They are mentally and physically sluggish
  • -The low physical activity results into weight gain (obesity), retention of excess fluid (oedema) hence swollen feet and puffy face.
  • Hypothyroidism can be controlled by use of balanced diet supplemented by iodized table salt and administration of iodine tablets.
  • Effects of overproduction of thyroxine(hyperthyroidism)
  • Hyperthyroidism is due to the presence of plasma proteins that stimulate the thyroid activity i.e. defective enzymatic reactions.
  • Leads to increased metabolic rate resulting in increased heart beat, breathing rate and high temperatures.
  • Individual show nervousness, restlessness and are easily irritable
  • Extreme hyperthyroidism can lead to heart failure, a condition known as thyrotoxicosis.
  • Can be controlled by treatment with radioactive iodine.
  • Surgical removal of parts of the thyroid gland can also be done.
  • Adrenaline
  • Produced by medulla part of the adrenal glands located above the kidney.
  • It prepares the body for emergency – fight or flight e.g.
  • -The heart beat increases hence increasing rate of circulation.
  • -Increases metabolic rate.
  • -Arterioles of the skin and digestive system constrict.
  • -In the liver, glycogen is converted into glucose.
  • -Skeletal muscles contract and relax which can allow movement.
  • -Breathing rate becomes faster and deeper.
  • -Fats are converted to fatty acids which are available in the blood for muscle contraction
  • NB over secretion can be brought about by growth of tumour in the medulla of adrenal glands. Symptoms are:
  • High blood pressure
  • Severe headache
  • Racing heart
  • Sweating
  • Faintness
  • The resultant effect is aging of major body organs such as kidney, heart and liver.
  • Comparison between endocrine and nervous system
  • Both provide a means of communication within the body of an organism.
  • Both involve transmission of a message triggered by a stimulus and a response
  • The target organs of hormones are like effector organs
  • Both involve chemical transmission.
  • Both bring about survival response.
  • Differences between endocrine and nervous system

 

–         Endocrine system –         Nervous system
–         Chemical substance to evoke reaction –         Nerve impulse to evoke response
–         chemical transmitted through blood –         impulse only through nerve fibre
–         response slow but affect several parts of the body –         responses quick, specific and localized
–         effects are long lasting –         effects are rapid and short – lived
–         responses take place involuntarily –         takes place voluntarily and involuntarily

 

  • Effects of Drug abuse on human Health.
  • Drug-Its any chemical substance which when taken into the body has psychological and physiological effects.
  • Drug abuse– It’s the indiscriminate use of drug with no regard to their side effects
  • Commonly abused drugs include:
  • Khat (miraa)
  • Nicotine
  • Cannabis Sativa
  • Alcohol
  • Prolonged abuse of drugs can cause addiction (drug dependence)
    • Effects of Drug abuse
  • Depressed appetite and poor feeding habits leading to emaciation
  • Interference with absorption of vital vitamins such as vitamin K, E which may lead to sterility and blindness.
  • Lowers nervous coordination leading to loss of posture and balance. This decrease performance in sports and manual activity.
  • Irritation of the lungs and the respiratory tract leading to frequent coughing and infections.
  • May lead to cancer of the lungs, throat and that of urinary bladder.
  • May also cause stomach ulcers.
  • Damage too many tissues of the heart and liver leading to heart attack and liver cirrhosis respectively.
  • Interference of temperature regulation leading to excessive heat loss.
  • Damage caused to brain may lead to sleeplessness(insomnia) , loss of memory (amnesia), deliriums, hallucination and mental illness (madness)
  • In women, drug abuse may lead to poor foetal development and pregnancy complication.
  • Irreversible damage to vital body tissues and organs and may eventually lead to death.
  • Addicted persons have an impaired judgment which may predispose them to accidents and infections such as HIV\AIDS.
  • SENSE ORGANS
  • In mammals, the main organs of special sense are:
  • Eye for sight
  • Ear for hearing
  • Tongue for taste
  • Nose for smell
  • Skin for pressure, pain and temperature.
  • The Eye
  • The function is to receive light by which an animal perceives and distinguishes objects in its immediate environment.
  • The eye is located in a socket in the skull called orbit, which offers protection against physical damage.
  • Within the orbit there is a fatty layer lining which provides further protection as a shock absorber against mechanical damage.
  • In the socket the eye is suspended by sets of muscles which move the eye e.

 

 

 

  • Lateral rectus muscles- They move the eye left and right.
  • Superior and inferior rectos muscles –Move the eye up and down.
  • Oblique muscles – Steady the eye in it’s up and down movement.
  • In the front of the eyeball, there are two thin folds of skin, the eyelids which protect the eye.
  • From the edge of the eyelids, there are many hairs called eyelashes which protect the eye from entry of small particles.
  • Eye brows – they are raised portions of the skin above the eye, thickly covered with hair whose function is to prevent sweat and dust from entering the eye.
  • In land vertebrates there is a lachrymal (tear) gland that continuously secretes watery, saline & antiseptic fluid called tears.
  • The tears moisten the cornea and wash foreign particles out of the eye. The fluid drains through the lachrymal duct into the nose.
  • In mammals, the lachrymal gland is beneath the upper eyelid, while in other animals it is located beneath the lower eyelid.
  • In amphibians, birds, reptiles, some fish and some mammals, e.g. cat, there is a transparent membrane called nictitating membrane which is drawn across the eye to clean it.
  • The mammalian eye is spherical, fluid filled structure whose walls consist of three layers i.e.
  • Sclerotic (outer layer) / sclera
  • Choroid (middle layer
  • Retina (inner layer)
  • Sclera / sclerotic / outer layer
  • This is a white fibrous layer which protects the delicate inner part of the eyeball and helps in maintaining its shape.
  • The sclera forms cornea at the front of the eye.
    • Cornea – it’s a transparent layer
  • It allows the light to enter the eye
  • It aids in reflecting the light entering the eye.
  • Conjunctiva:- It’s a protective thin transparent membrane covering the front portion at the cornea.
  • Choroid/ middle layer
  • It’s a dark-pigment, membranous layer. It has numerous blood vessels.-
  • Absorbs stray light hence prevents internal reflection within the eye.
  • Provides nourishment to the eye due to presence of numerous blood vessels.
  • At the front of the eye, the choroid extends and forms ciliary body and iris
  • Iris – it is a thin round sheet of muscular muscles (circular and radial) which controls the diameter of the pupil.
  • Its pigmented giving the eye its colour i.e. black, brown or blue
  • Pupil – it’s the opening in the iris which allows the light to enter the eye. In some vertebrates e.g. cats the pupil is narrow and slit – like while in most vertebrates it appears round.
  • Ciliary body – it’s an extension of choroid, iris and suspensory ligaments attached to it.
  • It contains circular and smooth muscles which contract and relax to alter the shape of the lens.
  • Ciliary body secretes the aqueous humour.
  • Lens – it is a transparent biconvex structure located immediately behind the pupil of the vertebrate eye
  • It’s held in position by suspensory ligaments which become tight or loose to alter the shape of the lens.
  • The lens divides the eyeball into anterior & posterior chambers
  • The anterior chamber i.e. the part behind the cornea is filled with a watery fluid called aqueous humour.
  • The posterior chamber i.e. the part between the lens & retina is filled with a denser, jelly – like transparent material called vitreous humour.
  • This fluid helps to maintain the spherical shape of the eyeball and refracts incoming light towards the retina.
  • Retina
  • It is the light sensitive layer composed of 3 regions i.e.
  • an outer pigmented region in contact with the choroid
  • a middle region of photoreceptors consisting of cones & rods.
  • An innermost region of neurones. These neurones run over the surface of the retina and join to form the optic nerve which transmits nerve impulses from the retina to the brain for interpretation.
  • Cones
  • Cones – they are densely packed together in a certain region of the retina called fovea or yellow spot. They contain the light sensitive pigment called iodopsin.
  • Iodopsin is adapted for:-
  • Bright light vision
  • Perception of fine details
  • For colour vision
  • When one looks at an object directly, light rays from it falls on the fovea. This enables the object to be observed in detail.
  • In the presence of light, iodopsin breaks down to iodine & opsin. Each cone has its own bipolar neurone which in turn links it with an optic nerve i.e. it lacks retinal convergence.
  • This property of the cones enables them to have high visual acuity (ability of the eye to distinguish objects clearly)
  • In higher vertebrates there are 3 types of cones cells which enable them to differentiate the different colours they perceive i.e. blue, green & red.
  • The trichromatic theory which suggests that the simultaneous stimulation of the 3 types of cones at different degrees brings about colour perception e.g.
    • -Equal stimulation of red and green types of cones cells is perceived as yellow colour.
    • -Equal stimulation of all 3 types of cones produces the colour sensation of white.
  • Rods
  • Rods contain a photochemical pigment called rhodopsin (visual purple) which perceives light of low intensity but is not sensitive to colour.
  • The rods have retinal convergence, therefore they have low visual acuity hence cannot distinguish fine details
  • Rhodopsin degenerates to opsin and retinal ( derivative of vitamin A) to bring about depolarization of the cell membrane, and then triggers off an impulse i.e. Rhodopsin light opsin + Retinal
  • The amount of rhodopsin in the eye is increased in the dark, raising the sensitivity of the rods to dim light.
  • Resynthesis of rhodopsin occurs slowly in the dark for continued photochemical reaction in the rods.
  • Rods are in greater concentration round the periphery of the retina and are absent in fovea centralis. Because of this, one can see an object better in dim light if he looks at it from the corner of the eye. This way, the image falls on the rods.
  • Diurnal animals (that operate during the day) like man have large number of cones in their retina.
  • Nocturnal animals (those that operate during the night like bats have large numbers of rods in their retina.
  • In the retina there is an area where the optic nerves enter the eyeball. This is called blind spot. This area has neither rods nor cones, so images from objects falling on the blind spot cannot be perceived.
  • Image formation and interpretation
  • Light from the object is reflected by cornea, aqueous humour and lens through the vitreous humour and focused on to the fovea centralis on the retina.
  • The image is recorded as real, inverted and small e.g.
  • The photoreceptor cell becomes stimulated and nerve impulse is generated and transmitted by the optic nerve to the cerebrum part of the brain for interpretation. In the brain the impulses are interpreted and the object appears real, upright and normal.
  • The images from the left eye are interpreted by the right cerebral hemisphere and those from the right eye by the left cerebral hemisphere.
  • Binocular vision / stereoscopic vision
  • Binocular vision refers to the ability of the right eye to provide a three dimensional view and a depth perception of an object under observation.
  • It’s seen in man and other primates all of whom have two eyes placed in front of the head. This way, both eyes can be focused on the same object. Each eye forms its own image of the object under the observation.
  • Both images are sent to the brain which combines them to give a single impression of the object, since each eye “sees” a slightly different aspect of the same object, a combination of the two images provides a 3 dimensional view and depth perception.
  • Binocular vision helps to accurately judge the distance as when monkeys leap on trees or when a man is driving.
  • If the two eyes are not well aligned or if the visual cortex is intoxicated e.g. by alcohol the object under observation appears double & blurred.
    • NB Improper alignment of the eye can be demonstrated by looking at an object & pressing the eye to the side with a finger.
    • Accommodation of the eye
  • This refers to the ability of the eye to focus for both far and near objects. It is accomplished through a change in the shape of the lens.
    • Accommodation of a close object
  • The ciliary muscles contract thereby relaxing the tension on suspensory ligaments.
  • The curvature of the lens increases i.e. the close object are gently refracted by the lens focusing them onto the retina e.g.
    • Accommodation of a distant object
  • The ciliary muscles relax thereby increasing the tension of the suspensory ligaments. This stretches the lens decreasing its curvature i.e. the lens become thinner. Light rays from a far object are less refracted and hence focused onto the retina e.g.
  • During the accommodation, the iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
  • In bright light, the circular muscles of the iris contract while the radial muscles relax and the pupil becomes smaller. This prevents damage of the retina by excessive light.
  • In dim light the radial muscles of the iris contract and the circular muscles relax, the pupil enlarges.
  • This allows in enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on the retina.
  • Defects of the eye.
    • Short sightedness (Myopia)
  • It is also called near sighted and individuals with this defect have a longer than normal eye ball. Light rays from distant objects are focused at point in front of the retina.
  • As a result distant objects appear blurred.
  • This defect can be corrected by wearing glasses with concave (diverging) lenses. These bend light rays outwards before they reach the eyes enabling them to be focused on the retina.
    • Long-sightedness (Hypermetropia)
  • Long sighted or far sighted individuals have a shorter than normal eyeball or weak lenses. Light rays from a near object are focused at a point behind the retina. As a result near objects appear blurred
  • Light rays from distant objects are focused normally on the retina e.g.
  • This defect can be corrected by wearing glasses with convex (converging) lenses. The lenses bend the light rays inwards before they reach the eyes enabling them to be focused on the retina
  • Astigmatism
  • This is a condition in which light rays from an object are brought to focus in different planes. This is caused by unequal curvature of the cornea or lens which produces unequal refraction of light entering the eye.
  • It’s corrected by wearing a special cylindrical lens in front of the eye which corrects the focus in the defective planes.
  • Squintedness
  • This is where the extrinsic muscle of the eye that control the turning of the eye ball do not co-ordinate above on stimulation.
  • The defect affects the paired rectus muscle which turn the eye up and down and lateral rectus which move the eye left and right.
  • In this condition, the eye ball face different direction hence focusing and accommodation are achieved with difficulty
  • Its difficult to correct this defect
  • Old sight (Presbyopia)
  • This is a condition in which the light rays from an object are brought to focus behind the retina, while rays from a distant object is sharply focused. This is by hardening (loss of elasticity)of the lens and weakening of the ciliary muscles due to old age
  • The defect is corrected by wearing a concave or convent lens or one pair of glasses with two different lenses called bifocal lenses.
  • Colorblindness
  • This is a genetic defect in which certain colours can not be distinguished by human beings and other animals.e.g Red-green colour blindness in which an individual is unable to distinguish between red and green.
  • The retina of the affected individual lacks cones with pigments that normally respond to red – green colors.
  • Currently there’s no cure for colorblindness.
  • Cataracts
  • This is an eye defect associated with old age. It may also be caused by eye injury due to a blow or by complications of diabetes mellitus.
  • The eye lens become cloudy or opaque hence blocking the transmission of light rays. The transparent protein fibres in the lens are denatured and coagulated forming the opaqueness in the lens.
  • The defect can be corrected surgically by replacing the diffective lens with a good one from a donor or an artificial lens.

 

 

 

  • THE HUMAN EAR
  • The mammalian ear performs two main functions i.e.
  • -Hearing
  • -Maintenance of balance
  • The ear can be divided into 3 main parts i.e.
  • The outer ear
  • It consists of;
  • -pinna
  • -External auditory meatus
  • The pinna
  • It’s a flap of skin and cartilage which partially covers the opening to external auditory meatus.Some animals e.g. cattle are able to rotate their pinna in order to locate the direction of sound.
  • It collects and concentrates sound waves into the external auditory meatus. It leads into external auditory meatus.
  • External auditory meatus
  • It’s a tube or passage that directs sound waves to the ear drum.
  • The tube is lined with hairs which help to trap solid particles that may enter the ear.
  • It’s also lined by wax secreting cells whose function is to secrete wax that traps dust and prevents entry of solid particles. Wax also maintains the flexibility of the ear drum.
  • The middle ear
  • It’s an air –filled cavity consisting of;
  • -Eardrum (Tympanic membrane)
  • -Ear ossicles
  • -Eustachian tube
  • -Oval window
  • -Round window
  • Eardrum (Tympanic membrane)
  • It’s taut but pliable like the skin of a drum which enables it to vibrate.
  • When it is hit by sound waves from outside, it vibrates and transforms sound waves into vibrations. It then transmits the vibrations to the Ear ossicles.
  • (ii) Ear ossicles
  • These are 3 bones namely;
  • -Malleus (hammer)
  • -Incus (anvil)
  • -Stapes (stirrup)
  • They are suspended by muscles i.e. tensor tympani and stapedius.These muscles also prevent excessive vibrations which could damage the inner delicate membraneous labyrinth.
  • The 3 Ear ossicles form a system of levers which amplifies and transmits the vibrations from Eardrum (Tympanic membrane) to the Oval window.
  • Eustachian tube
  • It’s a tube connecting the middle ear with the pharynx.
  • Its function is to equalize the air pressure between the middle ear and the outer ear to prevent the distortion of the Eardrum (Tympanic membrane).e.g. if you go higher up in an aeroplane, the atmospheric air pressure outside falls below that of the middle ear. This results in the Eardrum (Tympanic membrane) bulging outwards and the condition can be rectified by yawning or swallowing which opens the Eustachian tube to equalize the pressure on both sides of the Eardrum.
  • NB Eustachian tube can provide a passage for entry of pathogenic microbes from the pharynx to the middle ear causing ear infection.
  • Oval window
  • It’s a membrane that covers a small hole leading to the semi-circular canals
  • Round window
  • It’s a membrane that covers a small hole leading to the cochlea.
  • The Inner Ear
  • It’s a fluid-filled cavity. It consists of;
  • -Cochlea-Involved with hearing
  • -Vestibular apparatus – Composed of vestibule and semi-circular canals which are involved in
  • The cavities in the inner ear are filled with fluids called perilymph and endolymph. The fluids conduct sound vibrations transmitted from the middle ear to the cochlea for hearing.
  • In the vestibule and semi-circular canals the displacement of the fluids leads to the restoration of the body balance. The fluids absorb mechanical shock hence protect the delicate sensory structures.
  • Mechanism of hearing
  • Cochlea is spirally shaped tube consisting of a system of canals, membranes and sensory cells. The canals are filled with endolymph.and perilymph.The coiling of the cochlea offers a large surface area for attachment of the sensory cells responsible for hearing.
  • The pinna concentrates sound waves into the External auditory meatus.The sound waves strike the Eardrum and cause it to vibrate. The vibrations are transmitted to the ear ossicles in the middle ear.
  • The first ossicle, Malleus picks the vibrations, and then transmits to Incus then to stapes. The stapes passes the vibrations to the Oval window from where the vibrations are transmitted to the perilymph of the cochlea.
  • The 3 Ear ossicles are specially arranged to amplify the vibrations as they transmit the to the Oval window (amplifies 22 times)
  • In the cochlea the vibrations stimulate the sensory cells hairs to generate nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve for interpretation. The intensity of stimulus transmitted to the brain enables the brain to interprete the impulses as sound of specific pitch and loudness.
  • Meanwhile the vibrations in the fluid of the inner ear are dissipated back into the middle ear through the Round window.
  • The direction of sound is detected accurately as a result of both ears functioning together. When sound waves come from the front, both ears pick the waves at the same time.
  • If the sound is from the sides, one ear will pick the waves earlier than the other. The time lapse of impulses to the brain allows for the determination of direction and distance.
  • Maintenance of body balance and posture
  • Balance is brought about by the semi-circular canals and the vestibule
  • Semi-circular canals
  • These are 3 tubular cavities containing endolymph.These canals lie mutually at right angles to each other and occupy the 3 planes of space. They contain receptors that respond to rotation of head in any of the 3 planes.
  • Each semi-circular canal has a swelling called ampulla at one end containing sensory cells.
  • The semi-circular canals maintain body posture in relation to movement of the head e.g. when one spins and then stops suddenly, one feels dizzy. This is because the fluid is still in motion and stimulating sensory cells in the ampulla. The movement of the fluid stimulates the sensory cells which trigger off nerve impulses which are transmitted via the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation.
  • In the brain the information is relayed to the motor neourone to the muscles of the body to restore the correct posture.
    • Vestibule
  • It consists of utriculus and succulus which contain sensory cells. They maintain posture and balance in relation to gravity.
  • When the body balance is shifted the fluid disturbs sensory cells. This triggers a nerve impulse to the brain via the auditory nerve. The brain interprets the impulse according to the position of the body in relation to gravity. The brain relays a nerve impulse through the motor neourone to the muscles of the body to restore the correct posture..
  • Defects of the Ear
  • Deafness-This is a hearing defect which makes an individual unable to perceive sound. There are two categories i.e.
  • Permanent deafness-This is due to damage of the cochlea or auditory nerve. It is caused by;
  • Prolonged exposure to loud sounds.
  • When the cochlea is sensitive to certain drugs e.g. some antibiotics
  • NB It’s difficult to correct
  • (ii) Partial deafness-It’s brought about by impairment of the structures that conduct vibrations to the cochlea e.g. ear drum and ear ossicles.
  • Ear ossicles. – Can be impaired due to abnormal growth of the connective tissue(fibrosis) in the middle ear or by calcification of ear canals.
  • Ear drum– Can be damaged by;
  • -Infection
  • -Physical blow
  • -Production of too much wax which hardens hence blocking the external auditory meatus.
  • -Partial deafness can be corrected by surgery or by using a hearing aid.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

 

  • Support-It’s the ability of organisms to bear their weight and maintain their body forms Movement- It’s the displacement of parts of the body of an organism e.g. growth Movements of plants and limbs of animals.
  • Locomotion- It’s Movement of the whole organism.
  • Necessity for support and Movement in plants
  • Movement enables plants to adjust to the environment e.g. growth of pollen tube to bring about fertilization.
  • Enables the plants to obtain resources from the environment like light, water and nutrients-Tropic and nastic Movements.
  • Enables plants to escape or avoid harmful stimuli such as high temperature.
  • Supportive tissues enable a plant to hold delicate organs like leaves and flowers where they can most efficiently carry out their functions.
  • Supportive tissues enable a plant to maintain its correct posture.
  • Enables plants to withstand external forces such as strong winds and animals climbing on them

 

  • Arrangement of tissues in stems
  • A stem plays an important role in support in a plant. This is due to the presence of support tissues which provide mechanical support. These tissues are;
  • Parenchyma
  • They are spherical or elongated. They form the major component of the cortex and pith.
  • When turgid they become tightly packed and rigid, thus enable a plant to attain an erect posture.
  • They provide the main support in many herbaceous plants such as tomatoes and Irish potatoes. However when such plants lose water on a hot dry day, the cells become flaccid and loosely packed. This causes the plants to droop a phenomenon called wilting.
  • (ii) Collenchyma cells
  • Not all stems develop collenchyma.It always occur towards the outside beneath the epidermis.
  • Their walls are thickened with cellulose especially at the corners to provide mechanical support.
  • Collenchyma cells contain living protoplasm and their walls are not lignified.
  • Collenchyma tissue is important in providing mechanical support in leaves, herbaceous plants and young woody plants.
  • (iii) Sclerenchyma
  • Their walls are thick and lignified. The Sclerenchyma cells are often long fibres in stems such as hibiscus.
  • Sclerenchyma consists of dead cells thickened by lignin. Lignin.is a complex polysaccharide.
  • It’s the main constituent of wood.
    • Xylem vessels
  • They are thick walled tubes with lignin deposited unevenly in rings, spirals or patches on their walls.
  • Their main function is transport but because their walls are thick and lignified, they give strength and support to the stem.
  • They are found in angiosperms.
    • Xylem tracheids

 

  • These are long cells with tapered ends .They are dead cells with thick unevenly lignified walls and help to strengthen and support the stem.
  • Based on the nature and distribution of the strengthening tissues, there are two types of stems i.e.
    • Herbaceous stems
  • The tissue is relatively soft and easily crushed. Plants with this kind of stem are usually small and do not grow very tall.
  • Mechanical strength in such stems is directly related to the turgor pressure of the living cells of which it is composed.
  • Some herbaceous plants are known to obtain support by twinning round other plants e.g. passion fruit stems and morning glory e.g.
  • Others support themselves by use of tendrils e.g. Pumpkins
  • (ii) Woody stems
  • They have support tissues whose cells have stiff, thickened or lignified walls. Therefore they are referred to as strengthening tissues. These tissues are; collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem vessels and tracheids. Even when completely dry, these cells remain strong and maintain their shape.
  • They develop thick, strong trunks and branches and those plants live for many years.
  • Stems of woody plants grow in height and in diameter from year to year.
  • Stems of woody plants when young exhibit herbaceous characteristics in terms of support but as they mature they undergo secondary growth that leads to development of elaborate tissues e.g. bark covering their trunks.
  • Activity1; To observe wilting in plants
    • Materials
  • -Herbaceous plant-Irish potatoes/Sonchus
  • -Woody shrub-Sodom apple/Mexican marigold
    • Procedure
  • Uproot a young herbaceous plant and a woody shrub within the same span of time.
  • Lace the two plants on the laboratory bench for 30 minutes.
  • Observe the appearance of stem and leaves of;
  • herbaceous plant
  • Woody shrub
  • Account for the appearance of the shoot in the two plants above.
  • Support and Movement in Animals
  • Animals have a firm and rigid framework for support known as a skeleton.
  • Functions of skeleton.
  • Supports the weight of the animal’s body.
  • Gives the body its shape.
  • Provides surface for attachment of body muscles to facilitate movement
  • Internal organs are attached onto the framework or suspended from it.
  • -Animals move from place to place to;
  • Search for food.
  • Escape from predators or hostile environment.
  • Look for mates and breeding grounds.

 

  • Types of skeleton
  • Hydrostatic skeleton.
  • Exoskeleton
  • Endoskeleton
    • Exoskeleton
  • It’s a characteristic of members of the phylum Arthropoda and is made up of a substance called chitin. Chitin is secreted by epidermal cells and hardens on secretion.
  • This Exoskeleton supports and protects inner delicate tissues.
  • It’s waterproof and therefore prevents excessive loss of water from the body tissues.
  • Exoskeleton provides a surface for attachment of body muscles which is essential for movement.
  • Chitin is not evenly distributed i.e. it is thin at the joints to allow for efficient movement.
  • NB Exoskeleton limits growth. To overcome this limitation it is therefore periodically shed, a process called moulting (ecdysis).
  • Endoskeleton
  • It is a characteristic feature of all vertebrates.
  • It’s made up of living tissues i.e. cartilage or bones, hence these tissues grow steadily within the animal.
    • Functions
  • Supports the animal’s body weight.
  • Gives the body its shape.
  • Protects inner delicate organs e.g. heart, lungs, brain from mechanical injury.
  • It provides surface for attachment of body muscles when they contract or relax to bring about movement.
  • The long and the short bones of the skeleton produce the blood cells.
  • Calcium and phosphate deposits on the bones cause hardening of bone tissue therefore bone acts as a reservoir of Calcium and phosphate ions in the body.
    • Locomotion in a finned fish –Tilapia
  • -The finned fish are adapted for movement. In the water in the following ways;
  • They have a streamlined body which reduces resistance against movement and enables it to cut through the water easily.
  • It has an inflexible head that enables it to maintain forward thrust.
  • The scales of the fish overlap and are pointed backwards to allow the water to pass over the fish easily without any obstructions.
  • The fish also secretes mucus which covers the body and this reduces friction during movement.
  • The fish has a flexible backbone on which segments of muscle blocks (myotomes) are attached.
  • The fish has strong tail muscles which contract and relax to bring about undulating movements.
  • Some fish posses a swim bladder between the vertebral column and the gut. It provides fish with the buoyancy and also helps the fish to adjust its vertical position in relation to depth in water.
  • The fish posses a lateral line system along the length of their body that enables it to detect vibrations and changes of pressure in water thus enabling the fish to respond suitably.
  • The tail has a large surface area which increases the amount of water that is displaced resulting in an increase in the forward thrust.
  • They have two types of finse.;
  • Paired fins-Pectoral and pelvic fins
  • (ii)Unpaired fins-Dorsal, ventral and caudal fins
    • Paired fins- Pectoral and pelvic fins
  • -They have the following functions;
    • Maintaining balance
    • Braking-When the Paired fins are extended rapidly forward at right angles to the body.
    • Changing direction-Each Pectoral fin can be used independently of its opposite member hence act as pivots around which the fish can turn rapidly.
  • Control pitching of the fish i.e. the tendency of the fish to plunge down head first e.g.
    • Unpaired fins- caudal, Dorsal ,and ventral (anal)fins
  • -They have the following functions;
  • Reduce rolling i.e. fish rolling to one side.
  • Reduce yawing i.e. lateral deflection of the body.
  • NB Caudal fin propels the fish forward and steers fish while in motion.
    • Activity 1; To examine external features of a finned fish
    • Requirements
  • Freshly killed finned fish in a tray.
  • A pair of forceps

 

  • Procedure
  • -Examine the fish provided and identify the following features;
  • Scales
  • Fins-caudal, ventral, Dorsal, pelvic and Pectoral fins
  • Note the shape of the fish’s body.
  • Place the fish to lie on its side on the bench. Stroke the fish from the head to the tail using your fingers and from the tail to the head. Record your observation in relation to the arrangement of the scales.
  • Draw and label the fish.
    • Activity 2; To calculate the tail power of fish
  • Requirements
  • Freshly killed finned fish in a tray
  • Means of measuring(in millimeters)
  • Procedure
  • Obtain a Freshly killed finned fish.
  • Measure its body length from the mouth to the tail tip.
  • Measure the length from the tail tip to the anus.
  • Calculate the percentage length of the tail to the rest of the body.
  • Tail power is given by;

 

 

  • Tail power=Length from the tail tip to the anus ×100
    • Length from the mouth to the tail tip

 

  • Support and Movement in mammals
  • In mammals the bones and muscle work together to bring support and movement.
  • The skeleton system in mammals is divided into two parts i.e.;
    • Axial skeleton
    • Appendicular skeleton
  • Axial skeleton
  • This consists of the following;
  • Skull
  • It consists;
  • Cranium
  • It encloses and protects the brain. There are perforations on the cranium to allow blood vessels and nerves to pass to and from the brain.
  • Lower jaw (mandible) and upper jaw (maxilla)
  • It articulates (forms a joint) with the upper jaw (maxilla) through a hinge joint.
  • At the posterior end of the cranium are two smooth rounded protuberances, the occipital condyles, which articulate with the atlas vertebra to form a joint which permits the nodding of the head.
  • X
  • Ribcage
  • It encloses the thoracic cavity protecting delicate organs e.g. heart and lungs.
  • The cage is made of ribs articulating with vertebral column to the back and the sternum to the front. At the articulating points, the ribs have cartilage.
  • Sternum
  • It supports the ribs and protects the organs in the thoracic cavity.
  • In flying vertebrates the sternum is very prominent and often modified to form a keel which gives a large surface area for attachment of pectoral muscle (flight muscle)
  • NB At the lower end, the sternum and ribcage offer surfaces for attachment of muscles of the back and the abdomen.
  • (d) Vertebral column
  • The Vertebral column consists of bones called vertebrae. The number of vertebrae varies from species to species e.g. in human there are 33 vertebrae.
  • The vertebrae are separated from each other by cartilage called intervertebral disc which has various functions i.e.
  • Acts as cushion that absorbs shock and reduces friction.
  • It makes Vertebral column flexible by allowing for a certain degree of movement between the vertebrae.
  • The Vertebral column has 5 types of vertebrae
    • -Cervical vertebrae
    • -Thoracic vertebrae
    • -Lumbar vertebrae
    • -Sacral vertebrae
    • -Caudal vertebrae
  • The vertebrae have got common basic plan e.g.

 

  • The parts of a vertebra are;
    • Centrum-It’s a solid structure of the vertebra. It supports the weight of the vertebrae’
    • Transverse process-Are lateral in relation to Centrum while the neural spine is dorsal to the Centrum.
  • These two are projections which offer surfaces for muscle and ligament attachment.
    • Neural canal-It’s a centrally running passage for the spinal cord.
    • Neural arch-It’s an arch of bones which arises from the Centrum. Together with Centrum they protect the spinal cord.
  • The vertebrae articulate with each other anteriorly and posteriorly by facets called zygapophysis.
  • At the anterior (front) and posterior (back) of each vertebra is a pair of smooth facets for articulation of successive vertebrae.
  • Facets at the anterior parts are called prezygapophyses. They face upwards and inwards.
  • Facets at the posterior part are called postzygapophyses. They face downwards and outwards.
    • Cervical vertebrae
  • They are found in the neck region. There are 7 cervical vertebrae.
  • All Cervical vertebrae have vertebraterial canals in the transverse process for the passage of vertebral artery and vertebral nerves.
  • The first two cervical vertebrae called atlas and axis are different from other cervical vertebrae.
    • Atlas
  • Has a small neural spine.
  • It has no Centrum.
  • Neural canal is wide for the passage of the large spinal cord in the neck region.
  • Their transverse processes are broad and wing-like offering a large surface area for attachment of neck muscles.
  • It has broad facets for articulation with condyles of the skull. This forms a joint which allows for up and down movement of the head (nodding).

 

  • Axis
  • It’s the second cervical vertebra on the neck region.
  • The Centrum is broad and projects in front to form an odontoid process/peg. This forms a peg which fits into the ventral side of the neural canal of the atlas.
  • The joint between the atlas and axis allows turning movement of the head (rotatory movements).
  • It has broad neural spine.
  • Has wide neural canal.
  • Has wing-like transverse process.
    • -The other 5 cervical vertebrae posses;
  • Broad and branched transverse process. These offer a large surface area for attachment of neck muscles
  • Short neural spine
  • Wide neural canals and wide Centrum.
  • They posses the prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses.
    • (b) Thoracic vertebrae
  • They are found in the thoracic region articulating with the ribs. In man they are 12 in number
  • They have a long neural spine which offers a large surface area for attachment of back muscles.
  • Centrum is large.
  • Short transverse process.
  • The ribs articulate with the vertebrae at two points i.e. capitulum and tuberculum.The tuberculum facet on each transverse process articulates with tuberculum of the rib while the capitular demi-facets on the Centrum articulate on the capitulum of the rib.

 

 

  • Lumbar vertebrae
  • They are found in the lumbar region of the body. In man there are 5 vertebrae.
  • They have large and broad Centrum to offer support.
  • They have broad and long transverse process projecting forwards and downwards from the Centrum for muscle attachment.
  • Have broad neural spine for muscle attachment.
  • Infront and on either side of the neural spine are two projections called metapophyses.
  • Also projecting dorsally near the transverse process are anapophyses.
  • In some animals e.g. rabbits another projection the hypapophysis arises ventrally to the Centrum. All these projections offer additional surfaces for the attachment of abdominal muscles.

 

 

 

 

 

  • NB The vertebrae in the lumbar region are adapted to support the weight of the body and to withstand strains of movement.
  • Sacral vertebrae
  • They are situated in the sacral region. Man has 5 while rabbits have 4.
  • They have large and broad Centrum to offer support.
  • Neural canal is narrow.
  • Neural spine is short.
  • The first anterior sacral vertebra is large with wing-like transverse process which is fused to the pelvic girdle.
  • The transverse processes of the remaining vertebrae are not attached. They all offer a large surface area for attachment of back muscles.
  • All the sacral vertebrae are fused to form a rigid structure the sacrum. This makes sacrum strong and firm to bear the body weight and spread it to the legs through the pelvic girdle.

 

  • Caudal vertebrae.
  • They are found in the tail region. The number depends on the size of the tail. In man where the tail is vestigial they are 4 and are fused to form a coccyx.
  • Neural spines and zygapophyses are short.
  • Neural canal and neural arch are absent hence the entire bone is Centrum.
    • Appendicular Skeleton
  • It consists of the girdles and limbs attached to them. The girdles are the pectoral girdle on the anterior side and pelvic girdle to the posterior.
  • The limbs to the anterior part of the body are fore-limbs and those to the posterior are hind-limbs.
  • The limbs of all mammals are constructed in the same basic plan with 5 digits (fingers and toes) in each limb. This is called pentadactyl limb plan e.g.
    • Bones of fore-limbs
    • Pectoral girdle
  • This is made up of two halves each of which consists of 3 bones i.e.
  • -Scapula
  • -Coracoid process
  • -Clavicle
  • These bones are attached to the upper part of the vertebral column. The two halves are not fused but are attached firmly by muscles.
  • Scapula (Shoulder blade)
  • It’s a flat, triangular-shaped bone. At its apex is a concave cavity or depression, called glenoid cavity which articulates with the head of humerus to form the ball and socket joint.
  • A spine runs along the outer surface of the scapula and at its free end, there are two projections i.e. acromion and metacromion which are both for muscle attachment.
    • Clavicle (collar bone)
  • It articulates on one end with acromion process and the other with sternum. It’s for muscle attachment and aids in movement of arms.
  • Humerus
  • This is the bone found in the upper arm. Its head articulates with scapula at the glenoid cavity of the pectoral girdle where it forms ball and socket joint.
  • Near the head are two roughened projections i.e. the greater and lesser tuberosities. These extend into a shaft which provides surface for muscle attachment.
  • Between the tuberosities, is a groove called bicipital groove. It is along this groove that the tendons of the biceps muscles pass.
  • At the lower end is the trochlea which articulates with the forearm to form a hinge joint at the elbow.
    • Ulna and Radius
  • These are two bones found in the forearm. The radius is found on the side of the thumb.
  • The ulna is on the side of the small finger and has a projection called olecranon process. This has a sigmoid notch which articulates with the humerus forming a hinge joint.
    • Functions of olecranon process
  • Offers a large surface for attachment of tendons, ligaments and muscles
  • Prevents overstretching of the lower arm
  • Limits movement at the joint (acts as stopper).
  • Limits movement of radius and ulna+
    • Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges
  • Carpals- They are small bones found in the wrist (wrist bones). They are nine (9) in the
  • Metacarpals (Hand bones) – They form the skeleton of the hand and are 5 in number.
  • Phalanges (Finger bones) –Each digit has 3 bones called phalanges singular phalanx except the thumb that has two.
    • NB In cattle and goats the fore limbs has two digits while in the horse there is only one digit.
    • Bones of Hind limb
  • These are;
  • The pelvic girdle
  • It consists of two halves fused at the pubic symphysis. Each half is made of 3 fused bones i.e.
    • -Ilium
    • -Ischium
    • -Pubis
  • Each half has a cup-shaped cavity, the acetabulum. This articulates with the head of the femur to form a ball and socket joint. Dorsally, the ilium articulates with the sacrum.
  • The ilium provides a large surface to which thigh muscles are attached.
  • Has sacral facet that attaches it to the transverse process of the 1st sacral vertebra
  • Between Ischium and pubis is a hole called orbiturator foramen. This is an aperture through which blood vessels, nerves and muscles pass. This design is an adaptation to reduce the weight of the pelvic girdle and hence lighten the load to be supported by the hind limb.
  • The pubic symphysis is composed of flexible cartilage which permits the widening of the females girdles when giving birth.
  • The ilium, Ischium and pubis are fused to form the innominate bone.

 

 

 

  • NB The size of the pubic cavity is important in females in regard to childbirth. A hormone called relaxin causes the relaxation of the pubis symphysis during birth thus expanding the size of the pelvic cavity.
  • Femur
  • It’s a long bone found between the hip and the knee. The head of femur fits into the acetabulum forming the hip joint.
  • At the tip of the shaft are the greater and lesser trochanters which are extensions for muscle attachment.
  • The shaft of the femur leads to the lower end with expanded and rounded knobs called condyles.
  • The condyles articulate with the patella (knee cap). They also articulate with tibia to form hinge joint at the knee.
  • The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the lower hind limb.
  • The heel has 7 small bones in man called tarsals (ankle bones). These articulate with the tibia and fibula on the upper end and with the metatarsals (foot bones) on the lower end.
  • The metatarsals are 5 in number and form the skeleton of the foot. In man, there are 5 digits (toes) on the foot, 4 in rabbits, 2 in the cow and 1 in the horse. Each digit has 3 phalanges (toe bones) except the big toe that has two.

 

    • JOINTS
  • A joint is a connection between two or more bones. There are various types of joints e.g.
    • Immovable joints
  • g. Fused bones in the skull and the pelvic girdle.
  • Gliding joints e.g. at the wrist, ankle and between vertebrae in the vertebral column.
    • Movable joints
  • They are found at various points of the appendages. These joints are characterized by bones covered with cartilages at the ends and bones being held together by tough ligaments.
  • The joint area is filled with a lubricating synovial fluid and is also called synovial joints.
  • Synovial joints are of two types.
    • Ball and socket joints
  • This is a type of joint with two bones, one with a round head and the other one with a depression or a cavity into which the head of the first bone fits and moves freely.
  • In this joint, movement is possible in all directions.
    • Examples; Hip and shoulder joints
  • This joint allow the limbs to rotate through 360°, however, they cannot bear very heavy loads.

 

    • Hinge joint
  • The depressions in one bone allow the smooth condyles of another bone to fit and articulate to allow movement in one direction.
  • The maximum stretch of the limb at this joint is 180º. They are found at the elbow, knee and phalanges.
    • Ulna – humerus hinge joint

 

  • Movement of a joint
  • At a movable joint the bones are held together by an inelastic tissue called Ligaments restrain movement of the bones thus preventing dislocation.
  • At the joint, muscles are attached to the bones by an inelastic tissue called
  • A muscle is attached to two points, the origin on an immovable bone and insertion on a movable bone.
  • Muscles which operate joints are in pairs and are antagonistic.
  • A muscle may bring about bending at a joint. This type of a muscle is called flexor muscle while the other which straightens the limb is the extensor muscle.
    • Movement at the hinge joint of the elbow
  • In the arm there are two antagonistic muscles i.e. biceps and triceps.
  • The biceps (flexor muscles) flex the arm while the contraction of triceps (extensor muscles) extends the arm. The biceps contract and triceps relax. This pulls the ulna – radius upwards hence bending the arm.
  • While the triceps contract the biceps relax thus straightening ulna – radius leading to extension of the arm. e.g.
  • During this movement of the arm, the hinge joint at the elbow serves as the fulcrum with the biceps muscles providing the effort to lift the load at forearm.
  • Structure and function of muscles
  • Muscles are tissues specialized for contraction.
  • There are 3 types of muscles i.e.
    • Skeletal muscle
    • Smooth muscle
    • Cardiac muscle
    • Skeletal/striated muscle
  • They are attached to the bones/skeleton and are responsible for locomotion and other voluntary movements.
  • They are innervated by the voluntary part of the nervous system therefore known as voluntary muscles.
  • Its fibres have stripes running across them hence they are also known as striated or striped muscle. They contract and fatigue rapidly.
  • They are made up of long cylindrical cells with multiple nuclei (multinucleated).
  • Each fibre contains many myofibrils running parallel to each other.
  • A skeleton muscle is made up of a bundle of long fibres running the whole length of the muscle. The covering of a muscle fibre is called a sarcolemma.
  • The myofibrils are composed of two proteins strands i.e. actin and myosin.
  • Structure of striated muscle
  • The functional unit of the muscle is the myofibril which has the ability to contract. Muscles require large amounts of energy to contract this energy is provided by the numerous mitochondria present in the sarcoplasm.
  • Sodium ions and calcium ions are also necessary for muscle contraction.
  • The force created by contraction is transmitted onto the skeleton in the same magnitude by the tendon. This brings about the appropriate movement of the skeleton.
    • Smooth/visceral muscles
  • They are found in the walls of tubular body structures e.g. digestive tract, blood vessels, urinary tract, reproductive tract, respiratory tract etc.
  • They are made of long spindle – shaped cells with a single nucleus.
  • They contain myofibrils enclosed by plasma membrane.
  • They lack cross striations hence referred to as smooth muscles.
  • They are innervated by the autonomic nervous system and can therefore not be contracted at will, hence they are also called involuntary muscles. They are capable of contracting slowly and fatigue slowly unlike skeletal muscles.
    • (c) Cardiac muscle
  • This is the heart muscle. Each muscle fibre consists of short cells with centrally placed nuclei and numerous striated myofibrils.
  • The ends of the cells are marked by thickened region called intercalated discs. These form bridges between fibres hence transmit impulses rapidly throughout the heart.
  • The contractions of the heart muscle are generated from within the heart itself without nervous stimulation. Therefore heart muscle is said to be myogenic.
  • Cardiac muscle is capable of continuous rhythmic contractions without fatigue throughout the life of the mammal.
  • They have more mitochondria than skeletal muscle to sustain the energy demands.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  • .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Form 3 Business Studies Exams and Marking Schemes Free

NAME: …………………………………………………. ADM  ………………..DATE………………..           

CANDIDATE’S SIGN………..……………..…

565/2

BUSINESS STUDIES

PAPER 2

TIME: 2:30HOURS

 

JOINT EXAMINATION

FORM THREE BUSINESS STUDIES

PAPER 2

END OF TERM 3 EXAMINATION

 

 

 

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES:

 

  • Write your name and index numbers in the spaces provided
  • All answers should be written in the spaces provided in this booklet.
  • Answer any five questions.

 

 

For Examiner’s Use Only

 

Qs 1

(a)

 

(b)

2

(a)

 

(b)

3

(a)

 

(b)

4

(a)

 

(b)

5

(a)

 

(b)

6

(a)

 

(b)

Total scores
Marks                          

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Explain five accounting documents used in home trade. [10 mks]
  2. There has been a decline in demand for wooden furniture. Explain five factors that may have caused this trend.                                                                                     [10 mks]
  3. Explain five features that differentiate a public limited company from a partnership.                         [10 mks]
  4. Describe five common channels of distribution for the locally manufactured goods. [10mks]

 

  1. The following balances were extracted from the books of Mageta traders on 31st Jan 2015.

(Shs)

Land                            82 000

Furniture                    61 500

Debtors                       17 700

Bank                            91 000

Stock                           18 600

Cash                            10 800

10 yrs Bank loan         165 000

Creditors                     34 100

Required:                                                                                                                    [10mks]

  1. Determine the business capital
  2. Prepare a Mageta Traders balance sheet as at 31st Jan 2015.
  3. Highlight five factors that may promote entrepreneurship in Kenyan. [10mks]
  4. Explain five ways in which a warehouse may promote trade. [10mks]
  5. Explain five problems that may be faced when measuring national income using the output approach.             [10mks]
  6. Outline five differences between open office layouts and enclosed office layouts. [10mks]
  7. Explain five reasons for consumer protection.             [10mks]
  8. Outline four circumstances in which a trader may offer after sales service to the buyer.             [10mks]
  9. The following information was extracted from books of Mamboleo Traders in the month of September, 2014.

September  1              Had cash in hand shs. 15 500 and a bank overdraft of shs. 9 700.

September  3              Bought goods for sale shs. 12 300

September  5              Sold goods in cash shs. 8 500

September  9              Sold goods on credit shs. 10 000

September 12                         Receive a cheque of shs. 9 000 from a debtor

September 15                         Paid a creditor shs. 10 000

September 17            Paid wages shs. 2 600 in cash

September 19                         Received a cheque shs. 23 400 from Samson for goods sold in January

September 23            Withdrew shs. 7 700 from the bank for office use.

September  24            Paid electricity bills by cheque of shs. 1 200

September 25             Received a cheque of shs. 11 500 from a debtor

September  26            Made cash sales of shs. 12 800

September  27            Purchased goods worth shs. 8 950 in cash

September  28            Paid water bills by cheque shs. 2 800

 

Required: Prepare a two column cash book.                                                                       [10mks]

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

 

JOINT EXAMINATION

FORM THREE BUSINESS STUDIES

PAPER 2

END OF TERM 3 EXAMINATION

MARKING SCHEME.

  1. Explain five accounting documents used in home trade. [10 mks]
  2. Invoice which is sent by the seller to the buyer demanding payment for goods.
  3. Debit note sent by the seller to the buyer to correct an undercharge in the invoice.
  • Credit note sent by the seller to the buyer to correct an overcharge in the invoice.
  1. Receipt issued by the seller to a buyer when payment is made.
  2. Statement of account sent by seller to the buyer showing details of transactions in a month.
  3. Payment voucher used to validate payment for goods /services offered.
  • Bank deposit slip which shows evidence of payment into the bank account.
  1. There has been a decline in demand for wooden furniture. Explain five factors that may have caused this trend.             [10 mks]
  2. Decline in consumers incomes reducing the buying ability hence less demand.
  3. Fall in prices of substitutes [e.g plastic furniture’s] making them more affordable
  • Increase in price of wooden furniture making them unaffordable.
  1. Unfavorable government policies e.g high taxes leading to higher prices hence unaffordable
  2. Low seasons leading to fewer buyers
  3. Unfavorable change in tastes and preferences making them undesirable.

 

  1. Explain five features that differentiate a public limited company from a partnership.                         [10 mks]
Public limited company Partnership
i.                 Membership is a minimum of seven  shareholders

ii.               Shareholders have limited liability

iii.              Managed by people appointed by board of directors

iv.              Regulated by articles/ memorandum of association and companies Act

v.                No maximum membership

vi.              Raises capital through sale of shares

vii.            Has perpetual continuity

i.                 Membership is a minimum of two partners

ii.               Partners have unlimited liability, incase of a limited partnership one partner must have unlimited liability

iii.              Managed by partners themselves

iv.              Regulated by partnership deed, Act / agreement

v.                Has a maximum of 20 partners or 50 [professional partnerships]

vi.              Raises capital through partners contribution

vii.            Death, insanity or bankruptcy of partners may lead to dissolution.

 

 

  1. Describe five common channels of distribution for locally manufactured goods.             [10mks]

Producer                  consumer

Producer retailerconsumer

Producer wholsalerretailerconsumer

Producer wholsalerconsumer

produceragentwholesalerretailerconsumer

  1. The following balances were extracted from the books of Mageta traders on 31st Jan 2015.

(Shs)

Land                            82 000

Furniture                    61 500

Debtors                       17 700

Bank                            91 000

Stock                           18 600

Cash                            10 800

10 yrs Bank loan         165 000

Creditors                     34 100

Required:                                                                                                                    [10mks]

  1. Determine the business capital
  2. Prepare a Mageta Traders balance sheet as at 31st Jan 2015.

CAPITAL = ASSETS – LIABILITIES   √     ¼

Total assets = shs. 82000+61500+17700+91000+18600+10800     √   ¼

Total liabilities = shs. 165000+34100     √     ½

Capital = shs. 281600 – 199100 = 82500    √    ¼                  [4 x ¼ = 1mk

 

 

 

MAGETA TRADERS

BALANCE SHEET

AS AT 31ST JANUARY 2015

                                 KSHS.

Land                       82 500  

Furniture               61 500  

Stock                        18 600 

Debtors                   17 700   √

Bank                       91 000  

Cash                        10 800 

                                 

                              281 600

                                 KSHS.

Capital                     82 500  

10 year Bank loan 165 000  

 

Creditors                   34 100  

 

 

 

281 600

 

9×1 = 9 mks

  1. Highlight five factors that may promote entrepreneurship in Kenyan. [10mks]
  2. Government policies e.g low taxes which encourage the emergence and expansion of businesses
  3. Training where the trainees are equipped with skills to start and run a business.
  • Presence of role models who act as an eye opener to the potential entrprenuers
  1. Availability of capital for starting and running a business
  2. Political stability that creates a suitable environment for a business.
  3. Healthy competition that business owners can withstand.
  • High technology that leads to production of high quality and quantity of goods and services.
  • Availability of markets where the entrepreneurs can sell goods and services.
  1. Explain five ways in which a warehouse may promote trade. [10mks]
  2. Promote mass production since there’s a space for storage of raw materials and finished goods.
  3. Stabilize prices by ensuring continuous supply of goods.
  • It enables preparation of goods through branding ,packing, sorting e.t.c
  1. Creates time utility by ensuring that consumers Get goods when required.
  2. Enables traders look for market while still in the warehouse.
  3. Ensures security for goods since they are protected from theft.
  4. Explain five problems that may be faced when measuring national income using the output approach.             [10mks]
  5. Inaccurate data: difficulties may be experienced due to poor record keeping.
  6. Dertemination of goods and services to be included since some output may be as a result of illegal activities.
  • Price fluctuations since prices may vary from time to time.
  1. Double counting where it may be difficult to differentiate intermediate and final output
  2. Lack of qualified personnel to be used to collect and compile data.
  3. Outline five differences between open office layouts and enclosed office layouts. [10mks]
Open office Enclosed office
i.                 All staff work in one large room

ii.               Cheap to construct

iii.              Discourages absenteeism

iv.              Easy location of staff

v.                Promote sharing of machine

vi.              Senior sit together with juniors hence no status conferred

i.                 Each staff is allocated a room from where they work

ii.               Costly to construct

iii.              Encourages absenteeism

iv.              Hard to locate staff

v.                Discourages sharing of machines

vi.              Confer status of top level staff as they are allocated own offices

 

  1. Explain five reasons for consumer protection.             [10mks]
  2. Unfair pricing by traders who may overcharge the consumers
  3. Low quality goods that do not meet set standards
  • Protection from unsafe structures that endanger consumers life
  1. Harmful products that are unfit for use by consumers
  2. Underweight goods where the traders sell goods below the right weight.

6.

  1. Outline four circumstances under which a trader may offer after sales service to the buyer.                         [10mks]
  2. Where goods sold are of technical nature requiring demonstration on use.
  3. Where expertise is required in installation and the trader has technical knowledge
  • Where the product is new in the market and the trader requires feedback on products performance
  1. Where competition is stiff hence the trader uses after sale services to win more customers.
  2. When providing personalized services requiring direct contact customers.
  3. The following information was extracted from books of Mamboleo Traders in the month of September, 2014.

September  1              Had cash in hand shs. 15 500 and a bank overdraft of shs. 9 700.

September  3              Bought goods for sale shs. 12 300

September  5              Sold goods in cash shs. 8 500

September  9              Sold goods on credit shs. 10 000

September 12                         Receive a cheque of shs. 9 000

September 15                         Paid a creditor shs. 10 000

September 17            Paid wages shs. 2 600 in cash

September 19                         Received a cheque shs. 23 400 from Samson for goods sold in January

September 23            Withdrew shs. 7 700 from the bank for office use.

September  24            Paid electricity bills by cheque of shs. 1 200

September 25             Received a cheque of shs. 11 500

September  26            Made cash sales of shs. 12 800

September  27            Purchased goods worth shs. 8 950 in cash

September  28            Paid water bills by cheque shs. 2 800

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Required: Prepare a two column cash book.                                                                       [10mks]

 

MAMBO LEO TRADERS

TWO COLUMN CASH BOOK

FOR THE MONTH OF SEPT. 2014

  1.             CR.
Date Details Folio Cash Bank   Date Details Folio Cash Bank
2014 SEPT           2014 SEPT        
Bal  b/d 15 500     1 Bal  b/d   97 00
5 Sales   8 500     3 Purchases   12300  
12 Debtors     9000   15 Creditors  √   10 000  
19 Samson     23400   17 Wages   2600  
23 Bank  c 7700     23 Cash c   7700
            24 electricity     1200
            27√ Purchases   8950  
25 Debtor     11500   28 Water bill     2800
26 Sales   12800              
            30th Bal c/d 10650  22500
      44500 43900         44500 43900

 

NB: 50 ticks x 1/5 = 10 mks

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

NAME..……………………………………ADM No.…….. …………….

CLASS……………………………………….SIGN………………………..

 

565 /1

BUSINESS

FORM THREE

END TERM THREE

Time: 2 Hours

 

 

JOINT EVALUATION EXAMS

 

 

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

 

  1. Write your name and admission No. in the spaces provided above.
  2. Answer all the questions in the spaces provided

 

 

FOR EXAMINER’S USE ONLY

Question

 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Marks                        

 

 

Question

 

  13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Marks                            

 

 

 

1 a) Outline four reasons why organizations need to safe keep documents in files (4mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………

  1. Give the four components of business studies (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. List four reasons why a business may fail           (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4.Use the table below to outline four differences between basic wants and secondary wants

(4mks)

Basic wants Secondary wants
   
   
   
   
  1. Identifyfour activities in the extractive level of production (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Outline four ways in which partners may be classified (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Highlight four characteristics of mail order store (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Outline the meaning of the following terms as used in accounting (4mks)

i)Networth of a business

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii)Business transaction

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

iii) Cash transaction ……………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

vi)Credit transaction

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 

  1. State four main factors that may limit the level of a country’s national income. (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Identify four ways in which a business may be of benefit to people in the surrounding area (4mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. for each of the transaction shown in the table below, state the balance sheet items affected by each transaction and the manner in which it is affected using (+) for increase and (-) for decrease. (4mks)
Transaction Balance sheet item(s) increased Items affected items decreased
a)Start of a business with Ksh.80,000 cash    
b)Borrowing of Sh. 30,000 from a bank for business use    
c)Banking of business profit of Ksh 12,000 into the business account    
d)Sale of part of business premise for cash Sh.25,000.    
  1. State four ways of increasing efficiency and effectiveness of human porterage (4mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. The following information relates to Makuyu Traders. Determine the missing figures. (4mks)
  Assets Liabilities Capital
a) 50000 70000 A
b) 320000 B 280000
c) C 14360 12000
d) 67,000 D 27,705

 

14.Post the following transactions in the ledger books of Embakasi traders           (4mks)

March 1/2013 commenced business with sh. 150,000 cash at bank

March 5/2013 bought machinery in credit for sh. 9500

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. Give four reasons that make insurance companies decline to insure acts of nature (4mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 

  1. Name 4 sources of business ideas.           (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. State 4 office etiquette of a business person.           (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Mention four main types of demand. (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

19.State four principle of cooperatives.                                                                 (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 

  1. Name 4 methods of government involvement in business           (4mks)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..;…………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. List four types of unemployment. (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Name 4 barriers of effective communication.           (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Name 4 types of life assurance contracts           (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

24.Outline 4 benefits of a bonded warehouse to the importer.                          (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

  1. Give 4 characteristics of oligopoly market structure.           (4mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

JOINT EXAMINATION

FORM THREE TERM3 BUSINESS STUDIES PP1

MARKING SCHEME

1 a) Outline four reasons why organizations need to safe keep documents in files (4mks)

-not to fall in unauthorized hands

-protect from damage

-not to get lost

-keep thieves at bay

-avoid misplacement

2.Give the four components of business studies (4mks)

 

-Economics

-commerce

-office practice

-accounting

-entrepreneurship

 

3.List four reasons a business may fail

  1. i) Lack of capital
  2. ii) unfair/stiff competition

iii) Poor pricing

iv)Political instability

  1. v) Lack of planning

 

4.Use the table below to outline four differences between basic wants and secondary wants

(4mks)

Basic wants Secondary wants
Requirements for life One can do without them
Necessary for survival Make life comfortable
Cannot be postponed Can wait for later use
Appear first in scale of preference Are last in scale of preference
Are felt needs Aren’t felt

5.Identify four activities in the extractive level of production (4mks)

 

-farming

-fishing

-mining

-timbering (lumbering)

-Hunting

 

6.Outline four ways in which partners may be classified (4mks)

-role played by partners

-liabilities of the partners for business debt

-ages of parties

-capital contribution

7.Highlight four characteristics of mail order store (4mks)

-goods are sold through the post office

-have large warehouses

-don’t deal with perishable goods

-customers don’t visit selling premises

-there is heavy advertisement

-goods are dispatched through CWO basis or COD basis

 

8.Outline the meaning of the following terms as used in accounting (4mks)

i)Network of a businessit is simply the difference between total assets and total liabilities also referredtoo as capital which comprises of owners contribution plus profits less drawings

ii)Business transactionany dealing between two or more people (parties) that can be assigned a monetary value                                                                                            

iii)Cash transactionwhere both parties of an exchange are executed immediately

vi)Credit transactionwhere goods or services are sold or bought and payment is made at a later date

9.State four main factors that may limit the level of a country’s national income. (4mks)

-poor entrepreneurial culture in the country

-low level of technology

-negative altitudes towards work by citizens

-lack of adequate resources

-political instability

-lack of co-operant factors of production

10.Identify four ways in which a business may be of benefit to people in the surrounding area (4mks)

-job opportunities

-goods and services to satisfy their needs

-increase in economic activities

-outlet for the producers to sell their products

-People become sensitive to the needs of their environment

-Improves life of people living standards

11.a) Assistcash increased(cash)

Capital increased (capital)

  1. b) Assist increased (Bank)

Liabilitiesincreased (creditors)

  1. c) Assit increased (Bank)

Capital increased (Capital)

  1. d) Assist decreased (promises)

Asset increased (cash)

 

12.State four ways of increasing efficiency and effectiveness of human porterage

 

-shortening distance travelled

-creation of pathways

-Lighten the load

-Feeding porters properly

-Better pay

-Security pathways

-lightening pathways

-coach them

-on ettiquaette

 

13.The following information relates to Makuyu Traders. Determine the missing figures. (3mks)

  Assets Liabilities Capital
a) 50000 70000 A
b) 320000 B 280000
c) C 14360 12000
d) 67,000 D 27,705

A)Assets – liabilities 50,000-70,000= – 20,000

B)Assets – capital = 320,000-280,000 = 40,000

C)capital +liabilities = 14360 + 12000 = 26360

  1. D) 4295

14.Post the following transactions in the ledger books of Embakasi traders (4mks)

March 1/2013 commenced business with sh. 150,000 cash at bank

March 5/2013 bought machinery in credit for sh. 9500

 

Dr        Capital A/c                 Cr                                    

 

                        March 2013

1 bank 150,000

 

Dr        BankA/c                      Cr

 

March 1         

Capital 150,000

 

 

 

Dr        Machinery A/c                        Cr

 

March 5 creditor 9500

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dr        CreditorsA/c   Cr

 

            2013 march

machinery 9500

 

 

 

 

 

 

15.Give four reasons that make insurance companies decline to insure acts of nature (4mks)

loss may  affect many people at ago

-loss is unpredictable

-people not willing to form pool

-not easy to determine premium

-value of loss may be undeterminable

16.Name 4 sources of business ideas.                  (4mks)

  • Newspapers
  • Shows & exhibitions
  • Magazines articles
  • Waste products

 

17.State 4 office etiquette of a business person.       (4mks)

  • Respect
  • Punctuality
  • Loyalty
  • Honesty

18.mention four main types of demand. (4mks)

  • Joint demand
  • Competitive demand
  • Derived demand
  • Composite demand

19.State 4 principles of cooperatives.                        (4mks)

  • Voluntary & open membership
  • Democratic Administration
  • Limited interest on share capital
  • Promotion of education to member

20.Name 4 methods of government involvement in business          (4mks)

  • Regulation
  • Training
  • Trade promotion
  • Provision of public utilities

21.list four types of unemployment in an economy. (4mks)

  • Cyclical unemployment
  • Frictional unemployment
  • Seasonal unemployment
  • Structural unemployment
  • Involuntary unemployment

22.Name 4 barriers of effective communication.      (4mks)

  • Language barrier
  • Poor listening
  • Negative attitude
  • Poor timing

23.Name 4 types of life assurance contracts                         (4mks)

  • Term insurance
  • Whole life assurance
  • Endowment
  • Annuities

 

 

  1. outline four benefits of a bonded warehouse to the imports. (4mks)
  • Goods can be prepared for sale
  • Security is provided while goods are on bond
  • Give importers time to arrange for payment of duty
  • Goods can be sold before payment of duty
  • Importer can look for market of products
  1. Give 4 characteristics of oligopoly market structure. (4mks)
  • A few large firms
  • Presence of price wars
  • High interdependence of firms
  • Kinked demand curve
  • Formation of cartels

 

 

 

Grade Five CBC Home Work, Assignments Free Downloads

Grade Five CBC Home Work, Assignments Free Downloads

G5 SST ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 SCI ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 MAT ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 KIS ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 IRE ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 HSCI ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 ENG ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 CRE ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 CA&MUS ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 AGRIC ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf

G5 SST ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 SCI ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 MAT ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 KIS ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 IRE ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 HSCI ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 ENG ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 CRE ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 CA&MUS ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf
G5 AGRIC ET3 TOPICAL HOMEWORK.pdf

Grade 7 Social Studies Free CBC Schemes of Work {Updated Version)

GRADE 7 SOCIAL STUDIES SCHEME OF WORKTERM

TEACHERS NAME……………………………………..SCHOOL……………………………….TERM  THREE                YEAR  

Week Lesson Strand Sub-strand Specific-Learning outcomes Learning Experience Key Inquiry Question(S) Learning

Resources         

Assessment Methods Reflection
1 1 Sustainable Use of Resources in Society Sustainable Use of Resources in Society By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Explain the meaning of sustainable use of resources.

b)     Demonstrate sustainable ways of using resources available in their community.

c)      Appreciate the resources available in their community.

Learners are guided to explain the meaning of sustainable use of resources.

 

In groups or in pairs, learners to demonstrate sustainable ways of using resources available in their community.

What are resources?

 

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 156-157

 

Pictures

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Sustainable Use of Resources in Society Applying Sustainable use of resources available in the community By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify a resource that can be sustainably used in their community.

b)     Discuss the uses of the resource identified.

c)      Design sustainable ways of using the resource identified in the community.

d)     Engage in activities that ensure sustainable use of the resource.

Learners to identify a resource that can be sustainably used in their community.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the uses of the resource identified.

 

In groups, learners are guided to design sustainable ways of using the resource identified in the community

Which type of resources are found in your community?

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 158-159

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Sustainable Use of Resources in Society Appreciating sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify ways of appreciating sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

b)     Design posters with communication messages on sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

c)      Appreciate sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

 

Learners are guided to identify ways of appreciating sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

 

In groups, learners are guided to design posters with communication messages on sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life

How will you appreciate sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 160-161

 

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
2 1 Political development and Governance Political development in Africa up to 1900 By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Describe the political setup of Ogiek community up to 1900

b)     Discuss the role of the Ogiek political setup.

c)      Draw the governance structure of the Ogiek.

d)     Appreciate the Ogiek community.

Learners are guided to describe the political setup of Ogiek community up to 1900

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of the Ogiek political setup.

 

Learners are guided to draw the governance structure of the Ogiek

Where did the Ogiek community lived? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 162-164

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Political development and Governance Political Organization of the Zulu By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Describe the political setup of Zulu community up to 1900

b)     Discuss the role of the Zulu political setup.

c)      Draw the governance structure of the Zulu.

d)     Appreciate the Zulu community.

Learners are guided to describe the political setup of Zulu community up to 1900

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of the Zulu political setup.

 

Learners are guided to draw the governance structure of the Zulu

Where did the Zulu community lived? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 164-166

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Political development and Governance Political Organization of the Asante By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Describe the political setup of Asante community up to 1900

b)     Discuss the role of the Asante political setup.

c)      Draw the governance structure of the Asante.

d)     Appreciate the Asante community.

Learners are guided to describe the political setup of Asante community up to 1900

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of the Asante political setup.

 

Learners are guided to draw the governance structure of the Asante

Where did the Asante community lived? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 166-167

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
3 1 Political development and Governance The concepts “Scramble for and Partition” of Africa By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Define the concept of scramble and partition of Africa.

b)     Discuss the various European groups that came to Africa.

c)      Name the European explorers who came to Kenya.

d)     Have a desire to learn more about explorers.

Learners to define the concept of scramble and partition of Africa.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the various European groups that came to Africa.

 

Learners are guided to name the European explorers who came to Kenya

What is the meaning of scramble?

 

What is the meaning of partition?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 168-170

 

Atlas

Pictures

Video clips

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Political development and Governance European Traders By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Name various traders that came to Africa up to 1900.

b)     Identify the factors that led to the presence of Europeans in Africa.

c)      Discuss the role of various traders that came to Africa.

d)     Have a desire to learn more about European Traders.

 

Learners are guided to name various traders that came to Africa up to 1900

 

Learners to identify the factors that led to the presence of Europeans in Africa.

 

In groups, learners are guided to discuss the role of various traders that came to Africa

Which factors led to the presence of Europeans in Africa? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 170-171

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Political development and Governance Matching the Countries in Africa with their Colonial Masters By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify the countries of Africa and their colonial masters from the map.

b)     Match the colonial masters with the countries they colonized in Africa.

c)      Enjoy using the map of Africa.

Learners are guided to identify the countries of Africa and their colonial masters from the map.

 

Learners are guided to match the colonial masters with the countries they colonized in Africa

Who were colonial masters of Kenya? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 172

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
4 1 Political development and Governance Terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on the Partition of Africa By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify the meaning and implication of the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on partition of Africa from the plaque.

b)     Discuss the terms of the Berlin Conference.

c)      Create posters on the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

d)     Acknowledged the Political Organisation of Selected Communities in Africa.

 

Learners to identify the meaning and implication of the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on partition of Africa from the plaque.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the terms of the Berlin Conference.

 

In groups, learners to create posters on the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

 

What are the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on partition of Africa? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 173-175

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 The Constitution of Kenya The Constitution of Kenya By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Define the term constitution.

b)     Identify the importance of the constitution of Kenya.

c)      Compose a song on any eight national values enshrined in the Constitution of Kenya.

d)     Appreciate the importance of the constitution of Kenya.

 

 

Learners to define the term constitution.

 

Learners to identify the importance of the constitution of Kenya.

 

In groups, learners to compose a song on any eight national values enshrined in the Constitution of Kenya.

 

What is a constitution?

 

What is the importance of Constitution of Kenya?

 

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 176-178

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 The Constitution of Kenya Ways of Upholding and Protecting the Constitution of Kenya for Social Cohesion By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Search for ways of upholding and protecting the Constitution of Kenya.

b)     Discuss the importance of upholding and protecting the constitution.

c)      Uphold and protect the constitution of Kenya.

Learners to search for ways of upholding and protecting the Constitution of Kenya.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the importance of upholding and protecting the constitution.

Why do you think it’s important for Kenyans to uphold and protect the constitution? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 179-181

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
5 1 Democracy Types of Democracy practiced in Africa By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Define democracy.

b)     Identify types of democracy.

c)     Role play different types of democracy.

d)     Appreciate the use of democracy.

Learners to define democracy.

 

Learners are guided to identify types of democracy.

 

In groups, learners are guided to role play different types of democracy.

 

What is democracy? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 182-184

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Democracy Importance of Democracy in Society By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     State the importance of democracy in society.

b)     Discuss the role of citizens in democratic representation.

c)     Draw the picture in learner’s book 7

d)     Appreciate the importance of democracy in society.

 

Learners to state the importance of democracy in society.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of citizens in democratic representation.

 

Learners to draw the picture in learner’s book 7 pg. 186

 

How can we ensure that democracy is practiced in our society?

 

What are democratic values?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 185-187

 

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Democracy Characteristics of Various Types of Democracy in Governance By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify the characteristics of Various Types of Democracy in Governance.

b)     Recite the poem in learner’s book 7

c)     Apply democratic values in interactions with others in the community.

d)     Promote democratic values in the community.

 

Learners to identify the characteristics of Various Types of Democracy in Governance.

 

Learners to recite the poem in learner’s book 7 pg. 189

 

Why should we Practise democracy? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 187-190

 

Pictures

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
6 1 Human Rights Evolution of Human Rights as practiced in society By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Define Human rights.

b)     Identify the characteristics of Human Rights in society.

c)     Classify human rights as stipulated in the Human Rights as Stipulated in the human rights instruments.

d)     Appreciate the evolution of human rights.

 

Learners to define human rights.

 

Learners to identify the characteristics of Human Rights in society.

 

Learners are guided to classify human rights as stipulated in the Human Rights as Stipulated in the human rights instruments

What are human rights?

 

Why is it important to know our rights?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 191-196

 

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Human Rights The concept of Equity and Non-Discrimination in Fostering Solidarity By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Brainstorm on how equity and non-discrimination foster solidarity in the society.

b)     Explain how to promote equity and non-discrimination in society.

c)     Respect, adhere to and promote of human rights for sanctity of life.

 

Learners to brainstorm on how equity and non-discrimination foster solidarity in the society.

 

Learners to explain how to promote equity and non-discrimination in society.

 

How can we promote equity and non-  discrimination in society? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 196-199

 

Pictures

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 African Diasporas African Diasporas By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Define diaspora.

b)     Indicate on the map they have drawn countries inhabited by African diasporas by mid 1960s

c)     Examine the role of diasporas in the political development in Africa.

d)     Acknowledged African diasporas for promotion of African Unity in society today.

 

Learners to define diaspora.

 

Learners are guided to indicate on the map they have drawn countries inhabited by African diasporas by mid 1960s

 

Learners are guided to examine the role of diasporas in the political development in Africa.

 

What is the role of industrial revolution in Europe in the development of African diasporas?

 

How can we promote African unity in the society today?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 200-204

 

Video clips

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
7 1 Global Citizenship Global Citizenship By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Define global interconnectedness and interdependence.

b)     Identify positive and negative effects of globalization at local and national levels.

c)     Discuss the qualities of a global citizen.

d)     Appreciate the qualities of a global citizen.

 

Learners to define global interconnectedness and interdependence.

 

Learners to identify positive and negative effects of globalization at local and national levels.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the qualities of a global citizen.

What is global interconnectedness?

 

What is interdependence?

 

What are the qualities of a global citizen in the modern society?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 205-208

 

Pictures

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Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Global Citizenship Contribution to the Wellbeing of the international community By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Explain what they understand by the term ‘common humanity’

b)     Identify how they can develop a sense of belonging to a common humanity for harmonious living.

c)     Develop a sense of belonging to a common humanity for harmonious living.

 

Learners to explain what they understand by the term ‘common humanity’

 

Learners to identify how they can develop a sense of belonging to a common humanity for harmonious living

Which are the common concerns in the world today? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 209-211

 

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Global Governance Organisation of African Unity (OAU) By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify the founding member countries of OAU.

b)     Discuss the achievements of OAU.

c)     State the challenges affected by OAU

d)     Draw the organizational structure of the OAU.

e)     Appreciate the importance of OAU.

 

Learners to identify the founding member countries of OAU.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the achievements of OAU.

 

Learners to state the challenges affected by OAU

 

Learners are guided to draw the organizational structure of the OAU

Why was the OAU formed? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 213-217

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
8 1 Global Governance African Union (AU) By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Describe the formation of African Union (AU)

b)     Discuss the achievements of AU.

c)     State the challenges affected by AU

d)     Sing the African Union Anthem.

e)     Appreciate the importance of AU

 

Learners to describe the formation of African Union (AU)

 

In groups, learners to discuss the achievements of AU.

 

Learners to state the challenges affected by AU

the challenges affected by AU

 

Learners are guided to sing the African Union Anthem.

 

What are the achievements of African Union (AU)?

 

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 217-220

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Global Governance Member countries of the African Union By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify the AU member states from an atlas.

b)     Draw a map of Africa showing member countries of African Union (AU)

c)     Appreciate the importance of AU

Learners are guided to identify the AU member states from an atlas.

 

Learners are guided to draw a map of Africa showing member countries of African Union (AU)

 

How should leadership and integrity be promoted in the society today? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 221-223

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Global Governance Organizational structures of the African Union By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

a)     Identify various organs that run the AU.

b)     Identify the factors which can promote continental interconnectedness and interdependence.

c)     Draw the organizational structure of African Union (AU)

d)     Appreciate the importance of AU

Learners to identify various organs that run the AU.

 

Learners are guided to identify the factors which can promote continental interconnectedness and interdependence.

 

Learners are guided to draw the organizational structure of African Union (AU)

How can we promote continental interconnectedness and interdependence in Africa? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 223-226

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
9       ASSESSMENT          

 

2023 SCHEME OF WORK

SOCIAL STUDIES

GRADE SEVEN

TERM 3

SCHOOL GRADE LEARNING AREA TERM YEAR
  GRADE 7 SOCIAL STUDIES 3 2023

 

Week Lesson Strand Sub-strand Specific-Learning outcomes Learning Experience Key Inquiry Question(S) Learning

Resources         

Assessment Methods Reflection
1 1 Sustainable Use of Resources in Society Sustainable Use of Resources in Society By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Explain the meaning of sustainable use of resources.

e)      Demonstrate sustainable ways of using resources available in their community.

f)      Appreciate the resources available in their community.

 

Learners are guided to explain the meaning of sustainable use of resources.

 

In groups or in pairs, learners to demonstrate sustainable ways of using resources available in their community.

What are resources?

 

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 156-157

 

Pictures

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Sustainable Use of Resources in Society Applying Sustainable use of resources available in the community By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Identify a resource that can be sustainably used in their community.

f)      Discuss the uses of the resource identified.

g)     Design sustainable ways of using the resource identified in the community.

h)     Engage in activities that ensure sustainable use of the resource.

 

Learners to identify a resource that can be sustainably used in their community.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the uses of the resource identified.

 

In groups, learners are guided to design sustainable ways of using the resource identified in the community

Which type of resources are found in your community?

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 158-159

 

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Pictures

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Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Sustainable Use of Resources in Society Appreciating sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Identify ways of appreciating sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

e)      Design posters with communication messages on sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

f)      Appreciate sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

 

Learners are guided to identify ways of appreciating sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life.

 

In groups, learners are guided to design posters with communication messages on sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life

How will you appreciate sustainable use of resources for sustenance of life? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 160-161

 

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
2 1 Political development and Governance Political development in Africa up to 1900 By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Describe the political setup of Ogiek community up to 1900

f)      Discuss the role of the Ogiek political setup.

g)     Draw the governance structure of the Ogiek.

h)     Appreciate the Ogiek community.

Learners are guided to describe the political setup of Ogiek community up to 1900

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of the Ogiek political setup.

 

Learners are guided to draw the governance structure of the Ogiek

Where did the Ogiek community lived? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 162-164

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Political development and Governance Political Organization of the Zulu By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Describe the political setup of Zulu community up to 1900

f)      Discuss the role of the Zulu political setup.

g)     Draw the governance structure of the Zulu.

h)     Appreciate the Zulu community.

Learners are guided to describe the political setup of Zulu community up to 1900

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of the Zulu political setup.

 

Learners are guided to draw the governance structure of the Zulu

Where did the Zulu community lived? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 164-166

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Political development and Governance Political Organization of the Asante By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Describe the political setup of Asante community up to 1900

f)      Discuss the role of the Asante political setup.

g)     Draw the governance structure of the Asante.

h)     Appreciate the Asante community.

Learners are guided to describe the political setup of Asante community up to 1900

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of the Asante political setup.

 

Learners are guided to draw the governance structure of the Asante

Where did the Asante community lived? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 166-167

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
3 1 Political development and Governance The concepts “Scramble for and Partition” of Africa By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Define the concept of scramble and partition of Africa.

f)      Discuss the various European groups that came to Africa.

g)     Name the European explorers who came to Kenya.

h)     Have a desire to learn more about explorers.

Learners to define the concept of scramble and partition of Africa.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the various European groups that came to Africa.

 

Learners are guided to name the European explorers who came to Kenya

What is the meaning of scramble?

 

What is the meaning of partition?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 168-170

 

Atlas

Pictures

Video clips

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Political development and Governance European Traders By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Name various traders that came to Africa up to 1900.

f)      Identify the factors that led to the presence of Europeans in Africa.

g)     Discuss the role of various traders that came to Africa.

h)     Have a desire to learn more about European Traders.

 

Learners are guided to name various traders that came to Africa up to 1900

 

Learners to identify the factors that led to the presence of Europeans in Africa.

 

In groups, learners are guided to discuss the role of various traders that came to Africa

Which factors led to the presence of Europeans in Africa? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 170-171

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Political development and Governance Matching the Countries in Africa with their Colonial Masters By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Identify the countries of Africa and their colonial masters from the map.

e)      Match the colonial masters with the countries they colonized in Africa.

f)      Enjoy using the map of Africa.

Learners are guided to identify the countries of Africa and their colonial masters from the map.

 

Learners are guided to match the colonial masters with the countries they colonized in Africa

Who were colonial masters of Kenya? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 172

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
4 1 Political development and Governance Terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on the Partition of Africa By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Identify the meaning and implication of the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on partition of Africa from the plaque.

f)      Discuss the terms of the Berlin Conference.

g)     Create posters on the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

h)     Acknowledged the Political Organisation of Selected Communities in Africa.

 

Learners to identify the meaning and implication of the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on partition of Africa from the plaque.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the terms of the Berlin Conference.

 

In groups, learners to create posters on the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885

 

What are the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 on partition of Africa? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 173-175

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 The Constitution of Kenya The Constitution of Kenya By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)      Define the term constitution.

f)      Identify the importance of the constitution of Kenya.

g)     Compose a song on any eight national values enshrined in the Constitution of Kenya.

h)     Appreciate the importance of the constitution of Kenya.

 

 

Learners to define the term constitution.

 

Learners to identify the importance of the constitution of Kenya.

 

In groups, learners to compose a song on any eight national values enshrined in the Constitution of Kenya.

 

What is a constitution?

 

What is the importance of Constitution of Kenya?

 

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 176-178

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 The Constitution of Kenya Ways of Upholding and Protecting the Constitution of Kenya for Social Cohesion By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Search for ways of upholding and protecting the Constitution of Kenya.

e)      Discuss the importance of upholding and protecting the constitution.

f)      Uphold and protect the constitution of Kenya.

Learners to search for ways of upholding and protecting the Constitution of Kenya.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the importance of upholding and protecting the constitution.

Why do you think it’s important for Kenyans to uphold and protect the constitution? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 179-181

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
5 1 Democracy Types of Democracy practiced in Africa By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     Define democracy.

f)      Identify types of democracy.

g)     Role play different types of democracy.

h)     Appreciate the use of democracy.

Learners to define democracy.

 

Learners are guided to identify types of democracy.

 

In groups, learners are guided to role play different types of democracy.

 

What is democracy? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 182-184

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Democracy Importance of Democracy in Society By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     State the importance of democracy in society.

f)      Discuss the role of citizens in democratic representation.

g)     Draw the picture in learner’s book 7

h)     Appreciate the importance of democracy in society.

 

Learners to state the importance of democracy in society.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the role of citizens in democratic representation.

 

Learners to draw the picture in learner’s book 7 pg. 186

 

How can we ensure that democracy is practiced in our society?

 

What are democratic values?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 185-187

 

Photographs

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Democracy Characteristics of Various Types of Democracy in Governance By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     Identify the characteristics of Various Types of Democracy in Governance.

f)      Recite the poem in learner’s book 7

g)     Apply democratic values in interactions with others in the community.

h)     Promote democratic values in the community.

 

Learners to identify the characteristics of Various Types of Democracy in Governance.

 

Learners to recite the poem in learner’s book 7 pg. 189

 

Why should we Practise democracy? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 187-190

 

Pictures

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
6 1 Human Rights Evolution of Human Rights as practiced in society By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     Define Human rights.

f)      Identify the characteristics of Human Rights in society.

g)     Classify human rights as stipulated in the Human Rights as Stipulated in the human rights instruments.

h)     Appreciate the evolution of human rights.

 

Learners to define human rights.

 

Learners to identify the characteristics of Human Rights in society.

 

Learners are guided to classify human rights as stipulated in the Human Rights as Stipulated in the human rights instruments

What are human rights?

 

Why is it important to know our rights?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 191-196

 

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Human Rights The concept of Equity and Non-Discrimination in Fostering Solidarity By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Brainstorm on how equity and non-discrimination foster solidarity in the society.

e)     Explain how to promote equity and non-discrimination in society.

f)      Respect, adhere to and promote of human rights for sanctity of life.

 

Learners to brainstorm on how equity and non-discrimination foster solidarity in the society.

 

Learners to explain how to promote equity and non-discrimination in society.

 

How can we promote equity and non-  discrimination in society? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 196-199

 

Pictures

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 African Diasporas African Diasporas By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     Define diaspora.

f)      Indicate on the map they have drawn countries inhabited by African diasporas by mid 1960s

g)     Examine the role of diasporas in the political development in Africa.

h)     Acknowledged African diasporas for promotion of African Unity in society today.

 

Learners to define diaspora.

 

Learners are guided to indicate on the map they have drawn countries inhabited by African diasporas by mid 1960s

 

Learners are guided to examine the role of diasporas in the political development in Africa.

 

What is the role of industrial revolution in Europe in the development of African diasporas?

 

How can we promote African unity in the society today?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 200-204

 

Video clips

Charts

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
7 1 Global Citizenship Global Citizenship By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     Define global interconnectedness and interdependence.

f)      Identify positive and negative effects of globalization at local and national levels.

g)     Discuss the qualities of a global citizen.

h)     Appreciate the qualities of a global citizen.

 

Learners to define global interconnectedness and interdependence.

 

Learners to identify positive and negative effects of globalization at local and national levels.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the qualities of a global citizen.

What is global interconnectedness?

 

What is interdependence?

 

What are the qualities of a global citizen in the modern society?

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 205-208

 

Pictures

Video clips

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Global Citizenship Contribution to the Wellbeing of the international community By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Explain what they understand by the term ‘common humanity’

e)     Identify how they can develop a sense of belonging to a common humanity for harmonious living.

f)      Develop a sense of belonging to a common humanity for harmonious living.

 

Learners to explain what they understand by the term ‘common humanity’

 

Learners to identify how they can develop a sense of belonging to a common humanity for harmonious living

Which are the common concerns in the world today? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 209-211

 

Pictures

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Global Governance Organisation of African Unity (OAU) By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

f)      Identify the founding member countries of OAU.

g)     Discuss the achievements of OAU.

h)     State the challenges affected by OAU

i)      Draw the organizational structure of the OAU.

j)      Appreciate the importance of OAU.

 

Learners to identify the founding member countries of OAU.

 

In groups, learners to discuss the achievements of OAU.

 

Learners to state the challenges affected by OAU

 

Learners are guided to draw the organizational structure of the OAU

Why was the OAU formed? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 213-217

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
8 1 Global Governance African Union (AU) By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

f)      Describe the formation of African Union (AU)

g)     Discuss the achievements of AU.

h)     State the challenges affected by AU

i)      Sing the African Union Anthem.

j)      Appreciate the importance of AU

 

Learners to describe the formation of African Union (AU)

 

In groups, learners to discuss the achievements of AU.

 

Learners to state the challenges affected by AU

the challenges affected by AU

 

Learners are guided to sing the African Union Anthem.

 

What are the achievements of African Union (AU)?

 

 

KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 217-220

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  2 Global Governance Member countries of the African Union By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

d)     Identify the AU member states from an atlas.

e)     Draw a map of Africa showing member countries of African Union (AU)

f)      Appreciate the importance of AU

Learners are guided to identify the AU member states from an atlas.

 

Learners are guided to draw a map of Africa showing member countries of African Union (AU)

 

How should leadership and integrity be promoted in the society today? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 221-223

 

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
  3 Global Governance Organizational structures of the African Union By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 

e)     Identify various organs that run the AU.

f)      Identify the factors which can promote continental interconnectedness and interdependence.

g)     Draw the organizational structure of African Union (AU)

h)     Appreciate the importance of AU

Learners to identify various organs that run the AU.

 

Learners are guided to identify the factors which can promote continental interconnectedness and interdependence.

 

Learners are guided to draw the organizational structure of African Union (AU)

How can we promote continental interconnectedness and interdependence in Africa? KLB: Top Scholar; Social Studies Learner’s Book Grade 7 pg. 223-226

 

Atlas

Photographs

Pictures

Video clips

Maps

Charts

Realia

Computing devices

 

Oral questions Oral Report Observation

 

 
9 ASSESSMENT

 

                                                                 

                                                                   

 

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K.C.S.E HISTORY & GOVERNMENT PAPER 2 PAST PAPERS AND ANSWERS

K.C.S.E HISTORY & GOVERNMENT PAPER 2 2005

SECTION A (25 mks)

  1. State one theory that explains the origin of people
  • The evolution theory
  • The creation theory
  • Mythical or traditional theory ( Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)
  1. Give TWO advantage of using the steam engine in the transport Industry in the

nineteenth century                                                            ( 2 mks)

  • It did not pollinate the air
  • It was cheap
  • It increased the speed of locomotives ( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Give TWO factors that led to the growth of urban centers in Greece
  • The area was secure from external attacks
  • The area had a well organized administrative system
  • There was population increase due to existence of religious and educational institutions
  • There was development of trade and commerce
  • Existence of well organized military systems

( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. Identify one form of picture writing during the early civilizations
  • Cuneiform
  • Hieroglyphics (Any 1 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Give ONE importance of the Odwira festivals in the ancient kingdom of the Ashanti.
  • Promoted unity of the people
  • It brought the kings together to pledge loyalty to the Asantehene/ or Emperor
  • It provided opportunity for the kings to settle disputes
  • It provided an opportunity for the Kings to honour the dead

(Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

  1. Identify the main commodity in the Trans Atlantic trade ( 1 mk)

(i) slaves                                                                     ( 1 x 1) = 1 mk)

 

  1. State TWO economic effects of the industrial revolution in North America
  • Machines replaced human labour in factories
  • There increased demand for raw materials in North America
  • The search for markets for manufactured goods increased

( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. Name TWO missionary societies which worked West Africa in the nineteenth century.
  • Base missionary society (B.M.S)
  • Church missionary Society (C.M.S)
  • Presbyterians
  • Bremen missionary Society (B.M.S)
  • Methodists

( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. State one way in which European nationalism contributed to the colonization of

Africa

  • Countries competed to acquire many colonies to prove that they were powerful
  • France wanted to restore her past glory after defeat in Franco- Prussian War
  • New nations such as Italy and Germany wanted to be equated with the rest of Europe.

 

  1. Identify TWO chartered companies which were used to administer European colonial possessions in Africa

(i) The Royal Niger Company

(ii) The British South Africa Company

(iii) The Germany East Africa Company

(iv) The imperial British East Africa Company        (Any 2 x 1 = 2mks)

 

  1. Give one reason why the Shona supported the British during the Ndebele resistance of 1893.

(i) To stop raids from the Ndebele

(ii) They did not want to be ruled by Ndebele           (1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Name one political party fought for independence in Ghana

(i)        The united Gold coast convention (UGCC)

(ii)       The convention Peoples Party (CPP)

(iii)      The national League of the Gold Coast (NLGC)

(Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

  1. Give TWO reasons why there were civil wares in the democratic Republic of

Congo (DRC) soon after independence

  • Lack of qualified personnel to administer the country
  • The economy of the county was in the hands of the foreigners
  • Ethnic differences between Katanga and Kasai provinces
  • Army mutinies due to the control by foreign officers

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. State two advantages of being a member of the commonwealth organization

(i)        Enables one to get aid either capital or technical

(ii)       Enables one to develop trade links

(iii)      Benefits from innovative economic ideas

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Name the type of constitution used in great Britain

(i)        Unwritten constitution                       ( 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Give ONE disadvantage of a federal system of government

(i)        There is a great  temptation for succession by parts of the country

(ii)       It can lead to unequal development   ( Any 1 x 1 = 1mk)

 

SECTION B (45 mks)

 

  1. (a) What were the stages in the development of tools by early people?

(i)        The earliest tools were made from stones

(ii)       People hunted animals and used bones and ivory to make tools

(iii)      Later people used sharpened sticks as tools

  • As people improved in technology they developed iron tools

( Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

(b)       Explain SIX ways through which the development of iron technology affected African communities in the pre- colonial  period

(i)        Better farming tools were made which were used to clear large areas of forests

(ii)       Strong weapons were made and were used to conquer weaker communities

(iii)      Iron  technology enabled communities to establish strong defence items

(iv)      Centres where iron working took place developed into towns e.g. Meroe

  • A class of highly respected professionals ( Blacksmiths with the knowledge of iron technology emerged)
  • Items made of iron were exchanged in trade
  • The possession of iron tools enables many communities to migrate and settle in different areas such as the Bantus
  • Ornaments were made from iron for decoration

( Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) Give THREE classes of people in Hinduism

(i)        At the highest level are the priest/ Brahmins

(ii)       The second level consists of merchants and farmers/ Vaishyas

(iii)        Then there are servants and workers/ Sudras

(iv)      At the lowest level are outcasts/ Pariah

( Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

(b)       Explain   SIX effects of the spread of Islam in Africa up to the end of the

19th Century

  • Some of the Africans who were converted to Islam completely left their traditional beliefs and practices
  • Islamic Law was adopted in the administration of states where Islam spread/ Sharia
  • Islamic education based on the Koran was introduced
  • The use of Arabic language by Moslems led to the development of languages such as Kiswahili and Hausa
  • The building of mosques and residential houses introduced Arabic architectural designs in Africa.
  • Arabic style of dressing, music and diet were copied by Africans who had been converted to Islam
  • Moslem traders introduced new crops such as cloves/ dates
  • Islam created cohesiveness among the believers
  • There was intermarriages between Arabs and Africans leading to emergence of new communities such as the Waswahili
  • In areas where Islam was spread through Jihads there was great loss of life
  • The spread of Islam encouraged the development of slavery and slave trade
  • The spread of Islam encouraged establishment of Islamic empires
  • Over dependence on donations and foreign and has made people to be reluctant to grow food crops
  • Poor implementation of food policies has led to inadequate food production
  • Poor/ inadequate food storage facilities leads to wastage.

Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) What were the effects of using electricity in industries inn Europe in the

nineteenth century

  • It lowered the cost of production since it was a cheaper source of energy
  • Work was carried out for long hours as there was light
  • It enabled goods to be produced quickly and large quantities
  • Work became lighter as machines operated efficiently
  • Transportation was made easy and faster
  • There was a clean working environment in factories
  • It led to the location of industries away from sources of energy

 

(b)       Explain FIVE effects of scientific inventions on agricultural development

in Europe during the nineteenth century

  • Invention of machines such as tractors promoted large scale farming
  • Use of artificial fertilizers to improve soils led to high yields of crops
  • Use of pesticides in farming led to improved quality/ exotic products
  • Cross breeding of crops and animals led to improved quality/ exotic products
  • Improved infrastructure such as roads and railways led to effective marketing of farm products
  • Refrigeration/ canning led to effective preservation of farm products
  • Controlling temperatures in the storage rooms led to preservation of farm products for long

( 10 mks)

  1. (a) Give THREE problems which Europeans colonialists faced as they

established their rule in Africa in the second half of the nineteenth century

  • They were attacked by tropical diseases
  • Difficult terrain hindered their movement
  • They faced hostility from some African communities
  • The region lacked developed means of transport and communication
  • They faced shortages of food and medicine
  • There was lack of a common language between the Europeans and Africans

(Any 3 x1 = 3 mks)

 

(b)       What were the result of the collaboration between Lewanika of the Lozi

and the British in the nineteenth century

  • Lewanika received payment of £ 2000 yearly
  • He lost his authority as the administration was taken over by the British South Africa Company
  • The British South Africa Company took over the control of the minerals
  • The Lozi land was alienated and given to British settlers
  • The Lozi were forced to pay taxes in order to maintain the administration
  • The Lozi were forced to work as labourers on settler’s farms
  • The Lozi were employed in the civil service
  • The British South Africa Company developed infrastructure in Barotseland
  • The British established their rule peacefully in Northern Rhodesia
  • Lewanika was honoured with the title paramount chief until his death
  • The British used Barotseland as a base to conquer the neighbouring communities.

( Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

SECTION C (30 Marks)

Answer any TWO questions from this section in the answer booklet provided

 

  1. (a) State THREE  privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in

the four communes of Senegal

  • They were allowed to vote during elections
  • They were allowed to vie for posts in the French Parliament
  • They were exempted from forced labour
  • They were allowed to work and live in France
  • They received French education
  • They had freedom of movement within the French empire
  • They were exempted from paying taxes
  • They were allowed to become French citizens

(Any 3 x1 = 3 mks)

(b)       Why did French system of assimilation fail in areas outside the

Communes

  • The Africans were not willing to become Christians
  • The Africans were not able to get the French type of education
  • The system faced opposition from the Muslim
  • The French parliamentarians did not want to compete with Africans for Cabinets posts
  • The African traditional rulers feared they would lose their positions
  • French traders feared competition so they opposed the system
  • It was expensive to implement the system because of the vastness of the French empire
  • The varied African cultures made it difficult for them to be absorbed into the French culture. ( Any  6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) What were the causes of bombing of Nagasaki and Heroshima in Japan

(i)        Many people lost their lives

(ii)       Property of great value was destroyed

(iii)      The radio active elements caused many diseases

(iv)      Many people were maimed

(v)       There was economic decline

(vi)      Many People suffered psychologically

  • Japan surrendered unconditionally

( Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

(b)       Explain SIX factors which contributed to the rise of Japan as an industrial

power after the second World War

  • The government made education compulsory and encouraged research leading to innovative ideas
  • People were encouraged to study abroad leading to technological advancement
  • There was financial support for industrialization
  • The availability of raw materials for industrialization from in and outside Japan
  • The culture of hard work encouraged local and foreign investment
  • The Government policies encouraged local and foreign investment
  • The cheap and skillfully made products attracted market locally and abroad
  • The topography was unsuitable for agriculture. This made Japan to develop other sectors thus diversifying the economy
  • The development of hydro- electric power provided energy for industrialization
  • The Prevailing peace promoted development
  • The improvement in transport accelerated the process of industrialization

( Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) What are the functions of the  Security Council of the United Nations

(i)        It investigates disputes which are reported

(ii)       It advises member states to settle disputes peacefully

(iii)      It uses diplomacy and economic sanctions to bring World peace

(iv)      It appeals for peace keeping  force from member states

(v)       It admits/ suspends/ expels members from the United Nations

Organization.

( Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

 

(b)       Explain SIX problems which the United Nations is facing in its efforts to

maintain World Peace.

  • The increase in terrorist activities has created tension/ hatred among member countries thus threatening World Peace
  • Frequent border/ ethnic disputes make the work of the United Nations difficult
  • The organization faces shortage of funds because many member countries fail to remit their annual subscriptions

 

 

HISTORY PAPER 2 MARKING SCHEME 2006

SECTION A (25 marks)

 

  1. Give one reason why Homo Habilis was referred to as “able” man

(i)  Because of the ability to make tools              (Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Identify one area in Africa where agriculture began

Along the NileValley in Egypt                ( Any 1 x 1= mk)

 

  1. Identify one type of trade
    • Local trade
    • Regional trade
    • International trade

 

  1. Identity two improvements which were made on macadamized roads in the Nineteenth century.
    • Tar was put on the top surface to make them smooth
    • Roads were widened to create highways
    • Roads were straightened
    • The roads wee strengthened by adding more layers of gravel/ stones made durable

( Any 2 x1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. State two advantages of use of electricity in industries during the industrial revolution
    • The supply could be regulated/ could be switched on and off
    • It could be used in different ways. E.g. lighting, heating, trucing
    • It could be used far from the source/ industries could be established anywhere
    • There was a clean working environment/ Non pollutant
    • The cost of production of goods was made cheaper

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. State the main contribution of the discovery of chloroform in the field of medicine

It reduced pain during operation

 

  1. Identify two factors that led to the growth of Athens as an urban centre.
    • It was surrounded by mountains and sea making it secure/ Security
    • It was a centre of learning and art which attracted people. Educational cent.
    • It was a religious/ culture centre
    • It was a trading centre/ commercial centre
    • There were valleys with fertile soils for food production./ Availability of food
    • It was an administrative centre.

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Name two official who assisted the ruler of the Shona to administer the kingdom
    • The head cook
    • Head gate keeper/ chancellor
    • The court steward/ chamberlain/ chancellor
    • The Queen Mother
    • The head drummer
    • The head of the Army
    • The Treasurers
    • The Senior son in law
    • The Nine principal wives of the King
    • The King sister

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. What is the difference between the scramble and partition of Africa in the nineteenth century?

The scramble was the struggle by competition/ rush by Europeans for colonies in African whereas partition was sharing/ dividing up of Africa into European spheres influence.

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. Name one colony of Britain in West Africa
    • Nigeria
    • Ghana/ Gold Coast
    • The Gambia
    • Sierra Leone

(Any 1 x 1 =  1 mks)

  1. Give one reason why the Africans in Tanganyika were against the use of Akidas by the German Colonial administrators.
    • Akidas were foreigners
    • Akidas took Africans chance in Administering their country
    • Akidas were brutal/ harsh to the Africans/ Whipping Africans E.g. flogging

(Any 1 x 1 = 1mk)

  1. Identify two peaceful methods which the nationalists used in South Africa in the struggle for independence
    • Demonstrations
    • Sending petition to the British government
    • Seeking support organization of Africa Unity and United Nations
    • Forming political parties
    • Condemning apartheid in churches
    • Hunger strikes
    • Use of mass media/ newspapers/ pamphlets
    • Trade unions/ boycotts/ seating or go slow

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

 

  1. Give one reason why the united States of America (U.S.A) did not join the first world war until 1971
    • She did not want to get involved in European affairs. Manvue doctrine
    • She feared the war would be fought in America because of  German population
    • American interest had not been interfered with/ had commercial relation on both sides

(Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

  1. Give the main reason for the failure of the league of Nations

The rearmament of Germany

(Any 1x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. State two achievement of Pan- Africancism between 1945 and 1963
    • It promoted the spirit of togetherness among Africans all over the world
    • It gave moral support to African nationalists during the struggle for independence
    • It provided a forum for Africans to discuss common matters
    • It led to the establishment of the organization of the Africa Unity (O.A.U)

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. State two political challenges that faced Tanzania during the rule of president Mwalimu Nyerere
    • 1964 Army mutiny over delayed African promotions
    • Protests by universities of Dar-es- Salaam students in 1966 over National Youth Service
    • President Idi Amin attacked Tanzania
    • The country hosted large number of refugees from war torn neighbouring countries
    • The failure of the Ujamaa Policy
    • The assassination of Abeidi Karuma

( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

  1. Who is the heard of government in India?

The prime minister

(Any 1x 1 = 1mk)

 

SECTION B (45 MARKS)

 

  1. (a) What were the physical changes which occurred in early human beings as they evolved from ape- like creature to modern people?
    • The skull was enlarged
    • The jaws and teeth became smaller
    • The arms and hands become shorter
    • The creatures assumed an upright posture
    • The feet and toes reduced in size
    • The creatures had less hair on the body
    • They became taller
    • They had slander body
    • The brain became bigger

(Any 5 x 1 = 5 mks)

 

(b)       Describe the way of life of early Human Beings during the Old Stone Age

Period

  • They made simple stone tools for domestic use/ oldulvan tools
  • They lived in small groups in order to assist each other
  • They obtained their food through hunting and gathering
  • They used simple hunting methods such as chasing wild animals and laying traps
  • They ate raw food because fire had not been discovered
  • They had no specific dwelling places
  • They sheltered from predators by climbing trees and hiding in caves
  • They wore no clothing but their hairy bodies kept them warm
  • They lived near rivers and lakes
  • They communicated by use of gestures and whistling

(Any 5 x 2 = 10 mks)

 

  1. (a) Give three factors which should be considered when sending a message
    • The urgency of the message/ speed
    • The complexity of the message/ simplicity/ clarity
    • The distance between the sender and receiver of the message
    • The availability of communication facilities/ methods/ mean

(Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

(b)       Explain the effects  of telecommunications on modern society

(i)        The message are conveyed over long distances/ shorten distances

(ii)       It has led to spread of ideas to different parts of the world/ the world has

become a global village/ sharing of ideas

(iii)      Television, videos, computers and cinemas transmit entertainment

through pictures

(iv)      Telecommunication systems are medium of transmitting education

programmes all over the world

(v)       Weather forecasting navigation and space exploration have been made easy by use of satellites.

(vi)      Information can be relayed through radio, television or cell phone remote places easily

  • It has promoted trade through advertisement on radio, television and computers
  • Security has improved through camera/ close circuit TV

 

  • Modern weapons have telecommunication services which are efficient
  • Various job opportunities employment has been created
  • Communication devises have made tax collection/ revenue collection easier for the government e.g. electronic tax registered
  • Management/ storage of information has been made easier through the use of computer/ internet
  • It has immorality through pornography
  • It has encouraged idleness as viewers get addicted to programmers on T.V etc.
  • It has promoted business transaction e.g buying and selling in internet
  • The government earns revenue through taxation on telecommunication services

( Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

  1. (a) Give three reasons why Lobengula was defeated by the British in 1893?

(i)        The British had superior weapons compared to the Ndebele

(ii)       The British army was better organized than the Ndebele

(iii)      Lobengula and his soldiers were weakened by small pox

(iv)      The British had better trained army

( Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

(b)       What were the results of the British Ndebele war of 1893?

(i)        The Ndebele lost their independence/ company rule was established over

Matebele land

(ii)       There was massive loss of life

(iii)      The Ndebele lost of property through destruction

(iv)      Bulawayo the capital of the NdebeleKingdom was destroyed

(v)       The Ndebele lost  land to British settlers the Ndebele  were moved to

Reserves

(vi)      The economic activities of the Ndebele such as agriculture, trade and mining were disrupted

(vii)     Their was widespread fear and insecurity among the Ndebele

  • The war provoked anti- British feelings which Party contributed to the Chimurenga wars of 1896 and 1987
  • The Ndebele military power was weakened
  • The Shona were made policemen over the Ndebele
  • The Ndebele were subjected to taxation
  • The Ndebele cattle were confiseatead
  • The Ndebele were subjected to forced labour

 

  1. a) What five reasons encouraged the nationalists in Mozambique to use

armed struggle to attain independence.

(i)        Portugal refused to listen to the grievances of the Africans.

(ii)       The nationalists were trained in fighting skills.

  • The liberation committee of the Organization of African Unity/Tanzania and other (O.A.U) supported the nationalists with finance and weapons.
  • The nationalists were supported and encouraged by communist countries.
  • The success of MauMau freedom fighters in Kenya inspired them.
  • The country was forested and conducive for guerilla warfare.
  • The United Nations(UN) denounced colonialism thus boosting the morale of the nationalist. Any 5×1=5mks

 

  1. Describe the problems which undermined the activities of nationalists in Mozambique.
  • They lacked basic need such as food, cloth and medicine.
  • Ideological differences led to the formation of rival guerrilla movements such as MANU, COREMO and FRELIMO.
  • The nationalist were demolished due to the assassination of their leader Eduardo Mondlane.
  • The Portuguese government ruthlessly suppressed the nationalist movement.
  • The South African apartheid government assisted the Portuguese to fight the nationalists.
  • Portuguese government ruthlessly suppressed the nationalist movement.
  • Portugal outlawed political movements.
  • The Christian church in Mozambique condemned the nationalist movement.

Any 5×2 =10mks)

SECTION C (30MARKS)

 

22        (a)       Give three ways through which trade contributed to the rise of Asante

Kingdom during the eighteenth century.

  • Participation trade enabled the kingdom.
  • Acquired weapons which were used to expand the kingdom.
  • Wealth from trade boosted the kings prestige/frame.
  • The need for goods for export encouraged the kings to conquer more territories.
  • The king used wealth from trade to reward loyal provincial rulers

Any 3×1= 3mks

b)

(i)        The Kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language.

(ii)       The Asante were organized in clans

  • Marriage between members of the same clan was prohibited
  • Inheritance of property was matrilineal.
  • The community was bound together by the Golden stool
  • There was an annual cultural festival (odwira) held at kumasi to honour the ancestors.
  • The society was divided into social classes/stratification
  • The kings were regarded as semi-divine/religious traders
  • The Asante were polytheists/worshipped many gods and goddesses
  • The ancestors mediated between god and the people
  • The Asante had a supreme God called Nyame Any 6×2=12mks.

 

23 a)    Give three categories of the Prime ministries in Britain

(i)        Members elected by universal suffrage

(ii)       Members nominated by the monarch

  • Hereditary peers/ Royal family members
  • Senior statement/ knighted peers/ life peers
  • Senior leaders of the church of England

( Any 3 x 1= 3 mks)

  • What are the duties of the Prime Minister in Britain?
  • Appoints/ dismiss ministers with the consent of the monarch
  • Recommends to the monarch the appointment of high ranking officers in the government/ award of civil  honours
  • Chairs cabinet meetings
  • Settlers dispute between various governments  ministers/ departments
  • Heads the government/ Chief Executive
  • Overseas the implementation of cabinet decisions
  • Leads the house of Commons
  • The prime minister with the support                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    of parliament can change. Amend and re appeal  laws
  • Represents the country in international forums/ conferences
  • Determines when elections are held
  • He/ she is the leader of the party that nominated him/ her

( Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) Give three organs of the Economic community  of West African States

(ECOWAS)

  • There is the authority of heads of States  and  Heads of governments
  • The tribunal
  • Executive secretariat
  • Specialized commissions
  • Council of minister

( Any 3 x 1 =  3 mks)

 

  • What are the achievements of Economic Community of W. Africa States (ECOWAS) since  its formation
  • It has standardized education in the region  by use of common examination syllabus
  • It has fostered peace through its military wing

 

 

  • It has promoted cultural exchange among the member states
  • It has improved regional Transport/ Communication system/ links
  • Improved agriculture through sharing of technological know- how
  • It has facilitated free movement of people in the region
  • There is na increase in job opportunities in the region
  • It has promoted spirit of togetherness
  • It has promoted mutual co-operation
  • It has promoted interregional trade  within regions.

Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

K.C.S.E 2007 PAPER 2 MARKING SCHEMES

1.

–           Archaeology / palaeontology.

–           Oral tradition, Linguistics.

–           Anthropology

–           Genetics / Botany / Zoology / Biology

–           Written records,

–           Geology.

–           Electronic sources.

 

  1. i) Hunting ii) Gathering   iii) Farming       iv) Fishing

 

  1. Availability of water from the River Nile

-The River Nile also brought rich fertile silt from the highlands.

 

  1. i) Wind ii) Water         iii) Wood        iv) Sun            v) Animals / man

 

  1. i) It is slow
  2. ii) One can give the wrong message or forget the message.

iii)       One can die on the way

  1. iv) A person carrying verbal message can be tortured to reveal it.

 

  1. i) It is the quickest in terms of speed.

 

  1. Barter

 

  1. i) The rise of AxumKingdom which developed East of Merowe

denied Merowe access to the red sea causing decline in trade.

  1. ii) The king of Axum subdued and destroyed Merowe in 350 A.D

iii)       Desertification due to deforestation led to decline of food supply

for her people.

  1. iv) Deforestation caused the decline of food supply for her people.

 

  1. It was the symbol of unity within the Asante Empire.

 

  1. i) Britain ii) Germany

 

  1. i) Lewanika collaborated with the British in order to protect his

Kingdom against the Germans and Portuguese / European enemies.

  1. ii) Lewanika  desired Western education and civilization and wanted

the British to introduce it in his country / wanted his son to be educated.

iii)       Lewanika wanted the British to protect him against his internal enemies e.g. in 1884 Lewanika faced an internal rebellion / safeguard his position.

  1. iv) Lewanika who had already sought British protection against the Boers.
  2. v) Lewanika saw the futility of resisting a strong power like Britain,

so he chose to collaborate.

  1. vi) Lewanika wanted the British to protect his kingdom from attacks

by other African communities such as the Ndebele and Shona /

African enemies.

vii)      Lewanika  was influenced by the European missionaries who had

visited earlier to collaborate.

viii)     In order to preserve the economy structure of his people.

  1. ix) Desire for the promotion of trade between Britain and his people.

 

  1. i) All colonies were subjected to the same law.
  2. ii) Racial discrimination was minimal in the colonies.

iii)       It undermined African culture.

  1. iv) French goods and modern ways spread in West Africa.
  2. v) Educated African spearheaded nationalism in Africa.
  3. vi) Africans were represented by deputies in the National Assembly.

 

  1. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife in Sarjevo.

 

  1. i) Loss of independence
  2. ii) Exploitation of African resources e.g. land and minerals.

iii)       Western education

 

  1. i) Register treaties
  2. ii) Publishing reports

iii)       Interpret speeches and translate documents into the UN’S

official languages.

  1. iv) Implement policies
  2. v) Bring to the attention of the Security Council any problem that

threatens international peace.

  1. vi) Administer peace keeping operating and mediate international dispute.

 

  1. i) Member states have received technical know – how through the

provision of experts and advisers in various field e.g. agriculture.

  1. ii) The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled man power through the provision of scholarships and training programmes by the developed member states of the organization.

iii)       Members states have conducted trade among themselves with relative ease.

  1. iv) There has been cultural interaction among member states e.g. games& exchange programmes.
  2. v) The developed member state have provided financial aid to the developing member states.
  3. vi) The organization has provided a forum for member states to air their views with one voice on international issues.

vii)      The organization had provided a mechanism of maintaining peace among member states, e.g. the common wealth eace keeping force which was sent to Zimbabwe.

viii)     It has promoted friendship and understanding among members states through conference.

  1. ix) It had enhanced democratization process in developing countries by sending observers to monitor elections.

 

 

 

  1. i) Direct or pure democracy – This is where the people in a state are

allowed to freely participate in an important decision making forums that pertain matters of the state.

  1. ii) Indirect or representative Democracy – This is where citizens exercise their right in decision making through their chosen representatives.

 

SECTION B

 

18        i)         It has led to deaths of hundreds of people due to famine.

  1. ii) Increased suffering as many people due to famine.

iii)       It has led to social problems like raids and theft.

  1. iv) It had caused migration of people affected by food shortage.
  2. v) It affects agricultural based industries.

 

 

b)

  1. i) Land reclamation through irrigation or draining swamps.
  2. ii) Extensive research on better quality animal and crop breeds and on

how to control pests and diseases.

iii)       Establishment of agricultural training institutes to train

agricultural officers.

  1. iv) Soil conservation and restoration as well a forestation and re- a forestation.
  2. v) Encouraging people to eat different types of food especially indigenous

foods.

  1. vi) Control the rate of population growth through family planning.

vii)      Use of democracy and diplomacy to solve political problems.

viii)     The governments are trying to subsidize by providing farmers with

seeds and tools.

 

  1. i) Local trade      ii) Regional trade       iii)       International trade.
  2. b) i) It involved traders from North Africa and people of North Africa

and people of West Africa.

  1. ii) The people involved were Arabs and Berbers from the North, Tauregs from the desert and the people of West Africa.

iii)       Arabs in the North organized the caravans. Preparations were made in advance to have enough goods, food especially indigenous foods.

Iv)       Departure dates were set after the end of the rainy season when the storms were minimal.

  1. v) The Berbers and Tauregs acted as guides and provided security in the desert.
  2. vi) The traders moved in caravans of up 1000 camels for security in the desert.

vii)      In the south the traders stayed for up to three months selling goods.

viii)     If they had not finished selling the goods by the end of the tree months they hired local agents to continue selling goods and buying others on their behalf.

  1. ix) The local agents also maintained good relations with local rulers by giving them gifts and paying tribute.
  2. x) In return the local rulers offered security to the traders. They also regulated the precaution and supply of gold.
  3. xi) From the North they brought salt, copper, needles, spices, beds, grass ware horses, clothes , daggers, firearms e.t.c.

xii)      There were several trade routes that were used by the traders e.g. the Western route, central and eastern route.

 

  1. i) Discovery of Gold in Witwatersrand.
  2. ii) There was clean water supply from river Vaal which was used for domestic as well as industrial use.

iii)       It is situated on a plain (veld) which make building constructions and communication easy.

  1. iv) Existence of minerals e.g. diatomite’s.
  2. v) The areas surrounding the town have fertile soils therefore agriculturally productive.
  3. b)
  4. i) Poor working conditions for African living around Johannesburg.
  5. ii) Most people live in Shanties mainly because of unemployment. This led to development of slums.

iii)       Poor living conditions in the slums e.g. poor sanitation.

  1. iv) Criminal activities have increase due to unemployment.
  2. v) Pollution from industries and garbage.
  3. vi) HIV / AIDS is a major health problem.

vii)      Wide gap between the affluent who are the minority and the poor majority who area Africans.

viii)     Inadequate social facilities e.g. education and health facilities.

 

  1. i) It helped in the development of transport e.g. steam ship and trains.

This helped in the transportation of people in Africa.

  1. ii) With the development of railway Europeans were able to move into the interior of Africa and exploit minerals.

iii)       There was demand for coal to produce more steam.

  1. iv) It was possible to move troops to conquer the people of Africa using

steam trains and vehicles.

  1. v) There was demand for raw materials as the steam engine was

manufacturing goods at a faster rate.

b)

  1. i) Formation of states:- Colonization helped in the formation of

states. During the struggle for independence different communities came together to fight for independence. These later became independent states with many different tribes.

  1. ii) It speeded economic growth in Europe through trade.

iii)       Africans were introduced to international commerce.

  1. iv) Development of infrastructure e.g. roads and railways by the Europeans

in Africa.

  1. v) Development of urban centres in areas where Europeans settled.
  2. vi) Fame and prestige: – Europeans powers who gained more colonies

in Africa gained fame and prestige.

 

  1. a)i) German to surrender some of other territories in European e.g. Alsace

and Lorraine were returned to France.

  1. ii) German to surrender all her colonies.

iii)       German to pay £6.6 million to the allies as reparation money.

  1. iv) The city of Danzing to be a free city under the league.
  2. v) German was restricted to an army of 100,000 men and it’s equipments

were limited.

 

  1. b)
  2. i) The allied powers had more states supporting them.
  3. ii) Allies had more financial and industrial resources.

iii)       Allied powers controlled the North sea and Atlantic Ocean and

blockaded the central powers.

  1. iv) The invasion of neutral Belgium by Germany made the world

to turn against the central powers.

  1. v) The entry of USA into the war helped to defeat the central powers.
  2. vi) The central powers were located in the central part of Europe and

Were surrounded by enemies from every side.

vii)      Multines in German army weakened the Germany resistance.

viii)     The failure of the schlieffen plan

  1. ix) Good political leadership among the allied powers.

 

  1. a)i) He made himself head of state and government thus centralized

power in his hands.

  1. ii) He banned all political parties . In 1967 he formed the

people’s revolutionary movement and made it the only legal party.

iii)       He reformed the constitution and stripped parliament off its powers.

  1. iv) Mobutu abolished the federal system of government and local assemblies.\
  2. v) He declared himself president for life in 1970.

b)

  1. i) Political upheavals have hindered exploitation of Congo’s resources.
  2. ii) Belgium had led other western nationals in dominating the exploitation

of   Congolese mineral wealth. Profits are repatriated to Europe

and Congolese have not benefited from mining activities on their land.

iii)       Excessive reliance on foreign aid have created large debts which are

hard to pay.

  1. iv) There is trade imbalance between Congo and her partners.
  2. v) Corruption and mismanagement of country’s key sectors.
  3. vi) Poverty and lack of capital had hindered the exploitation of resources.

vii)      Lack of a clear policy of economic recovery after the colonial exploitation.

viii)     Inflation due to printing of currency.

  1. ix) Unemployment: – lack of job opportunities
  2. x) Poor transport means.

 

 

  1. a)
  2. i) Be at least 35 years old.
  3. ii) Be an American citizen by birth.

iii)       Must have been a resident of the country 14 years.

b)

  1. i) It acts as a check on the executive arm of the government by

examining administrative work.

  1. ii) It approves taxation measures and make sure that the government expenditure is properly used and accounted for.

iii)       Making laws

  1. iv) Amend laws.
  2. v) Senate approves treaties with foreign countries
  3. vi) It can appoint a commission of inquiry to investigate any problem.

vii)      Senior civil servants are appointed by the president with the approval

of the senate.

viii)     Congress closely monitors the conduct of the president, vice president and other senior public officials.

  1. ix) Congress is a representative body elected by people and it reflects

the aspiration an interest of the American people.

 

 

  • 2008 History and Government Paper 2 (311/2)

MARKING SCHEME

 

    • May contain biases/exaggerations.
    • Information may be misinterpreted/misunderstood by readers.
    • There may be factual errors/omissions/contradictions by the authors.
    • These sources are limited to literate members of the society.
    • They are expensive to obtain/procure. (Any 2 x 1=2 marks)

 

  • There were more wild animals in the grasslands/availability of food.
  • The climate in the grasslands was warmer.
  • The grasslands provided much needed water. (Any 1×1=1 mark)

 

  • (Any 1×1=1mark)

 

  • Making utensils.
  • Making ornaments.
  • To make weapons.
  • As a medium of exchange/trade item.
  • It was mixed with other metals to make alloys.
  • It is used for making tools.
  • It is used as a trade item.
  • It is used to make statues. (Any 2×1 = 2 marks)

 

  • Canning process.
  • Pasteurization process.
  • Refrigeration process. (Any 1×1 = 1 mark)

 

  • It’s effectiveness depends on weather.
  • The message could be missed if no one is on the look out.
  • It can only be used to cover short distances.
  • Range of messages passed was limited. (Any 2 x 1=2 marks)

 

  • It’s cumbersome to transport bulky goods.
  • There is a problem of storing the goods.
  • It’s difficult to determine the exact values of some goods.
  • There is frequent lack of double coincidence of wants.
  • Some goods may not be divided into smaller quantities. (Any 2 x 1=2 marks)

 

  1. It is the concentration of people in certain places which grow large to be called                         towns/cities.                                                                                                   (1 mark)

 

  • To maintain law and order.
  • To collect taxes.
  • They recruited men for military service.
  • They settled disputes/tried cases in court.
  • They were members of the Lukiiko. (Any 2×1=2 marks)

 

  1. To divide up Africa among European nations in a peaceful manner. (1 x 1=1 mark)

 

  • The Moffat treaty.
  • Rudd concession.                                                 (Any 1 x 1=1 mark)

 

  1. Britain.                                                                         (1 x 1=1mark)

 

  • (Any 1 x 1=1 mark)

 

  • It ended economic domination of the world by European countries.
  • There was massive destruction of properties.
  • It enacted unemployment.
  • It slowed down economic development of most countries/led to economic depression.
  • It led to developments in engineering. (Any 2 x 1=2 marks)

 

  • To unite all black people to win majority rule in South Africa.
  • To encourage a united anti-racial activities/oppose apartheid.
  • To remove all forms of injustices.
  • To win a vote/franchise for all the people of South Africa. (Any 2 x 1=2 marks)

 

  1. Coordinates the activities of the other organs of the United Nations. (1mark)

 

  • Idiological differences among the three member states.
  • Personality differences between presidents Idd Amin ofUganda and Julius Nyerere of Tanzania.

 

  • The perception of Uganda and Tanzania that Kenya benefited more.
  • National pride/interests of the member states.
  • Failure to remit funds to the community by member states.
  • The closure of boundaries by the member states.                               (Any 2 x 1=2 marks)

 

  1. (a)
  • People could travel faster than before.
  • They could cover long distances.
  • The chariots made travel comfortable.
  • Heavy loads could be carried over long distances.
    • Traveling became more secure. (Any 3×1= 3 marks)

 

(b)

  • It is expensive to procure/maintain an aircraft.
  • Construction of airstrips requires a lot of resources and expertise.
  • The aircrafts can only land and take off in specific/designated areas thus inconveniencing the users.
  • Aircrafts cannot carry bulky/heavy goods as compared to other means of transport.
  • Air transport can only be used by the well to do members of the society thus making it inaccessible to many.
  • Its operations are affected by unfavourable weather conditions.
  • Aircrafts emit gases which contribute to the pollution of the atmosphere.
  • Travelling by air has facilitated international terrorism/drug trafficking.
  • The use of aircrafts in military warfare has resulted to destruction of property.
  • Accidents by the air crafts are fatal/chances of survival are minimal.
  • Requires a lot of expertise. (Any 6×2=12 marks)
  1. (a)
  • The slaves were exchanged for European manufactured goods.
  • Prisoners of war who had been captured during local wars were sold to the slave dealers.
  • Slave traders kidnapped lonely travelers.
  • Some people were enticed and eventually sold into slavery.
    • Debtors were sold to slave traders.             (Any 3 x 1=3 marks)

 

    • The industrial revolution in Britain led to the replacement of human labour with machines which were more efficient.
    • The leading economists were against slave labour and argued that free labourwas more productive than slave labour.
    • Philanthropists/Christian missionaries strongly campaigned against slave trade thus leading to its decline.
    • America attained political independence and abolished slavery and slave trade leaving this Britain with no colonies where she would take slaves to work.
    • The development of legitimate trade which subsequently replaced slave trade.
    • Britain abolished slave trade and influenced other European nations to stop the practice by signing anti-slave trade treaties.
    • The French revolution of 1789 impacted negatively on slave trade as the ideasof liberty and equality of all people were spread. (Any 6×2=12 marks)

 

  1. (a)
  • African resented the forced labour introduced by the Germans.
  • Africans disliked the harsh rule by Akidas and Jumbes who were hired by the Germans.
  • The Germans mistreated African Rulers.
  • Africans were against the introduction of tax by the Germans.
  • The German officials sexually abused the African women.
    • The Africans were inspired by the prophecy of Kinje Kitile Ngwale.
  • The Africans wanted to repossess their land from the Germans.
  • The Ngoni fought to seek revenge over the Boma massacre of 1897.
  • Africans wanted to regain their lost independence.
  • Germans despised/looked down upon the African way of life. (Any 5×1=5 marks)

 

    • Africans had inferior weapons which could not match the German modern weapons.
    • German solders were well trained as opposed to the African soldiers who used traditional methods of fighting.
    • The disunity/hatred that existed among African communities made it possible for the Germans to defeat them with ease.
    • The Germans used the scorched earth method which led to famine and hence weakened the Africans.
    • The magic waste failed to protect the Africans from German bullets.
    • Capture/imprisonment/execution of African leaders demoralised the fighters.
    • German administrators received reinforcement which strengthened their fight against the Africans.
    • The large/powerful communities who had been defeated by the Germans before did not join the war.
    • Africans were not well coordinated/organised in their fight against the Germans.

(Any 5×2=10 marks)

 

  1. (a)
  • It promoted health services/established International Health Organisation.
  • It championed for the welfare of the workers/established the International Labour Organisation.
  • It provided relief to refugees/war casualties/areas hit by famine.
  • It settled disputes between different European Countries.
  • It supervised mandated territories.
  • It organized disarmament conferences in Europe.
  • It helped to reduce trade in dangerous drugs.
  • It helped in economic reconstruction of European countries. (Any 5 x 1=5 marks)

 

    • Some European nations opposed the peace Treaty of Versailles becauseit favoured the allied nations that had fought against German.
    • The United States of America did not support the league because it did notwant to get involved in European affairs/The Monroe Doctrine.
    • The membership of the organization was not all that inclusive. Some countries were left out while others were not given a chance to join.
    • The league violated the objective of maintaining world peace by supporting some nations’ claims against others.
    • Most members were concerned with their sovereignty as opposed to the interests of the League of Nations.
    • Some members of the League adopted the policy of appeasement towards certain regimes in order to avoid confrontation thus weakening it.
    • Shortage of funds made it difficult for the League to implement its programmes.
    • The League lacked its own army to implement its decisions where peace was threatened. It depended on the goodwill of the members who at times were not reliable.
    • The search for colonies diverted the members’ attention from the activities of the League of Nations.
    • The rise of dictatorship regimes in Europe weakened the League as these dictators refused to accept its resolutions.
    • The economic depression of 1929 weakened most of the world economies, hence they were not able to support the League financially. (Any 5×2=10 marks)

 

 

  1. (a)
  • To avoid resistance from the people of Northern Nigeria.
  • The British had inadequate personnel for the vast territory.
  • There was an established system of administration.
  • There was communication barrier between the British and the local communities.
  • It was difficult to reach all parts of the territory due to inadequate transport and communication systems.
  • To reduce the cost of administration
  • The method had successfully been used in some of their colonies.

(Any 5 x 1=5 marks)

 

(b)

  • Traditional rulers became unpopular among their people due to their new roles of collecting taxes/forceful recruitment of fellow Africans as labourers for European/as soldiers to fight in the world wars.
  • The African Chiefs became wealthier than the rest of the people because they were paid for their services.
  • It helped to preserve African cultures in Northern Nigeria because the British did not want to interfere with the African way of life.
  • It led to the abolition of slavery and slave trade in Northern Nigeria
  • The British abolished the Fulani systems of taxation and replaced it with a single tax levied on each village.
  • Retention of muslim law/sharia in the North made the area lag behind.The British modified the previous systems of administration thus making the traditional African rulers lose their independence.                   (Any 5×2=10 marks)

 

  1. (a)
  • To promote unity among African states.
  • To end all forms of colonialism in Africa.
  • To promote human rights in African countries in line with the United Nations’ Charter.
  • To promote social, economic and political cooperation in Africa in order to uplift the peoples standards of living.
  • To uphold the policy of non-alignment in international affairs.
  • To uphold the policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of member states.
  • To recognize/respect the territorial/sovereignty of member states.
  • To promote peaceful settlement of disputes among member states.

(Any 5×1=5 marks)

 

    • The structure of the African Union is more elaborate than that of the organisation of African Unity/The African Union has more organs than the organization of African Unity.
    • African Union unlike the Organisation of African Unity has the mandate to intervene in the internal affairs of member states who violate human rights.
    • African Union is viewed as an organisation of African peoples while Organisation of African Unity was an organisation of African executives.
    • African Union has an ambitious economic development agenda for Africa where as Orgnisation of African Unity was mainly concerned with political issues of the continent.
    • African Union has an accountability mechanism/the African Peer Review Mechanism while the Organisation of African Unity lacked it.
    • The Organisation of African Unity was formed by independent African countries to fight colonialism where as African Union focuses on the challenges facing African countries today.
    • The African Union has established the court of Justice to handle cases involving victims of human rights violation within the member states while Organisation of African Unity lacked this agency.
    • The African Union unlike the Organisation of African Unity has established a close working relationship with countries of the world through Information Communication Technology to enhance globalization.
    • The African Union has proposed the creation of a standing African army whereas the Organization of African Unity did not think of it. (Any 5×2=10 marks)

 

 

  1. (a)
  • One should be a citizen of India.
  • The person should be aged 35 years and above.
  • The person should qualify for election as a member of the house of the people.
  • One should not be a government employee/not hold any office of profit within the government.
  • One must be nominated by a political party. (Any 3 x 1=3 marks)

 

(b)

  • The president is the head of state with executive powers to carry out his duties.
  • The president seeks advice from parliament when appointing the prime ministers.
  • He/she is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
  • He is a member of the legislative.
  • He ascends to/vetoes bills before they become law.
  • He establishes special councils to arbitrate on inter-state disputes.
  • He dissolves parliament to call for general elections.
  • He is empowered by the constitution to declare a state of emergency/rule the state by decree when the security of the state is threatened.
  • He nominates the 12 members to the “Council of states”/upper house.
  • He appoints state governors and supreme court judges.
  • He calls the leader of the winning party after general elections to form the government.
  • He is the leader of the political part that nominates him for the elections.
  • He pardons offenders. (Any 6×2=12 marks)

 

 

 

 

 

HISTORY MARKING SCHEME 2009 PAPER 2

SECTION A (25 MARKS)

  1. Name two types of written materials used by historians  as a source of history and government
    • Books/ charts/ maps/ scrolls/ painting/ clay labels/ stone  table
    • Newspapers/ magazines
    • Diaries/ biographies
    • Journals/ periodicals
    • Official/ government records

 

  1. State two ways in which the early man obtain food
    • Hunting
    • Gathering
    • Growing crops/ farming
    • Livestock keeping/ rearing animals
    • Fishing

 

  1. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution

Simple life forms gradually develop into higher forms of life over millions of years                                                                     ( 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Identify the greatest contribution  of Michael Faraday in the field of science

He invented electricity                                         (1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Give the main use of steam powder during industrial revolution in Europe.

Driving engines/ machines in industries             ( 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. State two disadvantages of using wood as a source of energy
    • wood is affected by rain
    • It products smoke/ choking/ pollutes the air/ soot
    • Leads to deforestation / scarcity of wood
    • It is cumbersome to use (Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Give two means of water transport used during the  ancient time
    • Sailing boats/ our driven  boats
    • Rafts/ logs
    • Canoes
    • Sailing ships

 

 

  1. State two advantages of the use of money of barter as a medium of exchange
    • Money is lighter to transport than goods
    • Money is easily divisible into smaller units than  the actual goods
    • Money is convertible into electronic devices  for payment unlike  goods
    • In barter trade,  one cannot determine  the  actual value of the  goods  transacted
    • Money can be stored in a longer period

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Give two reasons  why the early  urban centers in ancient Egypt developed in the NileValley
    • Water from the river was used for transportation
    • Water from the river was used for domestic use/ industrial  use
    • Nile valley contained fertile soil for farming/ availability of food
    • Nile valley had cool temperature which encourages settlement
    • Vegetation along the river provided building materials

( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. State two economic activities of the Shona during the pre- colonial period
    • They grew crops/ agriculture
    • They kept livestock
    • They traded with Arabs and Swahili traders/ took part in long distance trade/ trade
    • They hunted elephants for ivory
    • They were iron worked/ blacksmiths
    • They made clothes from wild cotton/ bark fibres
    • They mined gold
    • They were fishermen
    • They gathered/ gathering

 

  1. Define the term “ sphere “ of influence as used by the European powers in Berlin conference of 1884 and 1885
  2. Identify one political reform introduction by President Fredrik de Klerk that led to the achievement of black majority rule in South Africa.
    • He released all the political prisoners
    • Appealed apartheid Laws, E.g. pass laws
    • Allowed Africans to join political parties/ participate in electrons

(Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Give one way  in which the policy  of “ nationalism allowed down economic development in Tanzania  during the reign of Julius Nyerere
    • Many Tanzanians developed a negative attitude to work/ relied on government support
    • Most foreign investors withdraw from the country
    • Some industries collapsed
  2. Name the organ of the United organization thatpromotes justice in the world.

The international Court of Justice

(1 x 1 = 1 mk)

 

  1. Identify one superpower that was involved in the cold water
    • United States of America ( USA)
    • Union of SovietSocialistRepublic ( USSR)

(Any 1 x 1  = 1mk)

 

SECTION A (25 MARKS)

  1. Name two English speaking member countries of the Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS)
    • Liberia
    • Gambia
    • Ghana
    • Nigeria
    • Sierra Leone

(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

 

  1. Identify one house of the Congress in the united   States of America
    • The House of representatives
    • The Senate

(Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

SECTION B (45 MARKS)

  1. (a) Give three stages in the evolution of man before Homo Erectus
    • Aegytopithecus/ Egyptian ape
    • Dryopithecus/ Africans/ Proconsul/ woodland ape
    • Kenyapithecus/ Ramapithecus/ woodland ape/ Kenya ape/ Asian ape
    • Australopithecus/ Southern ape/ man ape/ Zinyanthropus/ Nut erect man
    • Homohabilis/ Handy man/ practical man

Note any order of responses earns marks                        (any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

(b) Describe six ways in which the discovery of fire by Early Man improved

his way of life

  • The fire was used to roast/ cook thus he stopped eating raw food
  • Fire was used to provide warmth at night when it was cold
  • Fire was used to provide light in the dwelling/ sites/ caves
  • Fire improved hunting as man could use it to push animals to confined areas thus kill them easily.
  • Fire was used to frighten animals from man’s dwelling places thus improved security
  • Tool making was improved through the use of fire to harden sharpen tips of tools
  • Communication between people living at different places was made possible by the of fire and smoke signals
  • Early man preserved food by drying it over the fire
  • Fire enabled man to harden pottery which was used for storage / cooking/ trade

(Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) Identify three ways in which water was used in industries during the 18th century
    • To turn waterwheels/ grinding stones in four miles
    • To wash/ clean the machines/ maintain cleanliness
    • To cool the machines
    • To turn spinning machines in textile industries
    • To produce steam power to drive  machines

(Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

 

(b) Explain six social effects of the industrial revolution in Europe during the 18th century

(i)    Many people migrated to towns to look for jobs leading to overcrowding

(ii)   Increased population in towns led to shortage of houses thereby resulting

to the development of slums

(iii) There was poor sanitation which made people to suffer from various diseases

(iv) The factories emitted pollutants into the air, water and land thus affecting in people health

(v)   Those who did not secure employment in the industrial town engaged in crime and other social evils.

(vi) Industrial revolution led to social stratification where the poor were

Discriminated by the rich

(vii)             Women and children were exploited because they worked for long hours for little pay.

(viii) Trade union developed in order to fight for the rights of industrial

workers to settle industrial disputes.

(ix) Due to long working schedules, some industrial workers neglected their homes leading to family breakups

(Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) Identify the three methods used by the French to acquire colonies in

                        West Africa

  • Signed treaties with the African rulers/ used diplomacy
  • Played off one community against the other/ divide and rule/ treachery
  • Used force to conquer the African / Military expedition

(Any 3 x 1= 3 mks)

 

(b)       Explain six factors that led to the defeat of Samori Toure by the

                        French

(i)        The constant movements of his army and people denied them time to concentrate on gainful activities. This resulted to inadequate food supplies

(ii)       The scorched earth policy that he used when fighting made his people to be impoverished and thus turned against him.

(iii)      Some African communities in the area supported the French against Samori Toure. E.g. Liebba of Sekosso & Ahmiadu Sekou of Tuklor

(iv)      The Diplomatic tactics of playing off the British against the French worked against him as the British refused to give him support when attached by the French

(v)       The determination by the French to establish an overseas empire made them to use their superior weapons on Samori Toure

(vi)      The non- Mandinka and non Muslim communities in his empire supported the French against him because he had conquered/ mistreated them.

(vii)     The British refused to support Samori Toure against the French due to their policy of non – interference.

(viii)    The French besieged Samori Capital/ blocking his retreat thereby forcing him to surrender

(ix)      The establishment of the second empire from the East denied him access to the coast thus affecting supply of arms

(x)       The loss of Baire gold mine cleared him the finances to sustain his forces.

(6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

  1. (a) Give the reasons why it look long for Mozambique to achieve independence from Portugal
    • Portugal was reluctant to part with the economic wealth of Mozambique
    • Portugal was ruled by kings who had no regard for human rights
    • Portugal regarded Mozambique as one of its provinces and not  a colony
    • Portugal had succeed in suppressing revolts by Africans before nationalism took root in Mozambique
    • Lack of unity among  African until 1960’s
    • Illiteracy among Africans  in Mozambique

Any 3 x 1= 3 mks)

 

(b)       Explain six factors that favoured the success of FRELIMO nationalists during their struggle for independence in Mozambique

  • Use of Guerilla tactics to attack the Portuguese from different parts of country strained colonial resources.
  • The local population was recruited in the army which  out numbered the Portuguese  forces
  • Mozambique was highly forested  thus provided good  cover for  the  guerrilla  fighters  from  Portuguese war planes
  • FRELIMO fighters were working on familiar ground/ Terrain
  • The Frelimo nationalists  cultivated their own  food thus being  self sufficient in food supplies
  • The nationalist were aided financially, materially and morally by communist  countries which enabled them  to continue with the struggle
  • Support by the organization of African Unity (OAU) inspired  the nationalists to keep on  the struggle
  • The practice of Frelimo of setting up administrative structures in Liberated areas encouraged the Africans in Mozambique to support the struggle
  • The recognition of the role of women helped  the nationalist to mobilize the communities to support the struggle.
  • Elimination of ethic difference appealed to all the Mozambicans to join   in the common cause/ they were united.
  • The Frelimo leaders were  well organized./ co- ordinated the struggle effectively
  • Frelimo fighters received constant flour of information about the movement of the Portuguese troops.

 

SECTION C (30 MARKS)

  1. (a) List three Europeans Countries that formed the Tripple alliance before the outbreak of the First World War.
    • Germany
    • Austria – Hungary
    • Italy
    • Romania

 

(b) Describe six functions of the General Assembly of the United Nations (U.N)

(i)              The general Assembly liaises with the Security Council in making recommendations on maintenance of peace and security

(ii)             Discusses issues relating to international peace and security.

(iii)            It elects jointly with the Security Council, the judges of the international court of Justice/ appoints the secretary/ general

(iv)            It receives/ acts on report from Security Council and other U.N organs

(v)             It approves U.N budget/ apportions the amounts of construction to be paid by each member state.

(vi)            It elects non- permanent member of the security/ Economic/ Social fields

(vii)           It promotes the development / codification of the international law

  • It facilitates the realization of human fundamental freedoms
  • It promotes higher/ better standards of living among nations.

(Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

 

 

 

  1. (a) State five characteristics of the commonwealth member  states
    • Members of the commonwealth use English as the official language of communication
    • Members appreciate each others cultural values
    • Member countries co- operate in the field of Education
  • They recognize the queen/ king of England as the head  of commonwealth
    • Member countries have similar government/ institutions/ parliamentary system/ judiciary/ civil service/ military practices
    • They participate  in commonwealth games
    • They have economics ties/ the rich nations assist the poor ones with economic/ technical aid

(Any 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

(b)     Explain five challenges facing commonwealth

(i)        The commonwealth is dominated by the developed nations. This

Undermines policies/ decisions made by the less developed members

(ii)       Lacks adequate funds to finance its operations since most of the members

are from the less developed countries.

(iii)      Political instability/ civil wars in many member countries in Africa and Asia has affected the performance of the association in promoting peace/ good governance.

(iv)      Members of the commonwealth have a divided loyalty/ lack commitment due to their involvement in their organizations

(v)       Members of the commonwealth withdraw their membership at will and hence affect smooth operation of the club

(vi)      Ideological differences between the member countries/ capitalism/ communism make it difficult for the members to speak with one voice on matter of international concern.

(vii)     Personality difference between heads of states/ government have negatively affected the association.

(viii)    The association lacks an executive authority to enforce its decisions/ has no standing army

(ix)      The need to correct colonial injustices has created misunderstanding among the members thus making it difficult for it  to effectively  implement its plans

(x)       Racial discrimination reflected by lack of free movement/ restricted visa rules adopted by some counties has undermined social cohesion

(xi)      Some member countries put their national interest before those of the association thus making it difficult for the association to achieve its objectives

(Any 5 x 2 = 10 mks)

 

  1. (a) State three ways in which a person can become a member of parliament in Britain
    • Election of the member to the house of commons
    • Nomination of the person by the Monarch
    • Through inheritance of the house of lords
    • By virtue of office
    • By appointments due to outstanding performance

 

(b)       Describe six duties of the Monarch In Britain

(i)        The Monarch approves/ assents bills before they become laws

(ii)       The monarch approves all appointments to important state of offices

(iii)      The monarch is involved in enacting treaties between government and

other countries in relation to foreign policy

(iv)      The monarch summons/ prorogues/ dissolve parliament in consultation

with the prime minister.

(v)       The monarchy gives consent to all cabinet appointments

(vi)      The Monarchy has powers to pardon people who have been accused of

committing various  offences.

(vii)     The Monarch appoints bishops/ archbishops of the church of England

(viii)    The Monarch advises/ Counsels the head of government

(ix)      The monarch confers honours to persons who have rendered

distinguished/ outstanding.

(x)       The monarchy is the commander – in chief of the Armed Forces

NB:  The prime minister appoints while the monarch approves the appointments.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

K.C.S.E  2010

MARKING SCHEME

HISTORY PAPER 2

SECTION A (25 marks)

 

  1. State the scientific theory that explains the origin of human beings.

– The Evolution theory/Darwin                                                                            1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

  1. State two uses of stone tools by early people during the Old Stone Age period.
  2. i) For skinning animals after hunting.
  3. ii) For digging uproots

iii) For cutting meat

  1. iv) For sharpening one/wood
  2. v) For scraping animals skins/softening
  3. vi) For killing animals during hunting

vii) For protecting/defence                                                                      any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

 

  1. Identify the method used to plant cereal crops when early agriculture began.

– The broadcasting method                                                                      1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

  1. Name two metals that were used as currency in pre-colonial Africa.
  2. i) Iron
  3. ii) Gold

iii) Copper

  1. iv) Silver
  2. v) Bronze

 

  1. State one advantage of using the pipeline over vehicles in transporting oil.
  2. i) The pipeline delivers oil faster than vehicles.
  3. ii) It is safer to transport oil by pipeline than vehicles

iii)       The pipeline ensures regular/continuous supply of oil to required areas/depots.

  1. iv) It is easier to maintain the pipeline than vehicles. 1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

  1. Give the two main items of the Trans-Saharan trade.
  2. i) Gold
  3. ii) Salt

 

  1. Give tow social functions of the ancient city of Athens in Greece.
  2. i) It was a cultural centre/music/art/theatre
  3. ii) It was an educational centre

iii)       It was a sports centre

  1. iv) It was a religious centre Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

 

 

  1. Name any chartered company that was used to administer Tanganyika during the process of colonisation.

– The German East Africa Company                                                                   1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

  1. Which was the main factor that unified the communities of the Shona Kingdom during the pre-colonial period?

– The Mwari religious cult/Mlimo/religion                                                         1 x 1= 1 mark

 

  1. State two functions of the Lukiko in Buganda Kingdom during the 19th Century.
  2. i) It advised the Kabaka.
  3. ii) It represented the wishes of the people.

iii) It assisted in settling disputes/acted as final court of appeal.

  1. iv) It directed the collection of taxes/how the wealth of the kingdom would be spent.
  2. v) It was the law formulating body in the Kingdom.
  3. vi) It assisted/no general/administration Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

 

  1. Give one economic reason which made European Countries to scramble for colonies in Africa.
  2. i) To obtain raw materials for the industries.
  3. ii) To search for markets for the manufactured goods.

iii)       To acquire areas to invest their surplus capital                           Any 1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

  1. State one way in which the Ndebele benefited after the British-Ndebele War of 1893 to 1896.
  2. i) The Ndebele Indunas were made headmen.
  3. ii) The Shona police were removes from Matebeleland. Any 1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

  1. Identify two economic results of the First World War.
  2. i) European governments spent huge sums of money.
  3. ii) There was massive destruction of property.

iii)       It led to economic depression/employment/starvation/unemployment.Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

 

  1. Give two principal organs of the United Nations.
  2. i) The General Assembly
  3. ii) The Security Council

iii)       The Economic and Social Council

  1. iv) The Secretariat
  2. v) The Trusteeship Council
  3. vi) The international Court of Justice Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

 

  1. Identify two ways in which Mwalimu Julius Nyerere promoted the development of Education in Tanzania after independence.
  2. i) He established the universities of Dar-es-Salaam and Sokoine
  3. ii) He made Kiswahili the medium of instruction in schools.

iii)       He made education to be free and compulsory from primary school to university.

  1. iv) He popularized the philosophy of “Education for self reliance”
  2. v) He introduced Adult education.         Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

 

  1. 16. State one condition that a country should fulfill in order to become a member of the Non-aligned Movement.
  2. i) A country should be independent.
  3. ii) A country should not be a member of either NATO or WARSAW pact military.

 

  1. Identify one parliamentary duty of the Monarch in Britain.
  2. i) Summons parliament after a general election.
  3. ii) Prologues parliament

iii) Dissolves parliament

  1. iv) Assents bills of parliament
  2. v) Nominates members to the House of Lords.                                     Any 1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

SECTION B = (45 marks)

  1. a) State five reasons why early people domesticated crops and animals during the Neolithic period.
  2. i) Due to increased Human population more food was required.
  3. ii) There was competition for food between human beings and animals.

iii) Over hunting developed stocks of animal on which human beings relied on for food.

  1. iv) Hunting and gathering had become tiresome/insecure.
  2. v) Calamities such as bush fire/floods destroyed vegetation/drove away animals.
  3. vi) Some crops and animals had economic value.

vii) Animals were domesticated to provide security.

viii) There was a change in climate which caused aridity/weather sometimes hindered gathering and hunting.                                                                                         Any 5 x 1 = 5 marks

 

  1. b) Explain five causes of food shortages to Africa today.
  2. i) Many parts of Africa experience little or no rain at all over several years leading to crop failure and hence food shortages/natural hazards.
  3. ii) The rapid population growth rate has overtaken food production rate resulting into food shortages.

iii)       Inadequate/food storage facilities had contributed to food wastages as farmers cannot store store food for a long period.

  1. iv) Poor state of roads in many African countries hinders transportation of food from the areas of surplus to those of deficit.
  2. v) Low prices of food stuff has discouraged many farmers who may have invested so much capital leading to food shortages.
  3. vi) Many farmers in Africa lack enough capital to buy required farm inputs.

vii) Due to crop diseases and pest, a lot of food is destroyed either on the farms or in stores resulting to food shortages.

viii) The emphasis on cash crop farming at the expense of food crops has contributed to low food production leading to food shortages.

  1. ix) Environmental degradation through deforestation/overgrazing of animals had led to soil erosion leading to wasteland, hence low food production/desertification.
  2. x) Civil wars in many African countries have displaced people from their farms and therefore diverted their attention from farming resulting in food shortages.
  3. xi) Poor food policies have discouraged farmers as they are not given enough incentives incase of crop failure/poor economic planning.

xii) The young-able bodied persons migrate to urban centres thus leaving farming to the aged who are not able to contribute much towards food production.

xiii) HIV and AIDS pandemic has impacted negatively on the labour force in food production.

xiv) Poor land tenure system/land fragmentation has reduced the acreage that would have been used for production scarcity.

  1. xv) Over reliance/dependence on famine relief food/other forms of aid has made people not to look for permanent solutions to food shortages.

xvi) Lack of modern farming methods her led to low food production. Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

 

  1. a) Give three problems faced by factory workers in Europe during the industrial revolution.
  2. i) They were paid low wages/salaries
  3. ii) They worked for long hours

iii) They were exposed to accidents

  1. iv) Accidents victims were laid off without compensation.
  2. v) Inadequate housing made them live in slums.
  3. vi) They suffered from diseases due to poor sanitation/pollution.        Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks

 

  1. b) Explain six factors that have promoted industrialization in South Africa.
  2. i) The availability of many sources of energy to provide the required power of industrialization.
  3. ii) The existence of varied mineral resources to sustain the process of industrialization.

iii) The presence of well developed transport network/infrastructure to facilitate the movement of raw materials and finished industrial goods to the market.

  1. iv) The availability of both internal and external markets for their manufactured goods.
  2. v) The availability of both skilled and unskilled manpower required for industrialization.
  3. vi) The availability of capital generated from South Africa trade in other goods has enabled her to set up industries.

vii) The government’s sound industrial policies which encouraged both local and foreign investors to boost industrialization.

viii) The high quality of goods has led to increased demand for South Africans manufactured goods.

  1. ix) The political instability in the country since the end of apartehid era has created a conducive environment

for industrial development.                                                                Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

  1. a) Give three methods used by European powers to establish colonial rule in Africa.
  2. i) Military conquest/expenditions
  3. ii) They signed treaties/agreements with African rulers/diplomacy/collaboration

iii)       Deception/treachery/luring Africans with European goods.

  1. iv) Chartered trading companies
  2. v) Playing off communities against each other in order to weaken.

 

  1. b) Explain results of the collaboration between the Buganda Agreements of 1900.
  2. i) It led to the loss of independence.
  3. ii) Introduction of Christianity and European influence in buganda.

iii) Islamic influence declined.

  1. iv) Buganda got protection from the British against their traditional economic e.g Bunyoro.
  2. v) Kabakas power were reduced in the peace of the growing educated member of the Lukiko.
  3. vi) Kabaka gained recognition and was referred to as his luglilness.

vii) Buganda an administration position in the colonial administration and was used to conquer other communities.

viii) Buganda advanced more economically than other communities as it acquired European manufactured goods e.g cloth, guns.

  1. ix) Buganda benefited from Western Education and medicine. Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

  1. a) State three ways used by nationalists in ghana to fight for independence.
  2. i) They formed political parties.
  3. ii) They used boycotts/demonstrations/strikes/go-slows.

iii)       They organized political rallies to mobilise mass support.

  1. iv) They used newspapers to articulate their views.
  2. v) They used the legislative council
  3. vi) They composed songs/poems to attack colonialism.

vii) They used trade unions.

viii) They used international forum.                                                        Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks

 

  1. b) Explain six factors that led to the development of African Nationalism in Ghana.
  2. i) Inadequate African representation in the Legislative council based discontent among the Ghanaians.
  3. ii) Loss of powers by the traditional African chiefs created discontent against the colonial government.

iii) The need to guard against possible land alienation by the British united the Africans.

  1. iv) Introduction of taxation by the colonial government was resented by Ghanaians.
  2. v) The meagre earnings by Africans from the sale of cocoa to Europeans created discontent among them.
  3. vi) The order by the colonial government that farmers uproot their crops due to prevalence of the “swollen shoot” disease upset them.

vii) Then involvement of the ex-servicemen in the Second World War inspired them to fight for their independence.

viii) The attainment of independence by India/Pakistan in 1947 encouraged the Ghanaians to demand for their right to govern themselves.

  1. ix) The existence of young educated Ghanaians who had understood the ideals of democracy/freedom who inspired the masses towards a worthy cause.
  2. x) High rate of unemployment among the Africans created resentment/discontent.
  3. xi) The United Nations Charter’s declaration of the importance of political independence for all people inspired the Ghanaians and other leaders.

xii) The charismatic leadership provided by Kwame Nkrumah united the people in their struggle against colonial domination.

xiii) The selective granting of trading licenses to Europeans traders while denying the same to the Africans created discontent.       Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

      SECTION C (30 Marks)

  1. a) Give three conditions which one had to fulfil in order to become a French Citizen in Senegal.
  2. i) Literate/able to read and write in French.
  3. ii) Able to speak in French

iii)  Be a Christian

  1. iv) One must have worked in the French Civil service/be loyal in the French government/military service.
  2. v) Practice monogamy                                                                            Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks

 

  1. b) Explain six differences between the use of British indirect rule and the French assimilation policy.
  2. i) The British used traditional rulers as chiefs while the French appointed assimilated whereas chiefs to become chiefs.
  3. ii) African traditional rulers under British rule retained most of their powers whereas chiefs under French rule had limited powers.

iii) British colonies were administered as separate territories while French colonies were administered as provinces of France.

  1. iv) Most French administrators were represented in the French Chamber of Deputies in France while in British colonies Laws wee made by the Colonial Legislative Assemblies.
  2. v) Africans in French colonies were military officers while the British administrators were both as provinces and non-professionals.
  3. vi) Laws used to govern French colonies were made in the chamber of Deputies in France while British colonies Laws were made by the Colonial Legislative Assemblies.

vii) Assimilated Africans in French colonies became full French citizens while in the British colonies, educated Africans remained colonial subjects.

viii) British indirect rule preserved African cultures while assimilation undermined African culture.                                                                                                                                  Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

  1. a) State the role played by United States of America in ending the Second World War.
  2. i) The U.S.A provided modern military equipment to the allied forces.
  3. ii) She gave financial support to the allied forces.

iii)       She provided military personnel to the allied powers.

  1. iv) S.A blockaded the Panama Canal against the central powers.
  2. v) She dropped atomic bombs at Horishoma and Nagasaki which forced Japan to surrender.

 

  1. b) Explain six causes of the Cold War after 1945.
  2. i) The disagreements between the Soviet Union and the United States of America over reduction of arms led to arms race.
  3. ii) The occupation of Eastern Europe by Soviet Union caused fear among U.S.A and its allies in Western Europe/Iron curtain policy by the USSR.

iii) The ideological differences pursued by the U.S.A and U.S.S.R created mistrust/suspicion among them leading to hostility.

  1. iv) The domination of United Nations by United States of America and her allies was checked by U.S.S.R through the use of her veto power thus increasing the tension.
  2. v) The involvement of both United States of America and U.S.S.R in European conflicts in the late 1940s created tension among them.
  3. vi) America’s Marshal plan to revive European economies after the war made U.S.S.R to counteract by arming a similar one/comical thus enhancing tension.

vii) Formation of military alliances/N.A.T.O by United States of America and her allies led to U.S.S.R and her allies to form a similar alliance/Warsaw pact thus intensifying the rivalry.

viii) Construction of the Berlin wall by U.S.S.R in Germany to block Western after the Second World War.                                                                                         Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

 

 

  1. a) Identify three duties performed by the Secretary General of the new East African Community established in 2001.
  2. i) Is the head of secretariat.
  3. ii) Authorizes expenditure on behalf of the members.

iii)       Is the secretary to the summit/take minutes

  1. iv) Keep records of the proceedings.
  2. v) Implements decisions adopted by East African Community Summit.
  3. vi) Prepares agenda for the meeting any 3 x 1 = 3 marks

 

  1. b) Explain six benefits of the new East African Community established in 2001 to its members.
  2. i) There is wider market for different types of goods produced by each member states.
  3. ii) The citizens of member states buy goods at fair prices due to low tariffs levied on goods.

iii) Opening of border closed establishing a common visa/East African passport has boosted free movement of people within the region.

  1. iv) The community provides a forum for heads of states to discuss issues harmoniously thus promoting mutual understanding/co-operation/friendship.
  2. v) There are employment opportunities for people of member countries in the established common services.
  3. vi) Establishment of the common market create room for enhanced economic development of member countries/spurs greater industrial growth.

vii) The member countries are working together towards establishing East African Federation in order to apply common laws.

viii) There is improvement in transport and communication network to facilitate the movement of people and goods.                                                                          Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HISTORY 2011

 

MARKING SCHEME PAPER 2

 

SECTION A (25marks)

 

1 Give two archaeological sources of information on History and Government.   (2marks)

  1. Tools/utensils/ornaments/onions used by man
  2. Weapons used by man
  • Settlements/ruins of the past/rock paintings
  1. Remains of human/animals
  2. Plant remains.
  3. Garments/ornaments
  • Coins used by man

Any 2×1 =2 marks

 

2Give two reasons that made early human beings to live in groups during the Stone Age

Period.                                                                                                            (2 marks)

  1. For companionship
  2. For security
  • To share resources
  1. To help one another Any 2×1 =2 marks

 

3          Identify two ways through which early agriculture spread in Africa.          (2 marks)

  1. Through migration
  2. Through trade
  • Through intermarriages
  1. Through wars

 

4          State two limitations of using animal transport.                                           (2 marks)

  1. Animal are affected by poor health/injuries/attacked by wild animals
  2. Rugged terrain/extreme weather conditions hampers the movement of animals
  • Animal transport has limited carrying capacity
  1. Animal transport is time consuming/slow
  2. Animal transport is cumbersome. Some animals are stubborn
  3. Animal transport is limited to day-time and not right time.

 

5          Why was silent trade practiced by Trans-Saharan traders? (Open)              (1 mark)

  • Due to language barrier/ lack of common language.

 

 

6Identify the main factor that led to the growth of an ancient town of Meroe.      (1 mark)

  • Existence of iron ore.

 

 

7What was the main function of the Council of elders among Africa societies during the

Pre-colonial period?                                                                                       (1 mark)

  • They mediated/settled disputes/made peace in the community.

 

8          State two social factors that led to the scramble for colonies in Africa by European

Powers.                                                                                                           (2 marks)

  1. The need to abolish slave trade
  2. The desire to spread Christianity/to protect missionaries
  • The desire to spread western civilian/education/western civilization
  1. The need to settle surplus population (any 2×1 = 2 marks)

 

9          Name one African country that was not colonized by the European powers. (1 mark)

  1. Ethiopia
  2. Liberia (any 1×1 =1 marks)

 

10        state two roles played by the African Chiefs in the British Colonial administration in

Nigeria.                                                                                                           (2 marks)

  1. They represented the colonial government at the local level
  2. They recruited labour for public works
  • They collected taxes for the colonial government
  1. They communicated colonial government policies to the people
  2. They tried/heard cases in the local courts (any 2×1 = 2 marks)

 

11        Name the chartered company that administered Zimbabwe during the process of

Colonization.                                                                                                  (1 mark)

  • The British South Africa Company (BSAC) (1 mark)

 

12        Give the main reason for the formation of the League of Nations in 1919. (1 mark)

  • To promote/sustain World peace/security. To prevent the occurrence of another war.(1 mark)

 

13        Give two economic reasons for the growth of African nationalism in Ghana. (2 marks)

  1. The order by the colonial government that Africans uproot cocoa trees affected by diseases
  2. The colonial government denied Africans trading licenses
  • African farmers earned low incomes from the sale of cocoa to European firms
  1. High unemployment rate for the Africans.
  2. Sharp increase in prices of goods. (any  2×1 = 2 marks)

 

14Outline two factors that enable Tanzania to maintain national unity since independence.

  1. Adherence to the policy of socialism (ujamaa)
  2. Application of the constitution
  • Use of Kiswahili as a national language
  1. Leadership that was willing to embrace changes. Good leadership.(any 2×1= 2 marks)

 

15        What is ‘veto power’ as used by the United Nation?                                    (1 mark)

  • A decision cannot be adopted if any of the permanent members of the Security Council votes against it. (1 mark)

 

16        Name one Major political party in the united state of America.      (1 mark)

  1. Republic party
  2. Democratic party (any 1×1 =1 mark)

 

17        Name one type of election held for the House of Common in Britain.        (1mark)

  1. General election
  2. By-election (any 1×1 = 1 mark)

 

SECTION B (45 marks)

 

Answer any THREE questions from this section in the answer booklet provide.

 

18        (a)       Give three physical characteristics of the Home erectus.                (3 marks)

 

  1. Had upright posture/bipedal
  2. Had protruding jaws
  • Was about 5 feet tall/1.5 m
  1. Had slopping forehead
  2. Had deep set eyes/deep eye sockets
  3. Had hairy body (any 3×1 = 3 marks)

 

(b)       Explain six cultural practices of Homo Sapiens during the New Stone Age

(12marks)

 

  1. Made microlithic tools which were small and more efficient that the earlier tools
  2. Lived in rock shelters/cave/hats to protect themselves from harsh weather/wild animals
  • Decorated shelters with animal paintings/hunting scenes
  1. Began to domesticate animals/plants in order to ensure regular food supply
  2. Developed speech which made communication easier
  3. Developed government by setting up rules/laws
  • Developed religion as evidence by the practice of burying the dead with their possessions
  • They practiced simple Art and Craft work/pottery/basketry/weaving
  1. They started a settle way of life where they established villages
  2. They were a variety of garments/ clothing
  3. They decorated their bodies with red ochre/wore orama (any 6×2 =12 marks)

19        (a)       state three disadvantages of coal as a source of energy.      (3 marks)

 

  1. Coal is bulky to transport
  2. Coal causes pollution
  • Mining of coal can lead to injuries/death
  1. It is a non-renewable source of energy
  2. Coal was expensive to mine and transport (any 3×1 = 3 marks)

 

(b)       Explain six effects of the scientific inventions on industry.             (12 marks)

 

  1. Machines have been improved which produce goods on a large scale
  2. Alternative sources of energy have been developed for use in industries
  • Invention of steam engine has improved transportation of raw materials to the industries/finished goods to the market
  1. The development of the printing press has enabled people to read and acquire knowledge/information about industrialization
  2. There has been loss of lives through industrial accidents
  3. Data processing/ storage has been improved by use of computers
  • Robots have been developed which have reduced over reliance on human labour/reduced labour costs.
  • Development of telecommunication has led to buying/selling of goods on the internet/e-commerce
  1. Research has enabled industries to recycle waste products in manufacturing usable goods

(Any 6×2 = 12 marks)

 

20        (a)       State three factors that contributed to the development of the Trans-Atlantic

Trade.                                                                                      (3 marks)

 

  1. Availability of trade items
  2. Demand for slaves in the New World
  • Availability of sailing ships
  1. The discovery of the compass
  2. Availability of fire arms
  3. Existence of trade routes/links (3×1 = 3 marks)

 

(b)       Explain six negative effects of Trans-Atlantic trade on African Communities.

(12 marks)

 

  1. There was increased instability/conflicts among communities as traders raided for slaves
  2. Many Africans lost their live during the slave raids
  • Traditional industries declined as Africans acquired a taste of European goods
  1. There was increased suffering among families as their loved ones were separated/sold to slavery
  2. Some kingdom declined due to continuous attacks from their neighbours in search of trading items
  3. There was destruction of property as communities raided each other for trade items
  • It contributed to the decline of the Trans-Sahara trade as many people found it more profitable
  • There was a decline in agricultural production as the able bodies people were taken away into slavery.
  1. There was serious depopulation in west and parts of Central Africa due to slave trade.
  2. Africans lost confidence in their who sold them to slave dealers
  3. The trade exposed W.A to new diseases
  • There was fear and insecurity due to frequent raids on African settlements
  • Weakened African communities could not resist colonial

(any 6×2 = 12 marks)

 

21        (a)       State three factors that enables European powers to colonise Africa in the late

19th Century.

 

  1. Disunity among African Communities
  2. Superior weapons used by European armies
  • Weak African communities due to wars/natural calamities
  1. Some communities collaborated with the Europeans
  2. African ignorance about Europeans intentions (any 3×1 = 3 marks)

 

 

(b)       Explain six effects of the partition of Africa on African communities.

 

  1. Africans lost independence as European established colonies
  2. African economies weakened by the European exploitation of the resources
  • The Africans system of government were replaced by European system
  1. Africans adopted European language which became official languages in the colonies
  2. Modern African state were created by the boundaries drawn during the partition
  3. Some African communities were split by the boundaries which were drawn during the partition
  • Africans lost land as Europeans established permanent settlements
  • Africans lost their lives/property as they resisted occupation
  1. African culture were undermined through the introduction of Western education/spread of Christianity/health
  2. Closer ties were forged between Africans and Europeans which created overdependence on Europe.
  3. Intensification of warfare among African community
  • Infrastructure was developed in ling major mini and Agricultural areas
  • Introduction of new policies e.g. forced labor

 

 

22        (a)       Give three functions of the Kabaka of Buganda Kingdom during the pre-colonial

Period.

 

  1. He was the Commander in-Chief of the armed forces
  2. Kabaka appointed/dismissed Saza chiefs/senior government official
  • He was head of traditional religion
  1. He was the head of judiciary/final court of appeal
  2. He awarded honours to officers who offered distinguished service/land as award

(any 3×1 =3 marks)

 

(b)       Describe the political organization of the Shona During the pre-colonial period.

  1. The shone were ruled by an emperor/King who had absolute authority over the subjects
  2. The emperor’s position was hereditary so as to reduce succession dispute
  • The emperor was assisted in the administration by the queen mother, the queen sister, army commander, head drummer, head door keeper or head cook
  1. There was an advisory council whose work was to advise the emperor
  2. The empire was divided into provinces which were headed by Provincial/lesser kings
  3. The provinces were divided into Chiefdoms ruled by chief
  • Under the chief were headmen who were in charge of the villages
  • The empire had a standing army whose main duty was to defend/expand the empire
  1. The king/Emperor was symbol of unity as he was semi-divine
  2. There existed priests who acted as spies for the emperor/king (any 6×2 = 12 marks)

 

23        (a)       Identify five ways through which the United Nations (U.N) promotes good

Governance in the world.                                                       (5 marks)

 

  1. Send observers to monitor national elections in various states
  2. Provides financial/logistical assistance to countries during national elections
  • Helped countries to attain independence/establish democratic government
  1. Sends peace keeping forces to war torn countries
  2. Ensures representation of member states in the general Assembly
  3. Arbitrates disputes between countries/warring groups.
  • Monitors/condemns violation of human rights (any 5×1 = 5 marks)

 

(b)       Explain five achievements of the Non-aligned movement (NAM) since its

Formation.                                                                              (10 marks)

 

  1. Provided a platform where member countries would speak with one voice in international for a
  2. He encouraged member countries to articulate their national interests before those of the super power
  • Enables the member countries to exert their voting power/influence in world affairs
  1. Hastened the attainment of independence to those countries that were still under colonial rule
  2. Has promoted peace/security by encouraging member countries to observe neutrality in super power conflicts
  3. Has played a key role in disarmament by condemning the arms race.
  • Has promoted the creation of a new international economic order by encouraging member countries to trade with any of the two super power blocs/financial assistance from each power bloc
  • Has given funds to the needy countries through a fund, created to address demanding circumstances. (any 5×2 = 10 marks)

 

24        (a)       State three objectives for the formation of Common Market for Eastern and

Southern Africa (COMESA)                                                  (3 marks)

 

  1. To cooperate in creating a conducive environment for foreign/cross border/domestic investment
  2. To cooperate in the promotion of peace/security/stability among member states
  • To strengthen relations between COMESA members and the rest of the world/adopt a common position in international for a
  1. To cooperate in realizing the objectives of the African economics community
  2. To promote a more balanced/harmonious development of its production/marketing structures
  3. To promote joint development in all economic fields in order to raise the living standards of the people. (any 3×1 = 3 marks)

 

(b)       Explain six challenges facing the Common Market for Eastern and Southern

Africa. (COMESA)                                                                            (12 marks)

 

  1. Poor transport network has hampered movement of goods/services between member states
  2. The member countries produce similar goods thus limiting the market
  • Some member countries belong to other regional economic blocks/hence not fully committed to COMESA
  1. Civil wars in some members states hamper smooth flow of goods due to insecurity hence lowering the volume of trade
  2. Border disputes among some members states make it difficult for them to cooperate
  3. Some members states prefer trading with their former colonial masters thus posing stiff competition to products from COMESA region
  • Failure of some member states to harmonize tariffs has undermined free flow of goods/services
  • Withdrawal of some members’ states has undermined the planning/financial of COMESA operations.
  1. Member states pursue their national interests thereby working against the objectives of COMESA
  2. Personality differences btw leaders e.g. museveni and Al-Bashir
  3. Quarrels over trading rights under COMESA Egypt and Kenya.
  • Natural calamities e.g. draughts, floods leading to massive food shortages and famine.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HISTORY & GOVERNMENT

 PAPER 2 2012 MARKING SCHEME

 

  1. Identify one type of artifact that is likely to be found in an archeological site                                                                                                                         (1mark)
  • Tools
  • Weapons
  • Pottery
  • Garments
  • Coins (any 1×1=1mark)
  1. Name one source of information on the Creation Theory of man.
  • The Bible
  • The Koran

 

  1. State two ways in which the Sumerians in Mesopotamia reclaimed land for agriculture
  • They built banks/dykes along rivers to stop flooding.
  • They dug ditches to drain water from swamps.
  • They used canals to irrigate the land.
  • They used the shadoof to draw water to irrigate the land.Any 2
  1. Give the main form of transport that was used in the Trans-Saharan trade,

(i)       Animal transport/Carmel/ horse                       1 x 1=1 mark

  1. Name two groups of people that were involved in the Trans-Atlantic trade.
  • The Europeans
  • The Africans
  • The Americans.                         1 x 1 = 1 mark

 

 

  1. State two negative effects of the development of motor vehicle transport:

– It causes traffic jams especially in urban areas;

– It contributes to environmental pollution;

– It damages roads;

– It causes accidents leading to loss of lives/injuries

Any 2×1=2 marks

  1. Give two inventions that revolutionalized the textile industry in Britain during the 18th Century.                                                                          (2 marks)

(i)        The flying shuttle by John Kay

(ii)       The spinning jenny – James

(iii)      The water frame; – Richard Arkwright

(iv)      The spinning mule – Samuel Criton

(v)        The power loom; – Edmund cartright

(vi)      The cotton gin – Eli witney

(vii)     Sylindrical calico printing machine by Thomas bell     Any 2×1=2 marks

 

  1. Identify the main factor that contributed to the growth of Athens in Ancient Greece,

(i)      Trade/ commercial activities.

 

  1. State two European activities in Africa before 1850

 

  • They were involved in trade.
  • They were spreading Christianity.
  • They were involved in exploration.
  • They were involved in spreading Western

Any 2 x1 = 2 marks

  1. State one way in which African collaboration with the Europeans hastened colonization in Africa.

(1mark)

  • It encouraged Europeans to settle on African land/loss of African land.
  • It created disunity among Africans.
  • It assisted the Europeans in conquering other communities.
  • It assisted/enabled Europeans to establish their control/entrench themselves.

Any 1×1 = 1 mark

  1. Give the main reason why the European powers held Berlin conference of 1884 to                                                                 (1 mark)

– To discuss how to partition/share/divide Africa among themselves.

1×1 = 1 mark

  1. State one way in which the rise of dictators in Europe contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.                                                                       (1 mark)

 

  • They overthrew democratic government
  • They rearmed themselves.
  • They engaged. In acts of aggression/attacked other countries.

Any 1 x 1= 1 mark

  1. Give two economic benefits enjoyed by the members of the commonwealth.(2 marks)
  • Favourable trading opportunities to members.
  • Financial assistance given to the poor nations.
  • Technical/research assistance to member countries.
  • Support for youth programmes/projects for development.

Any 2×1=2 marks

  1. Give the main reason why the Pan African movement was formed at the beginning of the 20th(1 mark)

-To unite peoples of African descent.                                                1×1=1 mark

  1. Name one financial institution established by the African Union.(1 mark)
  • The African Monetary Fund
  • The African Central Bank
  • The African Investment Bank

Any 1×1 = 1 mark

  1. Identify two factors which have undermined the exploitation of mineral resources in the Democratic Republic of Congo since independence.(2 marks)
  • Civil war in the country;
  • Shortage of labour due to displacement of people;
  • Smuggling of minerals;
  • Political interference by neighbouring states;
  • Poor transport network.

Any 2×1=2 marks

 

17State two ways in which poor transport has slowed down economic      development in Tanzania since independence.                        (2marks)

(i)      It has made transportation of goods/services difficult

  1. ii) It has hindered exploitation of some resources;

iii)     It has slowed down the movement of labour;

  1. iv) It has increased the cost of transport.

 

 

                                                    SECTION B (45 marks)

18 (a)      State three disadvantages of hunting as an economic activity of the early man.

(3 marks)

 

  1. i) It is difficult to locate/spot the animals
  2. ii) Animals are a threat/dangerous to humans;

iii)     It requires many people;

  1. iv) Hunting is time consuming;
  2. v) It is tiresome/cumbersome;
  3. vi) Animals run faster than man.

Any 3×1=3 marks

 

(b)     Explain six benefits of settling in villages during the late stone age period.                                                                                                                               (12 marks)

  1. i) There was security as people could protect themselves against enemies.

ii)Living as a large group enabled people to work together hence accomplishing tasks with ease.

iii)Settling in villages assured man of permanent dwelling thereby reducing movement.

iv)Man began growing crops thereby ensuring regular food supply.

v)Man domesticated animals which provided animal products thereby reducing his    hunting            activities.

vi)Living in villages promoted interactions thereby increasing social cohesion/sharing of ideas

vii)People were able to exchange goods/services hence getting what they did not have.

viii)It enabled them to build better shelter thereby protecting themselves from harsh           weather conditions.

Any 6×2= 12 marks

 

  1. (a) Give three uses of wind as a source of energy in ancient times. (3 marks)

 

  • To winnow grains;
  • To drive/turn wind mills;
  • To propel boats/sailing ships;
  • To drive water pumps;
  • To dry grains Any 3×1=3 marks

 

(b)     Explain six effects of iron working technology on African communities before the

19th Century.                                                                                      (12 marks)

  1. i) The use of iron tools made cultivation of the land easier/faster as they were                more efficient.
  2. ii) Iron tools were used to clear forests thereby enabling people to migrate/settle in new

iii)     Iron weapons were used to fight other communities thereby increasing                            warfare/ conflicts.

  1. iv) It led to the rise of professional smiths who were accorded high status in the community
  2. v) The demand for iron tools enhanced trade between communities.
  3. vi) Communities were able to protect themselves better usingiron we were

directive.

  • Powerful states emerged as iron weapons were used to conquer/annex weaker communities/territories
  • Iron implements were used as a medium of exchange thereby facilitating trade
  1. x) The use of iron tools/implements led to increased food production. Since                more land was brought under cultivation
  • Has led to development of towns eg Meroe.
  1. (a) State live economic activities of the Asante during the 19th Century.
  • They grew crops for food/trade;
  • They carried out trade among themselves/other groups.
  • They were involved in mining;
  • They practiced Art and crafts/basketry/weaving
  • They practised iron working/black smithing;
  • They did hunting/gathering;
  • They practiced pottery making. Any 6 x 2= 12 marks

 

(b)          Describe the social organization of the Buganda Kingdom during the pre-colonial period.                                                                                                 (10 marks)

 

  • They were organized into clans which had their own traditions/customs. .
  • They worshipped many gods with Katonda as their supreme God /polytheism
  • The people highly regarded the Kabaka whom they considered to be semi-divine.
  • The people believed in life after death since they worshipped the spirits of the dead.
  • The umbilical cord/jaw bones of Kabaka were preserved for future remembrance.
  • The people performed sacrifices during the time of misfortune/fortunes.

vii)               They had symbols of royalty in form of royal drums/spears/crowns which were kept at the Kabaka’s

viii)        They had religious shrines which were scattered all over the Kingdom.

  1. ix) They were polygamous /married many wives in order to strengthen social relations.

 

  1. a) Outline five grievances by Africans against apartheid in South Africa.
  2. i) Africans were not allowed to vote for black representatives in government.
  3. ii) They were prohibited from living in urban areas/sharing facilities with whites.

iii)          The pass laws restricted African movement.

  1. iv) They were confined into Bantustans/reserves.
  2. v) The labour laws denied them equal employment opportunities.
  3. vi) Low quality education prepared them for only low cadre jobs.

vii)         The Land Acts gave whites exclusive rights over land.

Any 5×1=5 marks

 

  1. b) Explain five challenges faced by African nationalist in their struggle for a majority rule      in South Africa
  2. i) some nationalist were arrested/detained which crippled their activities thereby slowing down the struggle

(ii)         The political parties were banned by the government making it difficult for the          nationalists to coordinate their activities.

(iii)        The nationalists were not united, creatingtension among themselvesthus hampering         their struggle less effective.

(iv)         The government enacted pass laws which restricted movement thus hampering their             interactions.

(v)         They lacked adequate funds to finance the struggle thus slowing down their operations.

(vi)         They lacked press freedom making it difficult for them to spread their ideas.

(vii)       They lacked advanced weapons thereby making them less effective in their armed    struggle.

(viii)   They had different approaches in their struggle (moderated/radical wings) thus    creating a loophole which      was exploited by the government.

(ix)         Some nationalists were killed which led to low morale hence slowing down the

 

  1. a) Name three communes that were established by the French in Senegal during the colonial period.

(i)         St Louis

(ii)       Goree’

(iii)       Rufisque

(iv)       Dakar

Any 3×1=3 marks

 

  1. b) Describe the structure of the British colonial administration in Northern Africa.                                                                                                                          (12 marks)

(i)         The colonial secretary was based in London

(ii)         Under the colonial secretary was the governor who was in-charge of the

administration of the colony.

(iii)        The colony was divided into provinces headed by a Resident/Provincial

Cornrnissioner who co-ordinated administration in the provinces.

 

(iv)         The provinces were further subdivided into districts headed by District officers who      were answerable to the Provincial Commissioner/Resident.

(v)          Districts were sub-divided into locations/Emirates headed by the Chiefs/Emirs

(vi)         There were headmen who were in-charge of the villages and assisted the Emirs in             matters of administration.

(vii)       Both the Resident/Provincial Commissioner and the District Officers were British.

(viii)      Each province had a protectorate Court of Appeal which was presided over by the     Resident.                                                                                 Any 6×2= 12 marks

  1. (a) Name three permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.                                                                                                                    (3 marks)

(i) France

(ii) China

iii) Russia

(iv) Britain/United Kingdom

(v) United States of America

Any 3×1=3 marks

 

(b)      Explain six ways in which the United Nations provides humanitarian assistance.

(12 marks)

(i)          It assists refugees / displaced persons with clothes in order to preserve human dignity.

(ii)         It assists in resettling displaced persons by negotiating for their resettlement in safe    areas.

(iii)        It provides relief food in drought stricken areas in order to avert loss of lives.

(iv)      It provides medical supplies to the victims of war/other calamities so as to restore    human health.

(v)         It provides shelter to the deserving cases by building houses/giving materials for   construction.

(vi)         It provides education to vulnerable groups in order to promote literacy.

(vii)       It assists in evacuating people affected by flood to safer grounds to avert suffering.

(viii)      It protects refugees by ensuring their respect/observance of basic human rights.

Any 6×2 =12 marks

  1. (a) Identify three categories of members of the Executive in the United States of America.                                                                                 (3 marks)

(i)           The President.

(ii)         The Vice-President.

(iii)        The Cabinet.

(iv)         The Civil Service.                                                      Any 3×1=3 marks

 

  1. b) Describe six functions of the Federal Government of the United States of America

(i)      It handles foreign policy matters which affects her relationship with other      governments or world.

(ii)     It vindicates/arbitrates disputes involving different states of the union with the view       of         reaching an amicable solution.

 

 

 

(iii)        It conducts/regulates trade/commerce between Federal states/foreign nations.

 

(iv)         It is in charge of the national defense of federal states against external aggression.

(v)          It establishes federal courts which administers justice in the states of the union.

(vi)         It levies/collects taxes in various federal states.

(vii)       It can declare war with foreign government with approval by the congress.

(viii)      It makes/issues currency/regulates its value.

(ix)         It pays foreign debt owed to other nations .

(x)          It enacts legislation which governs the federation.

                                                                                                   Any 6×2=12 marks

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HISTORY & GOVERNMENT

 

Paper 2 (311/2) 2013

SECTION A (25 MARKS)

 

Answer ALL the questions in this section

 

  1. Give the relationship between “History” and “Government”. (1 mark)

History is the study of man’s past activities while Government is the study of how people are

governed.

1 x 1 =1 mark

  1. Name two types of dwellings used by the early man during the Early Stone Age period.

(2 marks)

(i) Rock shelters;

(ii) Tree trunks;

(iii) On trees;

(iv) Caves/stone caves.

(v) In forest                                                                                Any 2 x 1 =2 marks

 

  1. Give two inventions that led to the Agrarian Revolution in Britain. (2 marks)

(i) The seed drill by Jethro Tull;

(ii) The horse-drawn hoe by Jethro Tull;

(iii) Selective breeding of livestock by Robert Bakewell;

(iv) Introduction of fertilizer by Sir John Lawes;

(v) Mechanical thresher by Andrew Melkel;

(vi) Mechanical reaper by Patrick Bell.                                                Any 2 x 1 =2 marks

  1. For marking purposes, the candidate will get right at the mention of the invention

without the inventor.

 

  1. State one theory of origin about the knowledge of iron working in Africa. (1 mark)

(i) It spread to North Africa from the Middle East/diffusion/one area theory;

(ii) It developed independently in different parts of Africa/independent theory.

1 x 1 = 1 mark

  1. Identify the earliest method of trade used during the Trans-Saharan Trade. (1 mark)

Barter trade.                                                                                            1 x 1 =1 mark

 

  1. State two ways in which Africans participated in the Trans-Atlantic Trade. (2 marks)

(i) They acted as middlemen between Europeans merchants and interior communities;

(ii) They acquired /raided slaves;

(iii) Rulers sold their own subjects/they were sold as slaves;

(iv) They marched slaves to the coast;

(v) They transported trade items to the coast.                                       Any 2 x 1  =2 marks

 

  1. Identify two modern means of print media. (2 marks)

(i) Newspapers;    (vi) Brochures;

(ii) Magazines;    (vii) Braille

(iii) Journals;    (viii) Posters

(iv) Periodicals;    (ix) Pamphlets

(v) Books;

Any 2 x 1  =2 marks

 

  1. State the main factor that led to the growth of ancient town of Kilwa. (1 mark)

–  Its control of Sofala gold trade/ trade in gold.                                   1 x 1  =  1 mark

  1. Give one reason why the Golden Stool was important in the Asante Empire: (1 mark)

(i) It was a symbol/source of unity among the states.

(ii) It was considered sacred.                                                                1 x 1  = 1 mark

 

  1. Apart from an empire, name one other type of government that existed in Africa during the

pre-colonial period.                                                                                              (1 mark)

(i) The Kingdoms/monarchy;

(ii) The Chiefdoms/chieftain;

(iii) The Council of elders.

1 x 1  = 1 mark

 

  1. State two ways in which Chief Lewanika of the Lozi collaborated with the British in the

late 19th Century.                                                                                                (2 marks)

(i) He allowed Christian missionaries to settle/operate in his territory;

(ii) He allowed the British to exploit minerals in his land;

(iii) He accepted the British protection over his territory;

(iv) He allowed a British resident to perform administrative duties in the area.

Any 2 x 1  = 2 marks

 

  1. Name one African Community that took part in the Maji Maji uprising between 1905

and 1907.                                                                                                  (1 mark)

(i) Ngindo;    (vi) Luguru;

(ii) Matumbi;    (vii) Zaramo;

(iii) Pogoro;    (viii) Bena;

(iv) Ngoni;     (ix) Ndendeule.

(v) Mpunga;    (x) Wamera

1 x 1  = 1 mark

 

  1. Outline two roles played by the ex-war soldiers in the growth of African Nationalism

after 1945.                                                                                                             (2 marks)

(i) They applied military skills/tactics acquired to fight colonialism;

(ii) They trained African Nationalists in military fighting skills;

(iii) They joined/formed Nationalist movement;

(iv) They organised/mobilised African Nationalists;

(v) They made/serviced the weapons used by the Nationalists.

Any 2 x 1  = 2 marks

 

  1. Highlight one way in which economic rivalries between the European powers contributed

to the outbreak of the First World War.                                                              (1 mark)

(i) Competition for overseas market caused tension/friction;

(ii) Competition for sources of raw materials/colonies fuelled tension;

(iii) Tariff wars among them created tension / suspicion.

(iv) Competition for surplus capital.                                                   1 x 1  = 1 mark

 

  1. Give the main incident which made Japan to surrender unconditionally to the allied powers

in1945.                                                                                                                 (1 mark)

–  The dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

1 x 1 = 1 mark

  1. State two factors which promote economic relations between nations. (2 marks)

(i) Loans given to other nations;

(ii) Offering grants/aid to other nations;

(iii) Trading activities between nations;

(iv) Investments in foreign nations;

(v) Debt relief to other nations.                                               Any 2 x 1  = 2 marks

 

  1. State two ways in which non-aligned members safeguard their national security. (2 marks)

(i) By keeping off from conflicts of non-member countries;

(ii) By maintaining their sovereignty/independence;

(iii) By maintaining their economic independence;

(iv) By not identifying with either Communism or Capitalism;

(v) By taking independent decisions/actions in international fora;

(vi) By maintaining their cultural identity.

(vii) By not joining military alliances.    Any 2 x 1  = 2 marks

 

SECTION B (45 MArKS) – Answer three questions

 

18.(a) Give five reasons why hunting of wild animals was mainly a group activity during the

Stone  Age period.                                                                                           (5 marks)

(i) Wild animals are dangerous/could kill people;

(ii) They could surround the animals;

(iii) Spotting/locating the animal was easier;

(iv) Less time was taken to catch the animals;

(v) To give moral encouragement/team spirit;

(vi) They could catch more animals.                                    Any 5 x 1  = 5 marks

 

(b) Describe five ways in which the development of the upright posture improved the early

man’s way of life.                                                                                             (10 marks)

(i) The early man was able to move/walk/run faster with long strides;

(ii) Man could use the hands to carry out farming activities;

(iii) Man could use the hands to grasp items conveniently;

(iv) Man could spot/sight the animals/wild fruits which he used to hunt/gather from far

distances;

(v) Man could see the impending danger from a distance and take appropriate measures;

(vi) Man used hands to make tools/ weapons which were used for different purposes.

(vii) Man used the hands to defend himself/attack the enemies.

(viii) Man used the hands to perform/carry out domestic chores/young ones.

Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

 

19.(a) What were the uses of coal during the Industrial Revolution in Europe. (5 marks)

(i) To drive steam engines;

(ii) To provide lighting;

(iii) To heat water;

(iv) To drive locomotives;

(v) To manufacture dyes/pharmaceutical products/raw materials in industries;

(vi) To produce coke.                                                                        Any 5 x 1  = 5 marks

 

(b) Explain five effects of scientific inventions on medicine.                               (10 marks)

Positive effects

(i) Through medical researches/experiments terminal diseases which used to kill/disfigure

people have been reduced/eradicated;

(ii) Advancement in medical science has helped to reduce suffering/ to relieve people

from pain;

(iii) It has made surgical operations safer thereby reducing the number of people who die

during and after operations;

(iv) The invention of vaccines has helped to prevent/control the spread of diseases leading

to increased life expectancy;

(v) The technology of developing test tube babies has helped childless couples to have

children;

(vi) The inventions have made it possible for transplants of body parts such as heart, liver

and kidneys, thereby sustaining human life;

(vii) Advanced/sophisticated medical equipment which perform computer assisted surgery

have been developed.

(viii) It has led to job creation for medics/other workers who perform various duties in

health institutions;

(ix) It has led to the discovery /manufacture of drugs for treating/curing different diseases.

 

Negative effects

(x) It has led to loss of lives through abortion.

(xi) It has weakened the immune system due to overdependence of drugs/drug abuse.

(xii) Drugs are sometimes expensive and beyond reach of many people.

(xiii) Careless disposal of used medical products cause harm to human beings.

(xiv) Use of contraceptives has led to sexual immorality in the society.

Any 5 x 2  = 10  marks

20.(a) Outline five European activities in Africa during the 19th century.   (5 marks)

(i) Were involved in trade;

(ii) Were spreading Christianity;

(iii) Were involved in exploration;

(iv) Were establishing settlements;

(v) Were signing imperial treaties/establishing colonial rule;

(vi) Were mining;

(vii) Were involved in farming.

(viii) Were involved in stamping out slave trade.

(ix) Were involved in spreading Western education.

(x) Were involved in establishing health facilities.

Any 5 x 1  = 5 marks

(b) Explain five effects of the Mandinka resistance against the French invasion in the late

19th century.          (10 marks)

(i) Many lives were lost due to the protracted war between the two groups;

(ii) There was destruction of property as the Mandinka applied scorched earth policy

during the war;

(iii) The Mandinka were defeated and hence subjected to French colonial rule/

loss of indepence;

(iv) The traditional institutions of the Mandinka were disrupted/weakened rendering them

ineffective in discharging their duties/functions/loss of leadership;

(v) The Mandinka experienced famine as most of the people were engaged in the war at

the expense of farming activities;

(vi) Many people were displaced by the war, thereby becoming refugees in the

neighbouring states;

(vii) The war created suffering /misery among the people leading to a state of despair;

(viii) Samore Toure was captured and deported to Gabon;

(ix) Disruption of economic activities eg. gold mining and trade;

(x) It laid down ground for African nationalism.

Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

 

21.(a) Identify five contributions made by Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana in promoting

Pan-Africanism.                                                                                              (5 marks)

(i) He attended Pan-African Conference in Manchester in 1945.

(ii) He organized/hosted Pan-African Conference in Accra in 1958.

(iii) He inspired African leaders to unite;

(iv) He encouraged the formation of nationalist movements;

(v) He co-ordinated plans to decolonize West African states/African states.

(vi) He supported black civil rights movement in the U.S.A;

(vii) He condemned European domination in Africa.

Any 5 x 1 = 5 marks

(b) Describe five factors undermining the activities of the African Union (AU) since its

formation  in 2001.                                                                                             (10 marks)

(i) Political instability/civil wars in many countries makes it difficult to execute some

of its programmes;

(ii) Border disputes between member countries creates disunity in the continent;

(iii) Lack of democracy in some countries has contributed to its inability to end human

rights abuses/violations;

(iv) Interference of African affairs by the developed countries undermines the union’s

effort  to implement its policies;

(v) Due to neo-colonialism, the members are more attached to their former colonial

masters at the expense of the union;

(vi) Ideological differences between some African states creates divisions within the

union thus making it difficult to reach at an agreement;

(vii) Lack of a standing army renders it ineffective in implementing decisions which call

for  military intervention;

(viii) National interests are given priority at the expense of the union’s interests;

(ix) Inadequate funds makes it difficult for the union to fulfil all its obligations;

(x) Divided loyalty;

(xi) Personality differences among African leaders.

Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

 

SECTION C (30 MArKS) – Any two questions

22.(a) State three similarities between the French and the British structure of administration

In Africa.                                                                                                         (3 marks)

(i) Both had a governor as the chief executive of the colony;

(ii) They had provinces as administrative units;

(iii) Both had districts as administrative units;

(iv) Both had locations as administrative units;

(v) They had sub-locations.

Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks

(b) Explain six problems experienced by the French administration in Senegal.

(12 marks)

(i) Communication/language barrier made it difficult for the administrators to be effective;

(ii) Poor transport network hampered their mobility thereby making it difficult to reach

certain areas.

(iii) Resistance by African traditional leaders created obstacles – fear for loss of their

positions.

(iv) The policy of assimilation required patience/was time consuming since some Africans

were reluctant to forsake their way of life;

(v) They faced hostility from Muslims who were opposed to French values which

embraced Christianity;

(vi) The appointed chiefs were undermined by their fellow Africans as they were viewed

as colonial agents;

(vii) They lacked adequate funds to sustain their operations.

(viii) Resistance by the French traders/businessmen – fear for competition from African

traders;

(ix) Resistance by the French parliamentarians – fear for competition of being

outnumbered in the Chamber of Deputies.

Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

23.(a) State three ways in which the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

promoted the education of Africans after independence.                             (3 marks)

(i) Education facilities were expanded/construction of schools;

(ii) More Africans were encouraged to join school;

(iii) The curriculum was revised to conform to the needs of the people/ provided

quality education;

(iv) The government established universities/tertiary institutions.

Any 3 x 1 = (3 marks)

(b) Explain the political challenges faced by the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

during the reign of Mobutu Sese Seko.        (12 marks)

(i) The banning of opposition political parties created a one party state which stifled

democracy in the country;

(ii) The dictatorial regime was introduced by replacing federal system with the central

government under his control;

(iii) Appointments based on loyalty/kinship in administration created disunity in the

country;

(iv) The stripping off parliament of its powers through constitutional amendments led to

the establishment of a totalitarian regime;

(v) The opposition to the government created uncertainty/tension in the country leading to

the arrests/harassment of opposition leaders;

(vi) The riots/demonstrations due to the civilians’ dissatisfaction with the regime caused

political tension/stability in the country;

(vii) Civil wars divided the country along tribal line hence compromising national unity;

(viii) Rebellion against the regime backed by external forces led to the overthrowing of

the government.

Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

24.(a) Identify three circumstances that may make a vice-president assume presidency in India.

(3 marks)

(i) When the sitting president dies;

(ii) If the president becomes incapacitated;

(iii) When the president resigns;

(iv) When the president is removed/impeached.

Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks

(b) Explain six functions of the president of India.                                       (12 marks)

(i) He/she dissolves/calls elections of the lower house of parliament/Lok Sabha/House of

the people;

(ii) The president assents/vetoes bills that have been passed by parliament;

(iii) The president is the commander in-chief of the armed forces;

(iv) The president appoints state governors/attorney general / supreme court judges;

(v) The president declares a state of emergency when national security is threatened;

(vi) The president appoints the prime minister on advice of parliament/He calls the leader

of the winning party to form government;

(vii) He/she is a symbol of national unity.

(viii) He establish special councils to arbitrate on inter state disputes.

(ix) He nominates 12 members to the Council of state/Upper House/Rajja Sabha.

(x) He is the leader of political party that nominates him for elections.

(xi) He pardons offenders.

(xii) He makes regulations for certain union territories.

Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

 

 

 

 

 

 

HISTORY PAPER 2

MARKING SCHEME 2014

 

  1. List two methods used by elders to pass information to the young generation

on history and Government in the traditional African Communities

  • Through proverbs
  • Through legends
  • Through stories/folk tales/narratives
  • Riddles
  • Myths
  • Dances (any 2×1=2mks)

 

  1. State two disadvantages of using caves as shelters by the early human beings

during the stone age period

  • They could collapse over them
  • Wild creatures could bite them
  • Human enemies could easily attack them
  • Caves were exposed to cold/wind/floods (any 2×1=2mks)

 

  1. State two negative effects of the land enclosure system in Britain during 18th Century
  • It displaced the poor people/landlessness
  • It forced the poor people to migrate to urban centres
  • It increased pauperism in Europe
  • Created immigration to other parts of the world  (any 2×1=2mks)

 

  1. Give the main reason why the cannel was preferred as the means of transport

during the trans-Saharan Trade.

  • It could withstand harsh desert conditions (1×1=1mark)

 

  1. Outline one role that twas played by the middlemen during the Trans-Atlantic Trade
  • They transported goods to and from the interior/porters
  • They obtained goods in the interior
  • They exchanged/traded with European traders at the coast                         (1×1=1mark)

 

  1. Give two benefits of the development of the railway transport in Europe during

the 19th century.

 

  • Goods/people could be transported with ease
  • It enabled trade to expand.
  • It led to the development of urban centres/towns
  • It promoted industrialization
  • It created employment opportunities.
  • It was a source of government revenue
  • It led to the exploitation of natural resources       (any 2×1=2mks)

 

 

  1. State two advantages of using fire and smoke signals to pass message in traditional socities

 

  • Message could only be understood by the communities using them.
  • They conveyed messages faster
  • It was a cheaper method of sending messages
  • Message could reach many people/visibility (any 2×1=2mks)

 

  1. State two ways in which the growth of the city of Cairo was influenced by the River Nile

 

  • It was used for transport
  • It provided water for domestic / industrial use
  • The Nile valley was fertile/Agriculture/irrigation               (any 2×1=2mks)

 

  1. Identify one symbol of unity in shona kingdom during the pre-colonial period

 

  • Mwene Mutapa/king /Emperor
  • The Royal fire                                                                                   (1×1=1mark)

 

  1. State one way in which the acquisition of fire arms enabled the king of Buganda to expand during the pre-colonial period

 

  • They were used to conquer/suppress neighbouring kingdoms/enemies
  • To protect the kingdom                                                                     (1×1=1mark)

 

  1. Name the leader of the Lozi who collaborated with the british in the late 19th Century

 

  • Lewanika                                                                                         (1×1=1mark)

 

  1. Identify two European activities in Africa during the 19th Century
  • Trading /legitimate trade
  • Spreading Christianity
  • Exploring
  • Establishing settlements
  • Establishing colonial rule/colonization
  • Establishing western education
  • Mining
  • Establishing western health facilities                                    (any 2×1=2mks)

13.Outline two similar methods used to recruit African labour in the British and French

Colonies in Africa.

  • Imposition of taxes on Africans;
  • They used chiefs to recruit labour;
  • They introduced forced labour. (any 2×1=2mks)

 

 

14.State one economic problem that was experienced by the British colonialists in

Nigeria.(1mark)

  • They lacked adequate funds;
  • Poor transport/communication undermined their work;
  • They lacked adequate skilled labour. ( any 1×1=1mark)

15.Name the political party that led Ghana to independence from Britain in 1957. (1mark)

  • The convention People’s Party(C.P.P)                                 (any 1×1=1mark)

 

16.Name the country that was blamed for the outbreak of the first world war.

-Germany                                                                                         (any 1×1=1mark)

17.Give the main reason why the United States of America adopted the marshall plan after the

second world war.                                                                                                        (1 mark)

 

-In order to influence many countries adopt capitalists ideology./Economic recovery

In Europe.                                                                                                   ( 1×1=1mark)

 

  1. (a) state three characteristics of microlithic tools used during the late stone age period
  • they were small in size
  • they were more efficient
  • They were crafted/fitted with handles/composit/halted
  • They were used to perform multiple tasks
  • They were sharp                                                             (any 3×1=3mks)

 

(b) Explain six challenges faced by early humans in hunting and gathering activities

  • attacks/injuries by animals discouraged them as it posted threats to their lives
  • scarcity of animals/fruits in some cases denied them regular supply of food
  • Unfavourable weather conditions made it difficult to carry out activities
  • Locating animals/fruits was difficult as it would involve large areas
  • It was time consuming as it involved chasing the animals for long distances.
  • Many people were required for the success of the activities
  • It was tedious as animals ran faster than human beings/wild fruits/roots could be found in far off areas.
  • Poisonous fruits/roots cold begathered leading to loss of life
  • Stiff competition with wild animals among human beings for food

(explained x2=12mks)

 

  1. (a) give three uses of electricity in Europe during the 19th century
  • driving machines in factories
  • providing light
  • heating/cooking
  • Powering locomotives/trains
  • Powering communication gadgets

(any 3×1=3mks)

(b) Explain six factors which promoted industrial revolution in india

  • the existence of mineral resources which were used as raw materials to establish industries
  • the existence of cottage industries /industrial base laid the foundation for industrial development as people had acquired relevant skills
  • the availability of funds/loans provided by foreign government enabled the country to setup industries
  • provision of technical / scientific education emphasized by the government produced skilled labour required in the
  • good transport communication system made transportation of goods / services easier/cheaper thereby encouraging investment.

 

  • The provision of credit facilities /loans to local investors facilitated expansion of industries(internal loans)
  • The development plans adopted by the government emphasized industrialization thereby giving impetus to the sector
  • The availability of various resources of energy required enabled the establishment of more industries
  • Political stability in the country gave people confidence to invest in industries
  • Availability of market for industrial goods provided by large population encouraged more people to venture in industrialization
  • Availability of external market trade
  • Its large population that provided unskilled labour required in the industries.

(explained x2=12mks)

  1. (a) outline three reasons why the policy of assimilation was easily applied in the four communes

of Senegal

  • the people had earlier interacted with the Europeans
  • they had inter- with the Europeans
  • most of the people were Christians
  • people were exposed to the outside world due to the proximity to the coast
  • people were detribalized/of mixed origin

(any 3×1=3mks)

(b) explain six effects of the  British direct rule

  • Africans lost large tracts of land to the white settlers thereby straining relations between the two groups
  • introduction of forced labour as the white settlers required cheap labour in their farms
  • formation of African Nationalist movements to address their grievances against white denominations
  • loss of power by traditional powers as the British appointed their own administrators who ruled the people directly
  • imposition of taxes on Africans inorder to force them to provide labour to the whites so as to raise money
  • Africans were exposed to deplorable working conditions which exposed them to risks
  • Introduction of pass laws which restricted the movement of Africans
  • Africans were confined into reserves thereby creating room for European settlements
  • Exploitation of mineral resources /agricultural resources for the benefit of the colonial government at the expense of African development
  • Loss of independence by Africans as they were subjected to British colonial rile
  • Racial segregation
  • Western edction/Christianity
  • Development oof transport & communication network
  • Undermined African culture

(any 6 explained x2=12mks)

 

  1. (a) state three political causes of instability in the Democratic Republic of Congo between

1960-1965

 

  • Tribalism/ethnic differences created conflicts among communities
  • Domination of public service by Belgians/foreigners
  • Kasal/Katanga secession from the rest of the country
  • The assassination of Patrice Lumumba
  • Army mutiny
  • Rise of dictatorship

(any 3×1=3mks)

 

(b) describe six social developments that have taken place in Tanzania since  independence

  • the establishment of more schools/colleges/universities has enabled many people to access education
  • the introduction of free universal primary education has reduced illiteracy levels among the people
  • education system geared toward promoting socialism ideals has created an egalitarian/selfless society thus promoting equity
  • improvement of health through the expansion/establishment of more health facilities/hospitals dispensaries thereby promoting quality of life
  • social cohesion /unity of diverse elements has been promoted by the socialist ideology(Ujamaa) thereby creating a more stable society
  • Kiswahili has been made the national language and given more emphasis in the education system thereby breaking communication barriers / promoting interaction among the people
  • Theatre and sports has been promoted through the establishment of sporting facilities
  • Promotion of African cultural values leading to preservation of African heritage.
  • Freedom to worship to citizens
  • Role of women in the society is highly appreciated

(any 6 explained x2=12mks)

SECTION C ( 30 MARKS)

  1. (a) identify five main organs of the United Nations

 

  • The General Assembly
  • The Security Council
  • The Secretariat
  • The International Court of Justice
  • The Economic and Social Council
  • The Trusteeship Council

(b) explain five ways through which  United  Nations promotes peace in the  world

  • it sends peace-keeping missions to conflict areas inorder to enforce ceasefire/prevent further confrontation
  • it uses envoys to mediate disputes between warring groups so as to find amicable solutions to problems
  • it hears cases through the international court of justice between states/individuals with a view of administering justice
  • it imposes sanctions against states that defy its resolutions in order to force them to comply
  • it uses peace messengers to sensitive people on its importance of peace /encourage peaceful co-existence
  • it encourages disarmament by signing arms control treaties/agreements with a view of reducing tension/suspicion between states
  • it promotes human rights/freedoms by enforcing international laws which protect people against abuse
  • it promotes humanitarian assistance to the needy by giving them protection/basic needs
  • it promotes democracy and good governance in countries by providing electoral assistance/sending observers to monitor elections in order to ensure fairness/credibility
  • it condemns all forms of terrorism/putting in place method of combating it through international agreements

(any 5 point well explained x2=10mks)

  1. (a) state five functions of the commission of African union
  • It implement the decision of the union
  • It co-ordinates African union activities/meetings
  • It receives application for membership
  • It performs administrative functions of the A.U
  • It makes/initiates proposals to other organs

 

(b) explain five achievements of the Pan-African movements

  • it promoted African nationalism by encouraging Africans to unite against colonial injustices
  • it restored African dignity/confidence  by demanding respect for African values
  • it led to formation of O.A.U.
  • it condemned/mobilized people to protest against European colonization domination of Africans eg muslims in 1935 in Ethiopia
  • it made Africans aware of their status in society thereby encouraging them to struggle for their rights
  • it created a sense of unity among people of African descent by enlightening on their common origin/similar prejudices from the Europeans
  • it appealed/put pressure on international community toact against apartheid regime in south Africa
  • it encouraged the formation of nationalist movements which liberated Africans from colonial rule.

(any 5 point well explained x2=10mks)

 

  1. (a) state five responsibilities of the state governments it the united states of America
  • To maintain law and order
  • To generate revenue
  • To provide education facilities
  • To administer justice
  • To provide health facilities
  • To provide recreational facilities
  • To make/pass laws

(any 5 x2=10mks)

(b) Explain five functions of the cabinet in India

  • it formulates policy matters that are followed by the state/federal governments in the provision of services
  • it recommends all the major appointments made by the president in various sectors of the government
  • it settles departmental disputes inorder to ensure harmonious working relations between them
  • it co-ordinates activities/programs functions of the departments in their respective ministries
  • it advises the president /prime minister on various matters of the state/federal government
  • it defends government policies/decisions both within outside the parliament, thereby popularizing those policies
  • it approves all proposal for the legislative enactment of the government policies
  • it oversees the execution/implementation of government policies so as to ensure service delivery to the people

(any 5 point well explained x2=10mks)

Grade Two CBC Notes, Revision Questions and Answers

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AGRICULTURE GRADE 5 LESSON NOTES- NEW CBC SYLLABUS PDF

AGRICULTURE GRADE 5 LESSON NOTES

1.0 Conserving our Environment
1.1 Soil Conservation
1.1.1 Soil recovery
Soil is important in a number of ways. They Include:
 It’s our life support system
 It provides anchorage for plant roots
 It holds water and nutrients
 It’s a home for various micro-organisms
 We build on soil.
Therefore soil plays a vital role in our environment. As without soil human life would be very difficult.
It’s therefore a resource that should be guarded with a lot of caution. This is why to keep this resource in good we should limit chances of various factors doing away with it.
 Soil erosion is the removal of the top soil from one place to another by means of water, wind, or animal activities.
 Eroded soils by water are deposited to other places by siltation.
 Silt is the deposited soil and is rich in humor such soil very fertile. It comprises of organic matter and can be recovered. Silty soil is slippery when wet, not grainy or rocky
Soil recovery/restoration
 This is the process of collecting eroded soil from its deposition back to the farm for farming.

Importance of soil recovery  Soil conservation is key to environmental sustainability  It helps protect natural resources and watersheds,  restores habitats for plants and wildlife,  Improves water quality, and makes soil healthier.  Soil conservation also creates economic opportunity.
We should therefore look for eroded places and recover the soil and conserve our environment for the future.
 Runoff water is the water that runs on the ground at high speed and it removes the soil from its path leaving behind a gully.
 Soil eroded by runoff are deposited at the river banks, on the sides of the roads or in places where there are cover crops.
 Recovering soil is important to crops because it is very fertile, comprising of decomposed organic matter.  Runoff water has the energy to detach soil particles by scour and to transport entrained soil materials either in suspension or by pushing or rolling larger particles.

Observing runoff

Soil deposit site
1.1.2 Soil Improvement
 Soil improvement is the addition of soil nutrients to poor and non-productive soils. This can be done by addict organic manure.
Methods of soil conservation  These include fallowing,  using compost, manure, crop residues,  Using fertilizer trees (e.g Calliandra and Pygeum africana),  intercropping legumes with cereals and including the principles of conservation agriculture (crop rotation, ensuring permanent cover for the soil and no disturbing of the top soil layer).

 Organic manure can be prepared by the use of organic materials such as plants materials, animal waste, food remains or kitchen wastes. This can be done by the method of hip compost or pit compost.
 With hip compost, the organic materials are hipped on the ground and left to decompose for some time and then transported to the farm where planting takes place.

Constructing compost pit
In the absence of compost pit or residue pit, we may use drum or wood pallet as compost bin.”

Wood pallet compost pit
Drum
 On the other hand, pit manure is prepared by digging underground and dumping all organic waste materials inside. These materials are left for sometimes to decompose then are used in the farm to improve soil.
 Once the waste materials have decomposed fully we can plant a suitable crop in the waste pit.

 Dumping green and dry plant remains, food remains and kitchen wastes in a pit situated on a poor soil site is a god farming practice.
 This is because once the organic waste materials decay, they release nutrients that are required for the growth of pants.
 Therefore if an area has poor soil, it can be improved using organic manure, a crop can be grown successfully.
Importance of conserving soil 1. The soil is literally the foundation of plant life. A tree will not be a tree without soil. While there are some plants that can live in water or air, most plants need to be rooted to the ground. It is the soil that provides nutrition to this plant life. It is through this vegetation that nourishes the humankind and the animal kingdom. Plants are important resource of food and fuel and of wood and other by-products that make our other life functions possible. 2. The soil additionally supports the animal kingdom. Our agriculture also relies on soil, for its location and for other functions to be derived from its existence. It will be almost impossible to support the animal and human life without land. 3. The soil is necessary for water supply. This is the magic of nature. The land is also necessary to ensure the quality of water we derive from our earth. Soil and water co-

exist. So do we and soil co-exist? Taking good care of our soil equates to taking care of our water supply.
1.2 Water Conservation
Water conservation is the process of retain water in the soil for planting. Water conservation can be done through mulching, shading, and cores cropping.
i. Mulching
 Is the process of soil water conservation by spreading dry leaves or planting on the ground surface where the crops are planted.
 The dry leaves are called mulch where they are used to conserve soil water/moisture.
 Mulching prevents direct sunshine to the soil surface which lowers the rate or evaporation.
ii. Shading
 This is done by constructing a shade structure and covering its top with dry leaves.
 This is usually constructed on top of seedbeds to protect the seedling from the scotching sun and also to protect the soil from losing water through evaporation.
10 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
iii. Cover Cropping
 Cover cropping is the process of soil water conservation through planting short crops that spread wide on the ground.
 Plants used for cover cropping are bean plants, peas and green grams.
 Water just like soil, is an important resource in our environment for farming practices. We can use mulching, cover cropping and shading to conserve soil moisture.
 These farming practices reduce loss of water from the soil.
 Conserving water ensures that water in our farms is well used throughout the growing season
11 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
It is important to conserve water because it is an important resource for farming in our homes. Without water, the plants will not grow to produce food for us.
Importance of water conservation
 Without fresh water you will die in just a few days.
 Conserving water is important because it keeps water pure and clean while protecting the environment
 Water conservation reduces energy use and can even save your household money.
1.3 Living better with wild animals
 Wild animals are very useful to use. Some are dangerous like the leopard and the lion.
Importance of wild animals
1. Wildlife provides nutrients to humans
2. People depend on wildlife for their livelihoods
3. Wildlife has cultural significance
4. Wildlife is important for the economy
5. Protecting wildlife creates more jobs
 Wild animals generate revenue through local and international tourism. Some animals destroy our crops and some kill our domestic animals.
 We can scare and keep away wild animals without killing them.
 We can keep away animals by the use sounds, using smells and use of smelly and bitter tasting plants.
12 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
i. Use of Sounds
Some animals are often scared by sounds made by people talking or shouting. Animals like monkeys and squirrels can be scared away by the use of sounds made by radio. A radio is switched on and put in a plantation to scare wild animals’ away.
ii. Using Smells
Some wild animals are repellant to bad smells. Smells can be produced by burning items such as rugs, plastics or tires. This smell is used to keep away animals such as rodents.
13 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
iii. Use of Smelly and bitter tasting plants
Some animals avoid smelly and bitter tasting plants. This method keeps away root eaters (rodents) such as the mole from destroying farm plants, and digging holes in the farm.
iv. Care and Safety from Wild Animals
Some wild animals can be dangerous. They can attack us or even kill us, they include the wild dog, wild cat and monkeys. Such animals can also transmit dangerous diseases such as rabies. We should always keep a safe distances from wild animals. We should not touch or provoke wild animals.
1.4 Growing Climbing fruit Plants
 Fruits are source of food rich in vitamins.
 They are important for our bodies for growth vitamins are nutrients needed by the body to repair warm out tissues.
 Climbing fruits plants have a stem called a vain. Vains are weak and therefore are needed to be supported using wood or wires.
 Such fruits plants can also be made to climb along the fence. They include the passion fruits, grapes, blackberries, kiwi fruits, raspberry fruits and gooseberry fruits.
14 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
1.4.1 How to Plant
 Climbing fruit plants can be planted from seeds or from stem cutting. Fruits seeds can be found from the market or can be prepared at home for planting.
 To prepare fruits seeds, get a fruit from a tree or from the market, extract seeds from it and wash.
 Dry the seeds on the sunlight and select the best seeds for planting. Prepare a seedbed and plant your seeds.
 Always water your seeds regularly until the seeds germinate. After germinating and the seedlings are strong, you can transfer them to their place of planting.
15 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 This process of transferring seedlings from the seedbed to their place of planting is called transplanting.
Passion fruit seeds
 To prepare stem cutting select a sweet able fruit plant to get the stems form. Using a knife, cut the stem into small pieces of about one feet.
 Insert the cuttings into a planting site such as a container or a socket. Take care of the planted cutting by watering them, shading and removing weeds. When the cuttings start to develop leaves and roots, you can transplant them to their new places.
stem cuttings
16 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 Young climbing fruits plants should be taken care of. We should make a shade of them to prevent them from direct sunlight.
 We should also construct a support structure using strong poles and wires for the fruit plant to support itself on.
 We also need to guide the plant along wires the process of guiding a climbing fruit plant along a wire is called Training.
Ways of training a plant
 A grower trains plants to:
 Improve flower or plant appearance and management,
 improve flower and fruit size and quality and
 to protect plants from damage.
 Training plants is done by:
o supporting,
o thinning,
o stopping,
o disbudding and
o pruning.
 Water the young fruit plant regularly and apply manure at its roots. Artificial fertilizer can also be used at minimal quantities to ensure safe food, protect the plant from any weeds by weeding them regularly by uprooting weeds from the stem.
1.5 Managing Climbing fruit plants
 This is taking care of the plant to ensure that it grows until the harvesting stage. The process of managing fruits plant include, watering, weeding, manure application, training and harvesting.
 This can be well achieved by developing a project schedule.
17 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 The planted climbing fruit plant should be watered regularly on the established site.
 Weeding should be done to reduce competition from weeds for nutrients, water and light.
 It is important to make a shade over the young plants. The shade protects them from direct heat of the sun. It is important to make a fence around them.
 A fence protects them from being damaged by animals.
 Well-rotted manure should be applied from time to time to ensure that the fruit plants grow healthy.
 Climbing fruit plants also need to be supported so that they grow well and receive adequate light.
i. Harvesting
 Fruits can be harvested at their right time of harvest. Once the fruits are mature, they should be harvested. The right time for fruit harvesting can be determined by observing the colour of the fruit.
18 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 Some fruits like the yellow passion fruit turn their colour to yellow and become a bit softer, smoother and sweet smelling. Some fruits such as the passion fruits fall of from the tree when they are ready for harvesting.
ii. Harvesting Process
 Climbing fruit plant can easily be damaged during the harvesting process. We should take care not to pull the fruits from climbing fruit plant.
 Pulling the fruits can damage both the fruit and the plant. Tender fruits such as berries should be placed in small container immediately after harvesting to prevent damage.
19 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
DOMESTIC ANIMALS
2.0 Domestic Animals
 Domestic animals are the animals that are kept at home. They include cow, donkey, chicken, duck, horse, rabbit, cat, dog etc.
 Domestic animals are important to human life because:
o They provide, meat for food, milk,
o security, eggs,
o manual Labour and
o May be sold to generate income.
o Some animals like cows, donkey, horses and rabbits produce wastes to make manure.
20 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
Animal welfare
 Domestic animals are of great use to us. They should be treated well and showed love.
 To care for domestic animals,
o They should be kept clean and
o Given medication for good production.
o Food and water should be provide pastes and
o Parasites should be controlled and treated to ensure good health among domestic animals.
o Water should be given to them and
o They should be protected from extreme temperatures.
Uses of animals
Cat
 Its kept for beauty
 Provide safety against rats at home
Rabbit
 Provides meat
 Kept for beauty at home
Dog
 Provides security at home
 Used for transport
 Provides companionship
21 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
Pig
 Sold to give us money
 Provides pork and bacon
Fish
 Is a source of food
Camel
 Used for transport
 Provides milk.
Horse
 Used for sports
 Used for riding
 Used during war
Camel
 Provides labour when ploughing land
 Used for transporting goods and people
 Provides fur
Bees
 Gives us honey
 Pollinate our fruit crops
 All domestic animals are important to us. Some domestic animals provide beauty at home, others provide security while others provide us various food products such as meat, milk and honey.
 Some domestic animals also provide us with transport.
22 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 Various communities in Kenya use some of the domestic animals during cultural ceremonies e.g. the Somali community use camels as payment for dowry during marriage ceremonies.
 We should therefore love and take care of all the domestic animals. We should also encourage other people to treat them well.
23 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
3.0 GARDENING PRACTICES
3.1 Indigenous Food Crops
 Indigenous food crops are the crops that grow naturally in the garden. Some of these indigenous food crops have been adopted by human beings and they are now grown artificially to provide food for Kenyans Examples of these crops include; spider weeds, arrow roots, cassava, sorghum, sweet potatoes and black night shade.
 Indigenous foods crops are much important to our nutrition because they provide required nutrients and minerals to our body.
 They provide carbohydrates from root tubers, vitamins from leafy crops and minerals such as zinc and iron from plant like the black night shade and the spider weeds.
Night shade spider sheet
24 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
Sweet potato arrowroot
Cassava sorghum
 Indigenous foods are foods that our great grandparents used to eat
 These foods benefit us in a number of ways like providing us with carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins that protect us from diseases, they also help in healing of wounds.
 Also when surplus are sold they generate income
 Some these plants need to be handled with care like stinging nettle can cause an itching sensation on the skin and should be handled with care. Ensure you put on gloves when handling such leaves.
25 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 Therefore they are important in reducing food shortage and hunger in the country. Most of these crops can be grown using organic manure, hence no need of buying expensive artificial fertilizer.
3.2 Vegetable gardening practices
 Vegetable gardening is the process of growing vegetable crops. Vegetable group are important to our bodies because the provide carbohydrates to the body.
 Vitamins are best nutrients for the body because they protect our bodies against diseases. Vegetable crop include; tomatoes, cabbage, kales, spinach, cucumber and carrots. A vegetation is a part of a plant that is used as food.
Preparing a seedbed
 A part from providing food, vegetables can also be sold to earn income for farmers.
 Some vegetable are first raised in a nursery before being transplanted. A nursery bed is a small area of land for raising young seedling before they are transplanted to a permanent place called a seedbed.
 A nursery bed is prepared to comprise of fine soil particles. Fallow are made using a stick or an index finger, after leveling the nursery bed and mixing the soil with organic manure.
26 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
Sowing seeds on a nursery bed
 The seeds are then spread along the fallows in the process called drilling. Cover the seeds with a thin layer of fine soil.
 Apply dry plant materials to mulch the nursery bed and water it on top of the mulch.
Care for the vegetable seedlings in the nursery
 Vegetable seedlings are taken care of by constructing a shade on top of them to prevent being weakened by direct sunlight and to preserve water, by preventing water lose from the nursery bed through evaporation.
 The seedlings should be watered regularly and weed removed from their midst. When the seedlings are ready, you should transplant them into a seedbed.
Preparing a seedbed for planting vegetable seedlings.
 Transplanting seedlings in the seedbed should be taken care of. This is through weeding, watering and application of fertilizer or manure. Dried up seedlings after transplanting should be replaced in the process called gapping.
 Other practices such as mulching, shading application of pesticides to control pests and diseases are important. Pruning of some vegetables such as tomatoes is needed. This is cutting of excess branches.
 Tall tomatoes varieties need to be trained, so that they grow upright. Once the crops are ready, they need to be harvested in time.
27 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
 It is important to keep records of various gardening activities such as the date of planting. This can help us to estimate the expected date of harvesting.
 Some vegetables such as cabbages take between two to three months before they are harvested. Other vegetables may take longer than this.
 Some vegetable fruits are harvested when they are big in size and when they start changing colour. E.g. tomatoes and hot pepper turn red while some pumpkins turn orange.
 However, other vegetable fruits such as sweet pepper may still be harvested when they are green in colour.
 The ripe fruits are picked by the hand. Care is taken so as not to damage the skin of the fruit. Harvesting of the fruit should be done at the right time to avoid over ripening which lowers their quality.
 For leafy vegetables such as kale and spinach, it is good to harvest when the leaves are tender and green. The lower outer leaves are broken from the stem to allow the plant to produce more.
 The cabbage head is removed by cutting the base of the stalk with a sharp panga.
 Bulb onions are harvested when the top leaves start bending and turning yellow. Soil is loosened around the bulbs and then the bulbs are pulled out.
28 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
3.3 Innovative Gardening
3.3.1 Vertical and Horizontal Gardening
29 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
30 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
Vertical gardening is crowing crops above the ground. This is used to minimize the space for practicing crop production. It can be used in places where is enough land to practice gardening on a large piece of land. This practice also save water.
The importance of vertical gardening is that it is easy to control weeds, pest and diseases. Crops produced from vertical gardens are also clean because they don’t get into contact with soil.
31 | P a g e “ Q u a l i t y i n e v e r y l e s s o n
Leafy vegetables such as kales and spinach are harvested when they large enough to use for cooking. They are carefully plucked using hands to avoid uprooting the whole plant.
Fruit vegetables are plucked when they are ripe. Tomatoes should be carefully picked when they are ripe.

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GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE HISTORY TOPICAL REVISION

         GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE            

 1.Identify the main source of government revenue in Kenya.

  • Taxes 1 X 1 = 1 mark

ANS 17,DIST 1

2.Identify two direct taxes which the government uses to raise revenue.

-PAYE

–    Income tax

–    Air port tax

–    Game park tax

–    Property transfer                                                                               Any 2 = 2mks

ANS 16,DIST 2

 

3.One main category of Government expenditure

  • Recurrent expenditure
  • Capital expenditure
  • Servicing expenditure 1 x 1 = 1mk

 

ANS 18,DIST 3

 

  1. Two types of Government expenditure in Kenya
    • Recurrent expenditure
    • Capital expenditure/ Development expenditure                                     1 x 2 = 2 Marks

ANS 13,DIST 4

 

  1. a. Sources of revenue for local authorities in Kenya                                           Marks
  • Fee from licences
  • Cess
  • Grants from the government/ loans
  • Rents from building / social hall / stadia
  • Fines
  • Donations from well wishers e.g. Mayor Christmas trees 3 Marks

 

  1. Five measures taken by the government of Kenya to ensure proper use of public funds
  • Establishment of anti- corruption unit
  • Establish of the office of the auditor and controller general
  • Appointments of S as accounting officer
  • Regular tendering and procurement systems
  • Sensitizing the public of evils of corruption
  • Empowering parliament to exercise country over public finance
  • Approval of parliament is needed on the budget / supplementary estimates
  • Giving of power to incur expenses only to certain officers
  • Prosecution of those who misuse public funds
  • Accounting of imprests by government officers after duty (official receipts)  6 x 2 = 12 Marks

ANS 22,DIST 4

6.a)      – Business permits

– Road maintenance levy fund

– Donations

– Licenses

– Water and sewerage fees

– Local authority property (eg. Houses)

– Rates paid by plot owners in towns

– Charges per services eg. Museums

– Fees per market

– Fines

– Loans from central government

  1. b) – Poor agricultural performance due to poor weather

– Inadequate foreign aid

– Retrenchment

– Corrupt officials

– Lack of funds

– Unqualified personnel

– Political interference

– Tax evasion

– Poor economic performance

ANS 23,DIST 5        

 

7.What is the Main source of government revenue in Kenya                                            (1mk)

–           Taxes                                                                                                              1 x 1 = 1mk QUES 17,DIST 6

 

  1. a) Why does the government of Kenya prepare an annual budget. ( 8 mk)
  2. i) To enable the government  to prioritize its needs.
  3. ii) Help the government to identify sources to revenue.

iii)       Enables the parliament to approve government expenditure.

  1. iv) Enables parliament to approve government expenditure.
  1. Enable the government to estimate the financial requirements for its needs.
  2. Acts as reference  for future in correcting .

vii)      Smooth running of the government to identify its departments and allocate duties appropriately thus enhancing accountability.

viii)     Give useful information to those organizations and individuals who may want to keep track of the government expenditure.

  1. ix) Enables  the government  to account  for funds  borrowed / donated for development .
  2. x) Accomplish already started projects.                        ( Any 8 x 1  = 8 mks)
  3. b) What measures does the Kenya government take to ensure the public funds are properly used.                                                                                                                   (7 mks)
  4. i) The government ensures that all intended expenditure is approved by parliament before any expenditure by government.
  5. ii) All reports on expenditure by government ministers are presented to the public accounts committee to the public.

iii)       The  controller and auditor – general audit ministries and reports to parliament.

  1. iv) The PS in every ministry is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that government funds are well spent.
  2. v) The auditor – general of state corporations audits the expenditure of all government corporations.
  3. vi) Government contracts area advertised publicly for tendering and awards are made on merit.

vii)      Establishment of Kenya Anti corruption authority. ( KACA)         ( Any 7 x 1 = 7 mks)

 

ANS 22,DIST 7

 

9.What is contained in a government Budget?                                                                    (1mk)

  1. i) The amount of revenue expected
  2. Source of revenue

iii)       Expenditure of the government                                                               1×1 = 1mk.

ANS 17,DIST 9

 

  1. Identify one type of government expenditure in Kenya           (1mk)
  2. Capital expenditure / money set aside for new development projects
  3. Recurrent expenditure / money used to sustain and maintain / existing facilities          Any 1×1 = 1mark

ANS 17,DIST 10

  1. Kenya Revenue Authority (K.R.A)

(Note: ½ mk for use of initials)                                                                           (1×1=1mk)

 

      ANS 17,DIST 11

 

  1. a) i)Domestic borrowing
  2.    ii) Profit from parastatals

iii) Foreign aid

  1.        iv) Sale of Treasury bills
  2.        v) Court  fines
  3.       vi) Taxes e.g.  A.T

vii) Charges of government services

viii) Licence fees.                                                                          (5×1=5mks)

  1. b) i) Tax evasion by some people and organizations .
  2. ii) Many people give wrong information in their wealth declaration.

iii) Negative attitude towards payment of taxes by many people due to ignorance.

  1. iv) Rich people keep their money in foreign banks denying the country interest.
  2. v) Unscrupulous Kenyans and tax officials collude and defraud the government of revenue.
  3. vi) Inadequate information for local investors through treasury bills, post office bonds and shares at the Nairobi stock exchange (NSE)

vii) Smuggling of goods out of Kenya.

viii) High rate of inflation increase public expenditure/ too many taxes.

(5×2=10mks)

ANS 24,DIST 11

 

  1. – Direct taxes.

– Indirect taxes.

– Grants

– Loans from banks/friendly countries

– Fines from courts.                                                                                                    (2×1=2mks)

ANS 15,DIST 12

  1. Chief justice in Kenya 2×1=(2mrks)
  2. i) Swear in the president and the cabinet ministers
  3. ii) Heads the Kenya judiciary and give direction on how the judiciary is to   determine justice in.

iii)The arbitration of disputes

iv)Plays an advisory role in the removal of a president on grounds of in capacity.

  1. v) Is the chair person of judicial service commission?

 

ANS 21,DIST 13     

  1. State two types of expenditures in Kenya. (2mks)
  • Capital expenditure
  • Recurrent expenditure

2 x 1 = 2 marks

ANS 15,DIST 14

 

  1. Two types of expenditure in Kenya. (2 mks)
    • recurrent
    • capital

 

ANS 15,DIST 15

 

  1. (a) State 3 sources of government revenue. (3 mks)
  • direct tax
  • indirect tax
  • trade licenses
  • Interest from loan paid to the government.
  • Land rates from land owners
  • House rent – government building.
  • Court fines
  • Sales of treasury bills and bonds
  • Loans from donors
  • Fees charged
  • Grants from donor communities.

 

  • Explain 6 challenges the government is facing in raising revenue. (12 mks)
  • Tax evasion – many fail to pay taxes.
  • In wealth declaration people give wrong information reducing the amount payable in taxes.
  • Those who assess taxes are bribed so tat they give false information/corruption.
  • Rich people keep money in foreign accounts.
  • Donor states gives conditions before donations/loans are given.
  • Loans are given at very high interest rates – burden.
  • Reliance on foreign and increases government debts.

 

ANS 22,DIST 15

 

  1. (b) Reasons why the government of Kenya prepares the national budget
  • The budget helps the government to prioritize its needs giving prominence to the most urgent ones.
  • The budget enables the government to identify sources of government revenue to meet their financial obligations.
  • The government identifies the development projects to finance in the coming financial year.
  • The budget gives MPs an opportunity to discuss the government expenditure before its put into use.
  • The budget helps the government to balance its revenue and expenditure needs.
  • The government determines and explains to the public the tax structure through the budget
  • The budget ensures balanced and equitable development in the country.
  • The budget through supplementary expenditure enables the government to plan for certain needs that emerges in the government to plan for certain needs that emerge in the course of the year. E.g drought, disease outbreak etc
  • The government can assess its performance in the previous budgets and rectify areas of weakness if any. It may provide useful information to organizations and individuals who may want to keep track of government expenditure and invest in Kenya.
  • It enhances the identification of government departments and their needs in order to allocate funds appropriately to each department. This ensures transparency and accountability in government operation
  • Through the budget, the government communicates its plans and policies to its local and foreign development partners.
  • The volume of the budget also indicates the expansion of services provided by the government. The more the service provided by the government the bigger the budget will be. 1×10 = 10mks

ANS 24b,DIST 16

 

  1. Name the body in charge of all forms of tax collection in Kenya.
  • Kenya revenue Authority (K.R.A)

1mrk  ANS 16,DIST 19

  1. (a) Outline three duties of the controller and Auditor General in Kenya (3mks)
  • Ensures that finances approved by Parliament are used for the intended Purpose
  • Ensure that any withdrawal from treasury is authorized by law
  • To safeguard receipt custody and proper use of government property e.g. stamp, books etc.
  • To safeguard the collection of government revenue.
  • He audits all reports on the public accounts of the government of Kenya and reports to parliament about his findings

 

 

  • Discuss six methods used by the Kenyan government to control public finance (12 mks)
  • All ministries are audited by the controller and auditor general
  • Through approval of public expenditure by the controller and auditor general and give report to parliament for scrutiny
  • All parastals are audited by the controller-general of State Corporation
  • Permanent Secretaries (PS) are chief accounting officers in their ministries and ensure proper use of money
  • Government contracts are advertised publicly for tendering and awards are given on merit
  • Establishing of Kenya Anti-corruption Commission (KACC)

ANS 22,DIST 20

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MWONGOZO WA KIGOGO                                        MTIRIRIKO;

      ONYESHO LA KWANZA.

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni katika karakana ya soko la Chapakazi,Sudi, Boza na Kombe wanafanya kazi ya uchongaji.Sudi amefungulia radio huku wakiendelea na kazi yao.Ashua anawaletea chai ya mkandaa na mahamri na kuondoka.

Habari inatolewa kwa wananchi wa Sagamoyo kuwa wana kipindi cha mwezi mzima kusheherekea uhuru wao, wawakubuke majagina wao waliopigania uhuru na kuwanasua kutoka utumwani, wimbo wa kizalendo unachezwa mara kwa mara.

Sudi anatofautiana na mpango wa kusheherekea uhuru kwa mwezi mzima; kwake majagina wanaosheherekewa hawakufanya lolote katika historia ya Sagamoyo.

Kuna uchafuzi wa mazingira, viongozi hawajawajibika kusafisha soko wanadai kodi na kitu juu pia vitisho kwa wanasagamoyo.

 

WAZO KUU.

Kuna wale ambao wanaunga viongozi mkono kwa sababu wanafumbwa kwa mambo yasiyo ya kimsingi.Aidha kuna wale ambao wamezinduka na kuhisi kuwa viongozi hawajawajibika. Sudi haoni umuhimu wa  sherehe za uhuru kupewa maandalizi ya kifahali na kipindi cha mwezi mzima.

 

TENDO LA PILI.

Katika karakana sokoni,Kenga (ambaye ni binamu na mshauri wa majoka) anawatembelea Sudi, Boza na Kombe.Ametumwa na Majoka kuchukua vinyago vya mashujaa.Ni msimu wa mashujaa Sagamoyo, Sudi anachonga kinyago cha shujaa wa kike ambaye kwake ni kiongozi halisi wa Sagamoyo.Shujaa huyo hakufanya lolote, bali analifahamika sana katika jimbo la Sagamoyo.

Miradhi ya kuchonga vinyago inafadhiliwa kutoka nje na wananchi wanatakiwa kulipa baada ya miaka mia moja.

Sudi anashawishiwa kuchonga kinyago cha baba yake majoka Marara bin Ngao ili maisha yake yabadilike na jina lake kushamiri; aidha apewe likizo ya mwezi mmoja ughaibuni.Sudi anakataa kuchonga kinyago, Kenga anawapa keki lakini Sudi hali kwa kuwa ni makombo.Kombe anazinduka kutokana na kauli hii, anamuunga mkono Sudi kwa muda .Kenga anaondoka kisha Tunu na Ashua wanawasili huku wakihema na kusema kuwa mzee Kenga anapanga njama ya kuhutubia wahuni.Wote wanaondoka.

WAZO KUU.

Maskini wanatumikizwa, wanadhalalishwa, kuletewa makombo na kukumbukwa katika kipindi fulani tu ili kufaidi viongozi wao.

Miradi isiyo muhimu inafadhiliwa na wananchi kubakia na jukumu la kulipa ufadhili huo kupitia kodi.Viongozi hushawishi wanyonge ili kuwatumikia.

TENDO LA TATU

Ni katika nyumba ya Sudi barazani siku mbili baada ya soko kufungwa.Tunu na Siti wanafika katika hali ya taharuki, waantoa taarifa kwamba wafanyakazi wa kiwanda cha majoka and majoka wamegoma na vijana watano kuuliwa na wafanyakazi kuumia.

Kiini cha maandamano ni bei ya chakula Kupandishwa na soko limefungwa.

anapopata habari kuhusu maadamano na vifo vya baadhi ya waadamanaji, Sudi anaathilika na anataka kwenda kuzitetea haki za waadamanaji lakini anapatwa na changamoto ya wanawe Pili na Pendo kwani hawajapata kiamsha kinywa.

Boza anatumia fursa hiyo kuyadhihaki na kuyakemea mapambano ya kina Sudi na Tunu. Kauri ya Boza inasababisha mgogoro wa kinafsia katika moyo wake Sudi.

Hatimaye , Siti anawapeleka watoto wa Sudi kwa mamaye Tunu (Bi. Hashima). Tunu na Kombe wanaondoka na kwenda kwenye maadamano.

 

WAZO KUU.

Kuna maandamano na migomo,walimu na wauguzi wanagoma.Migomo hiyo inatokana na kutowajibika kwa viongozi ambao wana nia ya kujifaidi.

Umoja na mshikamano miongoni mwa wazalendo (Tunu na sudi) unaonekana.

 

                             ONYESHO LA PILI

 

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni ofisini mwa Mzee Majoka, anaongea kwa simu Chopi anapoingia.Ashua anafika kumwona Majoka,anataka kumkumbatia lakini Ashua anakataa.Majoka anakasirika Ashua anapomwita mzee na kufurahi anapomwita Ngao, jina lake la ujana.

Ashua amefika kuomba msaada lakini Majoka anamtaka kimapenzi.Anajaribu kumbusu lakini Ashua anakwepa.Majoka anamshawishi, anajisifu na kujilinganisha na Lyonga wa uswahilini na Samsoni Myaudi.

Majoka anasema kuwa soko limefungwa kwa sababu ya uchafu, anatenga eneo hilo ili kujenga hoteli ya kifahari.Wanasagamoyo wanalitegemea soko hilo kula, kuvaa na kuendesha maisha yao.

Inabainika kuwa Ashua alikataa kazi ya ualimu aliyopewa  katika Majoka and Mahoka academy, Majoka anasema kuwa sasa angekuwa mwalimu mkuu katika shule mojawapo ya kifahari.

Ashua anaeleza kuwa hangeweza kufanya kazi katika shule ya kihuni ambapo wanafunzi walikuwa makabeji baada ya kujidunga sumu ya nyoka (dawa za kulevya) Majoka anajitetea na kusema kuwa hakuna aliyekuwa na ushahidi kuyahusu.

 

WAZO KUU.

Viongozi hunyanyasa wachochole ili kujifaidi, Majoka anafunga soko na kunyakua eneo hilo kujijengea hoteli ya kifahari.Anataka kutumia mali na mamlaka yake kumteka Ashua kimapenzi.

TENDO LA PILI.

Husda mkewe majoka anaingia ofisini na  anamkabili Ashua kwa hasira, anamtusi kuwa kidudumtu, shetani wa udaku na mwenye kuwinda wanaume wa watu Wanaangushana na Ashua kuzabwa makofi.

Sauti ya kenga inamjia Majoka akilini kuwa soko lifungwe ili kulipiza kisasi kwa Sudi na Ashua, kisha Ashua aitwe ofisini na Husda wakabiliane.

Mwango na Chopi wanawachukua Ashua na Husda ndani, agizo linatolewa Husda atolewe ndani baada ya nusu saa.

 

WAZO KUU.

Wanyonge hutafutwa kwa lolote lile na kunyanyaswa.Viongozi hutumia mamlaka yao hata kupanga njama kuwateka wanyonge,Ashua kutiwa ndani ni njama iliyopangwa.

ONYESHO LA TATU

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni ofisini mwa mzee Majoka, wana mazungumzo ya faragha na mshauri wake Kenga.

Njama yao ya kumtia Ashua ndani inatimia kisha wanamtarajia Sudi, achonge kinyago cha shujaa ndiposa Ashua aachiliwe.

Kenga anamwonyesha Majoka picha za waandamanaji gazetini.Kuna habari kuwa Tunu aliongoza maandamano kisha kuwahutubia wanahabari kuwa:

  • pesa za kusafisha soko zimefujwa,
  • soko lilifungwa badala ya kusafishwa,
  • haki za wauzaji zimekiukwa,
  • hawatalegeza msimamo wao hadi soko lifunguliwe.

 

Majoka anapanga kumwadhibu Tunu.

Maoni ya wengi gazetini ni kuwa,Tunu apigigwe kura za kuongoza Sagamoyo.Kenga anamshauri Majoka kutangaza kuwa maandamano hayo ni haramu kisha Polisi watumie nguvu, Majoka anapinga wazo hilo kwa kuwa;

maandamano yatatia doa sherehe za uhuru,

Tunu atazidi kupata umaarufu.

Tunu ana mpango wa kuleta wachunguzi kutoka nje kuangalia ajali ya Jabali.Majoka anasema wazuie uchunguzi huo naye Kenga anakiri kuwa itawagharimu kwa kuwa watatumia mbinu tofauti.

Majoka anaamua kuwashughulikia Tunu na Sudi.

Kuhusu mishahara ya wauguzi na waalimu, wanaafikiana waongezwe kwa asilimia kodogo kisha kodi ipandishwe.

WAZO KUU.

Viongozi wanatumia mbinu tofauti kutawala;

  • kupanga njama,
  • kuadhibu waandamanaji,
  • kutojali maslahi ya wanyonge.

Hata hivyo, wananchi wamezinduka na nia yao ni kubadili uongozi usiofaa.

 

TENDO LA PILI.

Majoka akiendelea kusoma gazeti,Kenga anarejea kwa vishindo kuwa kuna habari zinazoenea katika mitandao ya kijamii na kupeperushwa katika runinga ya mzalendo.

Kenga anashauri kuwa, runinga ya mzalendo ichukuliwe hatua, maandamano yanaonekana kuharibu sherehe za uhuru.Majoka anamlaumu Chopi kwa polisi kutowatawanya waandamanaji.

Tunu na Sudi wanafika, wanaagizwa kuingia na Majoka anatoa bastola, na kuwaambia Kenga wamzuie na askari.

 

WAZO KUU.

Habari za maandamano zinazidi kuenea na Majoka ana wasiwasi kutimuliwa mamlakani kwa kuwa Tunu anazidi kupata imaarufu.

Viongozi hutumia vyombo vya dora visivyo, Majoka anapanga vituo vya habari vifungwe na kibakie kituo kimoja tu Sagamoyo.

 

TENDO LA TATU.

Ni ofisini mwa mzee Majoka,Tunu na Sudi wanaingia.Majoka anataka kusema na kila mmoja lakini wanakataa kwa kuwa na nia moja.

Sudi anaarifiwa kuwa Ashua mkewe yuko ndani kwa kuleta fujo katika ofisi ya kiserikali.

Majoma anamshawishi Tunu kuwa amampangia jambo la kifahari, kumwoza Ngao Junior atakaporejea kutoka ng`ambo.

Tunu hakubaliani ma kauli hii, anamkabili Majoka na kumwambia ukweli kuwa wao ni wahuni na wauaji.Tunu anatishiwa kutiwa ndani.Tunu anafichua ukweli, Majoka walipie kila tone la damu  waliyomwaga Sagamoyo

Majoka anagharamia masomo ya Tunu hadi ng`ambo; ni haki yake kuwa babake alifia Majoka company

 

WAZO KUU.

Viongozi hushawishi wapinzani kwa ahadi ili wawaunge mkono, hata hivyo wanamapinduzi wanashikilia msimamo wao

TENDO LA NNE.

Ni katika chumba cha wafungwa.Sudi amefika kumwona Ashua ambaye anadai kuwa ni kosa lake Sudi kutiwa ndani.Ashua anaomba talaka.

Ashua hataki tena mapenzi ya kimaskini, amechoka na kuchukua mkondo tofauti.Kwake anahisi kuna kitu baina ya Tunu na Sudi.

WAZO KUU.

Asasi ya ndoa inaonekana kuwa na changamoto.Kuna kutoaminiana katika ndoa,Ashua anashuku uhusiano baina ya Tunu na Sudi.

                ONYESHO LA NNE.

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni nyumbani kwa kina Tunu, Bi.Hashima anapepeta mchele huku akiimba.Siti anafika na habari kuwa wahame Sagamoyo sio kwao.

Hali Sagamoyo inaonekana kubadilika  ardhi inateketea na mito na maziwa yanakauka. Kigogo amefungulia  biashara ya ukataji miti.

 

Tunu anafika akihema baada ya kuota kuwa Mzee Marara anamfukuza akitaka mkufu wake wa dhahabu.

Tunu amaumizwa mfupa wa muundi,uvumi unaenea kuwa Sudi na Ashua ndio wanawinda roho ya Tunu.

Tunu anataka kukutana na Majoka na watu wake.Hashima anaona hatari Tunu akienda kukutana nao.

 

WAZO KUU.

Hali Sagamoyo inazidi kubadilika, kiangazi kimesababishwa na kigogo kufungulia ukataji miti, viongozi hawajali maslahi ya wananchi.

Viongozi hueneza uvumi ili kutawanya wananchi, hata hivyo; vijana wamejitolea kujenga jamii mpya licha ya vikwazo vinavyowakumba.

 

TENDO LA PILI.

Tunu na Sudi wanafika Mangweni ambapo shughuli za ulevi zimeshika kani, wanaletewa  kileo lakini wanakataa.

Ngurumo anaonekana kusheherekea uhuru, kwa mujibu wa Sudi,mashujaa Sagamoyo ni waliouliwa msituni wakipigana, waliohangaisha wakoloni na kuwatimua.

Tunu amefika Mangweni kuwaalika katika mkutano mkubwa utakaofanyika katika soko la Chapakazi siku ya maadhimisho ya uhuru.

Kulingana na Ngurumo, mkutano huo si muhimu, cha muhimu kwake ni kuendelea kulewa kwa mamapima

Mtu mmoja anagaragara kwa sababu yu hoi, wengine walizikwa kwa sababu ya pombe na wengine kuwa vipofu.Mtu huyo anamshawishi Tunu asipoteze bahati yake ya kuolewa na Ngao Junior.

 

WAZO KUU.

Watu wanapumbazwa hasa walevi kwa pombe na kuendelea kutetea viongozi wasiofaa.

Tunu na Sudi wamejitolea kutetea wanyonge Sagamoyo, wameandaa mkutano kuzindua umma.

                     ONYESHO LA TANO.

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni katika hoteli ya Majoka and Majoka modern resort, Husda anafika kutoka kuogelea.Kenga naye anafika na habari kuwa mipango haikwenda walivyopanga,Tunu hakuvunjwa mguu.Chopi anapangiwa kwenda safari kwa kutotekeleza njama hiyo.

Sokoni, taka zote zimeondolewa, vibanda vimeng`olewa, vifaa vya ujenzi vimewasili kutoka bandarini na kuna ulinzi mkali.

Chopi anafika na habari mbaya kuwa Ngurumo amenyongwa na chatu akitoka Mangweni.Majoka anaagiza Ngurumo azikwe kabla ya jua kutua.

Ushauri wa Majoka ni kuwa chatu mmoja atolewe kafara, na baada ya watu kuandanana waachwe katika hali ya taharuki.

Chopi tena anarejea na habari kuwa Ngao Junior kapatikana katika uwanja wa ndege akiwa na sumu ya nyoka, Majoka anazirai.

 

WAZO KUU.

Viongozi hupanga njama za kuwaangamiza wapinzani wao.

Viongozi wanaishi maisha ya kifahari huku maskini wakihangaika.

Viongozi hawajali hata vifo  vya wananchi vikitokea.

 

TENDO LA PILI.

Ni ndani ya ambulensi, Majoka hataki kufungua macho kuliona ziwa la damu.Majoka anasema yuaelekea jongomeo, kuwa amefungwa minyororo.Anataka safari isitishwe kwa kuwa haina stara.

Majoka anamfananisha Husda kama mke anayeishi ndani ya ngozi ya kondoo (kuwa Husda ni mnafiki). Husda anapenda mali ya Majoka na alilazimishwa kumwoa lakini moyo wake unampenda Ashua.

Daktari anamjuza Husda kuhusu kifo cha Ngao Junior,anazirai.

WAZO KUU.

Asasi ya ndoa imesawiriwa kuwa na changamoto; Husda hakumpenda Majoka ila aliolewa naye kwa sababu ya pesa.

Ili kuokoa asasi ya ndoa, wanaume wanapaswa kujidadisi, wawe na heshima na waseme na wake zao.Wake nao wajirudi ili ndoa zidumu.

                         ONYESHO LA SITA.

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni katika chumba cha wagonjwa, hali ya Majoka inaonekana kurejea.Anahukumiwa kuwa msaliti kwa wanasagamoyo na mashtaka mengine mengi.

Mayowe yanasikika na Majoka anadai kuwa hivyo ni vilio, wanalilia damu yake kisha Majoka anazungumza na babu ndotoni.

Majoka anawachukia marubani kwa kuwa waongo ilihali yeye pia ni rubani(kiongozi), hang`amui mambo kwa vile hajapambua ngozi yame ya zamani.Safari haijaanza au pengine chombo kinaenda kinyume badala ya mbele.

Safari ya babu na Majoka inatofautiana, Majoka anashauriwa asalimu amri, achague sauti ya moyo na babu yake.

Babu anamshauri Majoka  afungue masikio, macho na moyo wake kwa kuwa maisha yana ncha mbili.

Kulingana na babu, kuna misimu ya fanaka na ya kiangazi, kadhia na kuishi kwa kutojali ni muhali. Mkwea ngazi huteremka hivyo mtu achague kutenda mema, kwa maana wema hauozi. Mtu akiishi kwa wema, atajiandikia tarijama njema huku ahera.

 

WAZO KUU.

Maovu yana mwisho na kila aliye juu hatakaa juu milele.Wema ni muhimu katika maisha ya binadamu.

                            ONYESHO LA SABA.

TENDO LA KWANZA.

Ni katima uwanja wa ikulu ya Majoka palipoandaliwa sherehe.Ni saa nne na watu kumi tu ndio wamefika, wengine wako sokoni.

Sauti inasikika kwa mbali watu wakimsifu Tunu.Majoka anaelekea ilipo sauti, Kenga na umati wanawafuata.

WAZO KUU.

Wananchi wana nguvu zaidi kuliko viongozi .Wananchi wana mchango mkubwa kujikomboa kutokana na shida wanazozipitia zinazoletwa na uongozi mbaya.

Ili kujenga jamii mpya, wanachi hawana budi kuzinduka na kuleta mapinduzi.

TENDO LA PILI.

Ni katika lango la soko la Chapakazi, Majoka anawahutubia watu na kuwaita wajinga.Kenga anamnyanganya kinazasauti.

Tunu anabebwa juu juu na watu, anawahutubia huku wakimpigia makofi.Amejitolea kutetea haki za wanasagamoyo ili;

  • wapate maana halisi ya uhuru,
  • watendewe haki,
  • soko lifunguliwe na kujengwa upya,
  • huduma muhimu ziletwe karibu kama vile; hospitali, barabara, maji, vyoo, nguvu za umeme, elimu, ajira kwa vijana na kadhalika.

Tunu anahimiza wanasagamoyo wachague viongozi wanaolinda haki za wanyonge na kuwajibika.

Majoka kwa hasira anaamuru watu wapigwe risasi, Kingi anapokataa kwa kuwa ni kinyume cha katiba kufyatua risasi anafutwa. Kenga anasalimu amri, anajiunga na umati.

Kingi na Kenga wanajiunga na umati, wanashangiliwa, walinzi nao wanajiuzuru.Majoka kwa hasira anadai kuwa hata asipopigigwa hata kura moja atashinda.

Tunu anasindikizwa jukwaani, mamapima anafika kuomba msamaha.Anajuta sana kwa kuwalaghai walevi na kukiri kuwa aliwapunja kwa kuongozwa na tamaa ya pesa, sasa wamemgeuka.

Sudi anafika na kinyago, anasema kuhusu maana ya uhuru: shujaa ni mmoja tu Sagamoyo, ambaye ni Tunu.

 

WAZO KUU.

Kila kilicho na mwanzo kina mwisho, uongozi wa Majoka unafikia nwisho.Juhudi za wanamapinduzi zimezaa matunda.Maana ya uhuru sasa imepatikana na wananchi wanatarajia mengi mema.

                  JALADA LA TAMTHILIA.

Kuna sura ya mwanamme ambaye ameketi akiwa na rungu mkononi.Huyu ni Majoka ambaye ni kiongozi Sagamoyo na rungu mkononi mwake inaashiria uongozi.

Mwanamme huyo anatazama jabali lenye rangi nyeusi ambalo si laini. Jabali ni Sagamoyo na kutokuwa laini ni ishara kuwa Sagamoyo kuna shida,wanasagamoyo wana matakwa mengi. Weusi wa jabali ni uongozi mbaya unaoendelezwa Sagamoyo na viongozi.

 

Juu ya jabali hilo kuna mwanga, ishara kuwa kuma matunaini ambayo yanatarajiwa Sagamoyo, wanamapinduzi wanapigania haki ili kujenga jamii mpya.

 

 

 ANWANI YA TAMTHILIA.

Kigogo ni mtu mwenye madaraka makubwa kiutawala.

Majoka anatumia madaraka yake kulaghai wananchi, anachukua vilivyo vyao.

Anatangaza kipindi cha mwezi mzima cha kusheherekea uhuru kutumia madaraka aliyonayo.

Majoka anafunga soko la Chapakazi ili sehemu hiyo ajenge hoteli ya kifahari kwa kutumia madaraka aliyonayo.

Anapandisha bei ya chakula katika kioski kwa vile ana madaraka.

Majoka anatumia mamlaka yake kumteka na kumtia ndani Ashua.Anamtendea ukatili, Ashua ana majeraha kutokana na kichapo.

Majoka anapanga kifo cha Jabali, mpinzani wake. Anampangia ajali na kuangamiza wapinzani wake pamoja na chama chake kwa kutumia mamlaka yake..

Majoka anapanga kutumia mamlaka yake kuzima uchunguzi wa Tunu kuhusu kifo cha Jabali.

Majoka anafuja pesa za kusafisha soko huku akijua hakuna wa kumhukumu kwa kuwa ndiye kiongozi.

Majoka anatumia mamlaka yake kudhibiti vyombo vya habari Sagamoyo, anasema sagamoyo kitabakia kituo kimoja tu cha habari; sauti ya mashujaa, vingine havina uhai.

Majoka kwa mamlaka yake anaamuru polisi kutawanya waandamanaji.

Majoka anafungulia biashara ya ukataji miti Sagamoyo kwa kutumia mamlaka yake bila kujali athari zake kwa wananchi.

Majoka anampa mamapima kibali cha kuuza pombe haramu kwa kutumia mamlaka yake.

 

Kwa mamlaka yake, Majoka anafadhili miradi isiyo muhimu, anafadhili mradi wa kuchonga vinyago kutoka nje.

Majoka anaamuru wafadhili wa wapinzani kuvunja kambi zao Sagamoyo. Anamfuta Kingi kazi kwa kutomtii apige watu risasi.

    DHAMIRA YA MWANDISHI.

Mwandishi anadhamiria kuonyesha uongozi mbaya na athari zake hasa katika mataifa yanayoendea.Viongozi hutumia mbinu mbalimbali kuongoza zinazowanyanyasa wananchi huku wakijinufaisha wenyewe bila kujali.

Kuonyesha kuwa ili kijenga jamii mpya, mapinduzi ni muhimu na ni sharti wananchi wajitolee kwa uzalendo ili kupigania haki zao na usawa na kupinga viongozi wasiofaa.

Mwandishi anaonyesha kuwa licha ya changamoto zinazomkumba mwanamke katika jamii, mwanamke ana nafasi muhimu katika uongozi na kuleta maendeleo katika jamii.

        MAUDHUI.

1) UONGOZI MBAYA.

Viongozi huangaisha wanyonge, Ashua anasema,

“…na kuhangaishwa na wenye nguvu ndio

hewa tunayopumua huko.” (uk 2)

Wachochole hutumikizwa na viongozi, Kombe, Boza na Sudi wanafanya kazi ya kuchonga vinyago vya mashujaa kwa ajili ya sherehe za uhuru.

Viongozi hawajawajibika, kazi yao ni kukusanya tu kodi.Ni jukumu la viongozi kuhakikisha kuwa soko ni safi lakini hawajawajibika kulisafisha. Licha ya wananchi kutoa kodi,soko ni chafu.(uk 2)

Viongozi kutangaza kipindi kirefu cha kusheherekea  uhuru ni ishara ya uongozi mbaya. Mashujaa wanaenziwa kwa kipindi kirefu ilhali mambo ya kimsingi hayajazingatiwa.Wanasagamoyo wana matakwa mengi kuliko kipindi kirefu cha kusherehekea uhuru.

 

Majoka anafadhili mradi usio na msingi wa kuchonga vinyago huku watu wakiwa na njaa na wao ndio watalipia mradi huo.

 

Viongozi hushawishi wananchi kwa ahadi ili wawaunge mkono. Sudi anashawishiwa na Kenga kuchonga kinyago ili apate malipo mazuri; kuwa mradi huo utabadilisha maisha yake na jina lake lishamiri. Pia atapata tuzo nyingi na likizo ya mwezi mzima ughaibuni na familia yake (uk 11)

 

Aidha viongozi hutumia zawadi kufumba wananchi kuwa wanawajali na kujali hali zao.Kenga anawaletea Sudi, Boza na kombe keki ya uhuru.

Kulingana na Sudi, hayo ni makombo na keki kubwa imeliwa kwingineko.

 

Viongozi hawalindi usalama wa wananchi, wananchi wanaishi kwa hofu. Ashua anahofia usalama wao kuwa huenda wakashambuliwa.(uk 15)

 

Migomo inayotokea Sagamoyo na maandamani ni kwa sababu ya uongozi mbaya.Wauguzi wanagoma na pia walimu wakidai haki zao. Wafanyakazi wananyanyaswa.

 

Majoka hajali maslahi ya wanasagamoyo. Anafunga soko ambalo wananchi wanategemea na kupandisha bei ya chakula. Uchumi Sagamoyo unasorota kutokana na soko kufungwa, watu hawana mahali pa kuuzia bidhaa zao.

 

Majoka anafungulia biashara ya ukataji miti bila kujali hali ya anga Sagamoyo, hasara ni kwa maskinii, viongozi wamejichimbia visima. Mito na maziwa yanakauka na mvua isiponyesha, hata maji ya kunywa yatatoka ng`ambo.

 

Majoka hajali kuhusu kifo cha Ngurumo licha ya kuwa mfuasi wake. Anaagiza Ngurumo azikwe kabla ya jua kutua (uk 69)

 

Viongozi hupanga njama ili kuangamiza wapinzani wao;

 

  1. a) Majoka na Kenga wanapanga njama ya kumtia Ashua ndani.Wanapanga aitwe ofisini mwa Majoka kisha Husda aitwe ili wafumaniane. Ashua anazingiziwa kuzua sogo katika ofisi ya serikali na kutiwa ndani. Husda anafunguliwa baada ya nusu saa.

 

  1. b) Kifo cha Jabali kilipangwa. Jabali alikuwa mpinzani wa Majoka mwenye wafuasi wengi. Akapangiwa ajali barabarani kisha wafuasi wake wakazimwa na kumfuata jongomeo, chama chake cha mwenge kilimfuata ahera.

 

  1. c) Tunu anapanga kufanya uchunguzi kuhusu chanzo cha ajali ya Jabali. Majoka anapopata habari hizi, anapanga kuzima uchunguzi huo.

 

  1. d) Kenga na Majoka wanapanga kuondoa chatu mmoja. Chatu hapa wanarejelea Sudi au Tunu kwa kuwa ndio wanaoongoza mapinduzi. Wanahofia kutolewa uongozini na ili kuzuia hali hii, wanapanga kumwondoa mmoja wao.

“…chatu mmoja atolewe kafara ili watu wajue usalama upo, wakereketwa waachwe katika hali ya taharuki”

 

  1. e) Majoka anapanga njama Tunu auliwe, anaumizwa mfupa wa muundi nia yake ikiwa ni kumkomesha asimpinge. Majoka anatumia polisi wake kutekeleza ukatili huo.

Katika hotuba ya Tunu anayowahutubia waandamanaji, Sagamoyo kuna uongozi mbaya.Anasema kuwa;

  • pesa za kusafisha soko zimefujwa,
  • soko linafungwa badala ya kusafishwa,
  • haki za wauzaji zimekiukwa.

Viongozi hawasikilizi matakwa ya wananchi. Majoka hana wakati wa kuwasikiliza waandamanaji. Hataki kujua chanzo cha maandamano wala suluhu lake.

Majoka anadhibiti vyombo vya habari Sagamoyo, habari zinazopeperushwa katika  runinga ya Mzalendo na picha za watu wengi sokoni wakiongozwa na Tunu zinamfanya Majoka kufunga runinga hiyo ya mzalendo.

Viongozi hutumia vitisho. Majoka anatishia Chopi kumwaga unga wake kwa vile polisi hawakuwatawanya waandamanaji, wanasagamoyo wanatishiwa kuhama Sagamoyo kwa juwa sio kwao, wanarushiwa vijikaratasi. (uk 52)

Majoka anatumia askari kutawanya raia badala ya kulinda uhuru wao.

Viongozi ni waongo. Majoka anatumia uongo ili kumteka Tunu. Anamhaidi jambo la kifahari, kumwoza Ngao Junior akirudi kutoka ng`ambo.

viongozi hutendea wananchi ukatili, watu wanaotiwa jela huchapwa na haki zao hukiukwa. Ashua ana majeraha kutokana na kichapo.

Viongozi hupanga uvamizi, Sudi anavamiwa (uk 54)

Viongozi wamekiuka sheria. Mamapima anadai kuwa anauza pombe haramu kwa kibali kutoka serikali ya Majoka. Ni hatia kuuza pombe haramu lakini viongozi huvunja sheria na kuwapa wauzaji kibali. (uk 61)

Sagamoyo hata viongozi hawafuati katiba.

“…huku ni Sagamoyo, serikali na katiba ni mambo mawili tofauti.” (uk 61)

Uongozi wa Majoka una ubaguzi, unafaudi wachache tu, wanaomuunga mkono. Asiya bibiye Boza anapata mradi wa kuoka keki mwa vile anauunga uongozi wa Majoka Mkono.

 

Viongozi hujulimbikizia mali. Kuna hoteli ya kifahari Sagamoyo, Majoka and Majoka modern resort.

Viongozi ni wanafiki. Majoka amepanga kuficha maovu yake mbele ya wageni. Ukumbi unapambwa na kurembeshwa huku kukiwa na maovu mengi Sagamoyo. Kuna mauaji, unyakuzi, njaa,maziara yamejaa Sagamoyo.

 

2) UZALENDO.

Wananchi wa Sagamoyo ni wazalendo, wanalipa kodi ili kuleta maendeleo licha ya kulaghaiwa.

Katika enzi za ukoloni, mashujaa walijitolea mhanga wakahatarisha maisha yao na hata kufa ili wavune matunda baada ya uhuru. (uk 4)

Wimbo unaoimbwa katika rununu ni wa kizalendo kuonyesha kuwa wanasagamoyo wanalipenda jimbo lao, sagamoyo.(uk 5)

Sudi anaelewa kuwa uongozi wa Majoka haufai. Anawaeleza Boza na Kombe umuhimu wa kuandika historia ya Sagamoyo upya. Kinyago anachokichonga Sudi ni cha shujaa halisi wa Sagamoyo, anaelewa kuwa Tunu ndiye anapaswa kuwa kiongozi halisi.

Tuni ni mzalendo katika taifa lake. Anasema kuwa jukumu lake ni kulinda uhai, haki na uhuru. Amajitolea kwa vyovyote  vile kutetea haki Sagamoyo .Wamekula kiapo kutetea haki Sagamoyo hata kama ni kwa pumzi zao za mwisho baada ya mafanikio. (iuk18). Akiwa mwanafunzi katika chuo kikuu walipambana kama viongozi wa chama cha wanafunzi chuoni hadi kuleta mafanikio.

Tunu ni mzalendo Sagamoyo, anawahutubiawananchi na kuwaarifu hali ilivyo Sagamoyo.Pesa za kusafisha soko zimefujwa,soko limefungwa badala ya kusafishwa na haki za wauzaji kukiukwa. Wamejitolea kutolegeza msimamo wao hadi soko lifunguliwe.

Tunu anamkabili Majoka kwa uovu wake. Anamwambia wazi kuwa atalipa kila tone la damu alilomwaga Sagamoyo, yeye na watu wake. (uk 43)

Tunu anatetea maslahi ya wanyonge, anamwambia Majoka kuwa Wanasagamoyo wana haki ya kuishi, anamwambia ugatuzi si unyakuzi na kumkashifu kwa kubomoa vioski katika soko la Chapakazi.(uk 45)

 

Tunu anamkashifu mamapima kwa kuuza pombe haramu kwa vile ni kinyume cha sheria. Anatetea katiba ya nchi  inayofafanua sheria zinazohusiana na uuzaji na unywaji wa pombe.

Tunu anajitolea kuwatumikia wanasagamoyo. Yeye ni mtu wa vitendo na wala si vishindo. Anaita mkutano ili soko lifunguliwe na kuapa kutoondoka hadi soko litakapofunguliwa. Tunu amejitolea kuikomboa Sagamoyo ili kuleta mabadiliko, anakiri kuwa mambo hayatapoa, kumewaka moto na kutateketea.(uk 55)

3) NAFASI YA MWANAMKE.

Sudi anapochonga kinyago cha shujaa mwanamke, Kenga anamwambia Sagamoyo haijawahi kuwa na shujaa mwanamke. Katika historia ya Sagamoyo wanawake wametengwa katika uongozi.(uk 10).

Kenga anasema kinyago hicho hakitanunuliwa na afadhali achonge kinyago cha Ngao.

Wanawake wamesawiriwa kuwa hawara, Sudi anapokataa kuchonga jinyago, Kenga anamwambia kuwa amelishwa kiapo na hawara wake.(uk12)

Wanawake hutumiwa kama pambo katika jamii ya Sagamoyo. Majoka anamwambia Ashua kuwa, urembo wake hauna mfanowe.

“…nikufanishe na nini? urembo wako hauna mfanowe Ashua” (uk 20)

Majoka anamshauri Ashua atumie urembo wake kwa kuwa ni wa muda.(uk 25)

Husda anakiri kuwa mwanamke ni pambo mbele ya mwanamme.(uk67)

Wanawame wamesawiriwa kuwa wenye maringo. Majoka anadai kuwa Ashua alikataa kazi ya ualimu kwa sababu ya maringo. (uk25)

Wanawake wamadharauliwa. Majoka anawadharau Ashua na Husda kwa kusema wanawake ni wanawake tu, si kitu mbele yake. (uk 26)

Adui wa mwanamke ni mwanamke. Husda anamwita Ashua mdaku, kimada wa kuwinda wanaume wa watu. Hali halisi ni kuwa, Ashua hana nia hii.

Majoka anamweleza Sudi kuwa mkewe Ashua hajui maana ya ndoa. Anasema kazi yake ni kuzururasurura .wanawake hulaumiwa.

 

Mwanamke amedharauliwa, mvamizi anamkanya Tunu aache kunyemelea wanaume wa watu.

Ngurumo anamdharau Tunu kwa kuwa mwanamke. Anaposema soko lifunguliwe, Ngurumo anamdharau na kumuuliza yeye ni nani Sagamoyo, wanawake hawatambuliwi.

Mwanamke katika jamii ya Sagamoyo ni kuolewa na kumtumikia mwanamme. Wimbo wa Ngurumo kwa Tunu unamshauri aolewe, kwa kuwa ana elimu asije akazeekea nyumbani kwao.

Wanawake wamechukuliwa kuwa dhaifu kwamba hawawezi kuongoza. Majoka anasema hawezi kuaibishwa na mwanamke.(uk 90)

Hata hivyo, wanawake ni wasomi,Ashua ana shahada ya ualimu.

Wanawake wamajipigania kujikomboa. Tunu anakataa kuozwa kwa Ngao Junior na kujitetea kuwa anaweza kusubiri aolewe na mume ampendaye.(uk42)

Mamake Tunu anajifunga kibwebwe baada ya kifo cha babake ili Majoka agharamie masomo ya Tunu.

Wanawake ni wanamapinduzi na viongozi bora.Tunu anaongoza mapinduzi ili kuleta haki Sagamoyo.

4) MIGOMO/MAANDAMANO.

Wauguzi Sagamoyo wanaandamana.

Walimu Sagamoyo wanagoma wakiwa likizoni.

Kiwandani Majoka and Majoka company anapofanya kazi siti, watu wanagoma. Vijana watano wanauliwa..

Wachuuzi sokoni wanaandamana, wengine wanaumizwa. Wanaandamana kwa sababu ya soko kufungwa. Wanaume Sagamoyo ni kukimbizana na waandamanaji.

Waandamanaji huandamana kila siku, kuna picha za waandamanaji gazetini kila siku.

Habari gazetini zinaonyesha kuwa Tunu ameongoza maandamano na anaandamana na wanaojiita wanaharakati. (uk 32)

Tunu anawahutubia wanahabari na kusema kuwa pesa za kusafisha soko zimefujwa, soko kufungwa badala ya kusafishwa. (uk 33)

 

Kenga anamshauri Majoka ayapuuze maandamabo yanayoendelea. (uk 34)

Kuna habari kwenye mtandao wa mijamii kuhusu maandamano. Watu wengi wanaandamana sokoni wakiongozwa na Sudi. Maandamano yanazidi kuharibia sherehe ya uhuru.

5) MATUMIZI MABAYA YA VYOMBO VYA DORA.

Majoka anatunia polisi kuwatawanya waandamanaji na kuwaumiza wapinzani wake, Tunu anaumizwa mguu.

Runinga ya mzalendo haina maisha Sagamoyo kwa sababu ya kupeperusha habari za maandamano. Majoka anaamua kufunga vituo vya habari na kibakie tu kituo kimoja.

Kenga anamshauri Majoka waichukulie hatua runinga ya mzalendo kwa kuwa haipendi yeye.

Majoka anatumia vyombo vya habari kuimba nyimbo za kizalendo ili kumsifu yeye.

Vyombo vya habari hueneza propaganda, kuna habari katika vyombo vya habari kuwa Tunu hawezi kupigania haki za Wanasagamoyo kwa kuwa amelemazwa mguu.

6)ASASI YA NDOA

a)NDOA KATI NYA ASHUA NA SUDI.

Ni ndoa yenye mapenzi yanayoegemea upande mmoja. Sudi anampenda Ashua kwa dhati, anajitahidi kwa udi na uvumba ili kumkidhi Ashua. Kila kitu anachokipata humletea.

Sudi ni mwaminifu katika ndoa yake, hajamwenda Ashua kinyume hata Ashua anapotiwa ndani na Majoka.

Aidha, ndoa hii imejengwa katika misingi ya kutoaminiana. Ashua anamshuku mumewe kuwa ana mipango ya kimapenzi na Tunu.

Ashua amechoshwa na Sudi na anaswema kuwa ni afadhali alipo jelani. Anadai kuwa, mawazo ya Sudi,hisia zake, nafsi yake ma kila kitu chake kimesombwa na Tunu.

Ashua ametawalwa na tamaa ya mali na kumwambia Sudi kuwa amechoka kupendwa kimaskini, anabadilika akiwa ndani kwa Majoka, awali alimpenda mumewe kwa dhati lakini baadaye anaomba talaka. Anafurikwa na tamaa na ubinafsi.

  1. b) NDOA KATI YA MAJOKA NA HUSDA.

Ni ndoa ambayo imejaa lawama, Majoka anamlaumu Husda kuwa hampendi bali aliolewa na mali yake.( uk 75)

Hakuna mapenzi ya dhati katika ndoa hii. Majoka hampendi Husda. Alimoa ili kutimiza wajibu wake katika jamii na kama kiongozi, alipaswa kuoa. Alilia usiku huo baada ya kumwoa Husda lakini moyo na nafsi yake viko kwa Ashua. (uk75)

Majoka anampenda Ashua zaidi ya kumpenda hata anaweza kumfia. Anapanga njama ili kumpata. Majoka anakiri kuwa Ashua anamuua moyoni kwa penzi. Anamkondesha na kumkosesha raha kwa kumkataa. Ashua kumkimbia Majoka alimwachia Majoka  aibu na penzi lake kwa Ashua linamsongoa. (uk 76).

Asasi ya ndoa imo hatarini kwa kutawaliwa ma tamaa ya mali. Baadhi ya wanaume huoa ili kutimiza matakwa yao na wanawake huolewa kwa sababu ya tamaa ya mali na ubinafsi.

Wanaume wanapaswa kujidadisi na wakae na wake zao kwa heshima. Wanawake nao wanapaswa kujirudi vinginevyo asasi ya ndoa imo hatarini. (uk 77)

Uaminifu na mapenzi ya kweli ni kigezo muhimu ili ndoa idumu.

7) ULEVI NA ATHARI ZAKE.

Mangweni kwa mamapima shughuli za ulevi zimeshika kani.

Ngurumo ni mlevi kupindukia, anajulikana Sagamoyo kwa uraibu wake wa vileo. Anajunywa pombe zaidi ili kusherehekea sherehe za uhuru.

Vijana ni walevi kwa mamapima hadi wanasimama kwa taabu.

Ulevi umepotosha baadhi ya vijana, Ngurumo alisoma darasa moja na Tunu lakini ni mlevi kupindukia, hajitambui.

Kwa mamapima kila mtu hupewa vileo kwa raha zake.

Ulevi umemfumba Ngurumo hadi haoni athari za soko kufungwa, yeye anadai kuwa yuko sawa na hataki soko lifunguliwe. (uk60)

 

Mamapima hatambui hatari za ulevi, anaona kulewa ni raha, anawaambia Tunu na Sudi wajipe raha kwa kulewa.

Mtu mmoja ni hoi kutokana na ulevi, anaanguka chini na kuanza kugaragara.

Tunu anasema kuwa juzi waliwazika watu kutokana na pombe na wengine kugeuka vipofu kwa sababu ya pombe.

8) VIFO/MAUAJI.

Vijana watano wanauliwa watu wanapoandamana katika kampuni ya Majoka.

Watu huuliwa Sagamoyo.

“Natumai hakuna aliyeuliwa, sitaki kujipaka matope tena” (uk 31)

Kifo cha Jabali kilipangwa katika ajali kwa kuwa mpinzani wa majoka hata chama chake cha Mwenge kikamfuata ahera.

Tunu anamwambia Majoka kuwa yeye na wenzake ni wauaji. (uk43)

Viongozi humwaga damu Sagamoyo. Tunu anamwambia Majoka kuwa atalipa kila tone la damu lililomwagwa Sagamoyo.

Babake Tinu anakufa katika Majoka and Majoka company. Marara na watu wake walimtemdea ukatili.

Hashima anasema damu nyingi imemwagika Sagamoyo hadi ardhi imeingia najisi

Mashujaa wengine walienda jongomeo kwa kuleta uhuru Sagamoyo.

Ngurumo ananyongwa na chatu akitoka Mangweni.

Majoka anapanga kutekeleza mauaji kwa kumwondoa chatu mmoja ili pawe na usalama Sagamoyo. Kuomdoa chatu ni kuua Sudi au Tunu.

Kifo cha Ngao junior kinatokea, anapatikana katika uwanja wa ndege akiwa na sumu ya nyoka.

Majoka anasema kuwa ziwa kubwa limefurika damu furifuri kumaanisha vifo vya watu wengi vimetokea Sagamoyo. Watu wanalilia damu ya Majoka, wanataka kumuua.(uk 79)

9) UFISADI.

Serikali ya Majoka ina ufisadi, inampa mamapima kibali cha kuuza pombe haramu.

Mamapima ni fisadi, anawapunja walevi.

 

Majoka anatumia pesa za umma visivyo kugharamia njama ili kuzima uchunguzi wa Tunu kuhusu ajali ya Jabali.

Viongozi Sagamoyo ni fisadi, wanaitisha kitu kidogo kutoka kwa wananchi. Wakati mwingine viongozi hudai kitu kikubwa au kitu chote. (uk 3)

Viongozi hutumia mali ya umma visivyo kufadhili miradi isiyo muhimu, kufadhili mradi wa muchonga vinyago ni kufisidi wananchi maana watalipia mradi huo.

Majoka anafisidi wananchi kwa kufunga soko ili ajenge hoteli ya kifahari. Soko ni chafu ilihali wananchi wanalipa kodi ya kusafisha soko. Majoka anadai kuwa ana mradi muhimu wa mushughulikia kuliko kusafisha soko.

Majoka ni fisadi, alikuwa na mpango wa kumpa Ashua kazi ya ualimu katika Majoka and Majoka academy kwa njia isiyo halali.

10) USALITI.

Majoka anawasaliti wanasagamoyo, watu wote wanamhukumu kwa kuwasaliti.

Majoka anatumia polisi kuwatisha wanasagamoyo badala ya kulinda usalama wao akiwa kiongozi wao.

Kingi anamsaliti Majoka wakati wa mwisho, anampinga amri yake kuwapiga watu risasi, siku zote alimtii Majoka.

Majoka anawasaliti wanasagamoyo kwa kuwafungia soko, anapaswa kulisafisha badala ya kulifunga.

Majoka anawasaliti wanasagamoyo kwa kupanga mauaji badala ya kulinda na kutetea haki zao.

Ashua anamsaliti Sudi kwa kuomba talaka licha ya kuwa sudi anampenda kwa dhati.

Boza na Kombe wanawasaliti wanamapinduzoi kwa kuunga mkono uongozi mbaya wa Majoka.

Majoka anamsaliti Husda kwa kukiri kuwa hampendi licha ya kuwa mkewe.

 

11) UTABAKA.

Jamii ya Sagamoyo imegawika katika matabaka mawili ;tabaka la watawala na tabaka la watawalwa. Watawala wanaishi maisha ya kifahari huku watawalwa wanaishi maisha ya uchochole.

 

  1. watawala/walalahai.

Viongozi wana madaktari wao wa kuwahudumia, Majoka anapozirai, daktari wake anaitwa.

Watawala wana shule za kifahari, Majoka and Majoka academy ni shule ya kifahari.

Watoto wa viongozi huishi ng`ambo palipo na maisha bora. Ngao Junior yuko ng`ambo.

Watawala wanaishi maisha ya starehe,

Mzee Kenga ana gari la kifahari na walinzi,

Majoka anasema apikiwe kuku kwa chapati

Majoka ana hoteli la kifahari

Watawala wamejichimbia visima, Majoka anafungulia biashara ya ukataji miti huku wanasagamoyo wakiteseka kwa kiangazi.

Ofisini mwa Majoka anakalia kiti cha kifahari, kando yake kumepangwa medhali kadhaa, anaishi maisha ya kifahari.

               b)Watawalwa/wachochole.

Soko la Chapakazi ni la wachochole.

Wachochole wana njaa, watoto wa Sudi wanalia njaa, Sudi anakula embe bovu.

Maskini wanateseka, mvua isiponyesha hata maji ya kunywa wayatoa ng`ambo.

Wauguzi wanagoma kwa sababu ya mishahara duni huku viongozi wakiwa na madaktari wa kuwahudumia.

12) UNYANYASAJI

Wanasagamoyo wananyanyaswa. Kilicho chao kinachukuliwa na wanatishwa.

Wananchi wanatumikizwa, Sudi wanaambiwa wachonge vinyago ili kufaidi viongozi.

Wanasagamoyo wananyanyaswa, keki ya uhuru inaliwa kwingineko na wanaletewa makombo.

Wananchi wanafungiwa soko ambalo ni tegemeo lao. Hawana mahali pengine pa kuuzia bidhaa zao.

 

Sagamoyo watu wananyanyaswa kwa kulazimishwa kulipa kitu kidogo wakati mwingine kitu kikubwa au kitu chote.

Ashua ananyanyaswa kwa kutiwa ndani bila kosa.

13) TAMAA.

Majoka ana tamaa ya uongozi, hataki kuondoka mamlakani. Anafanya kila awezalo kuondoa wapinzani wake.

Anataka kumtambulisha Ngao Junior rasmi kuwa mrithi wake kwenye siasa.

Majoka anadai kuwa hata asipopigigwa kuta moja atashinda. Ana tamaa ya uongozi.

Majoka ana tamaa ya mali, ananyakua uwanja wa soko ili kujenga hoteli ya kifahari.

Majoka anawafisidi wananchi ili kujilimbikizia mali kwa sababu nya tamaa

Mamapima ana tamaa ya mali, anawapunja walevi.

Husda ana tamaa ya mali, anaolewa na Majoka kwa sababu ya mali yake.

Tamaa inamtawala Ashua hadi anaomba talaka. Anadai amachoka kupendwa kimaskini kwa kuongozwa na tamaa ya mali.

14) UCHAFUZI WA MAZINGIRA.

Kuna maji chafu ambayo yametabakaa mitaroni Sagamoyo. Povu jeupe limechacha

Soko la Sagamoyo limegeuka uwanja wa kumwaga jemikali na taka.

Uchafuzi wa mazingira unaatharisha maisha ya wanasagamoyo. Sudi anakiri kuwa nusra wafe kwa sababu ya mazingira chafu.

“…Mungu anatupenda, vinginevyo tusingekuwa hai.”

Sagamoyo hakukaliki kwa sababu ya uvundo kila mahali.

      MBINU ANAZOTUMIA MAJOKA KUONGOZA SAGAMOYO

Uvumi. Watu wa Majoka wanaeneza uvumi kuwa Sudi na Ashua ndio wanawinda roho ya Tunu.

Ahadi za uongo. Madai ya Majoka kuwa atatoa chakula kwa wasiojiweza si ya kweli.

Kenga mshauri wa Majoka anawashawishi Sudi kuchonga kinyago cha Ngao ili apate malipo mazuri na maisha yake kubadilika. Kuwa jina lake litashamiri na apate tuzo nyingi zaidi ya hayo apate likizo ya mwezi mzima ughaibuni. Ahadi hizi zote ni za uongo.

Zawadi. Kenga anawaletea Sudi, Boza na Kombe zawadi ya keki kuwafumba ili wamuunge mkono Majoka.

Vitisho. Wanasagamoyo wanatishwa kwa kurushiwawa vijikaratasi wahame.

Majoka anatumia polisi kuwatisha wanasagamoyo. Matokeo yake ni watu kuhofia usalama wao.

Majoka anamtishia Chopi kuwa aramwaga unga wake kwa kutomamrisha polisi kutawanya waandamanaji.

Mapendeleo. Ashua baada ya kufuzu kutoka chuo kikuu alipewa kazi katika Majoka and Majoka academy akakataa, sasa angekuwa mwalimu mkuu katika mojawapo ya shule za kifahari, viongozi hupendelea wengine kutumia njia sisizo halali.

Majoka alimpa Tunu kazi kiwandani akakataa.

Jela. Viongozi hufungia wanao apinga jela. Ashua anatiwa ndani, kuna washukiwa wengi ndani.

Polisi. Majoka anatumia polisi kutawanya waandamanahi wanaodai haki zao.

Viongozi hutumia nguvu. Majoka anadai wafadhili wa wapinzani lazima wavunje kambi zao Sagamoyo, kuwa Sagamoyo yajiweza.

Anapanga kumkomesha Tunu dhidi ya kuongoza maandamano kutumia nguvu zake kiutawala.

Kenga anamshauri Majoka atangaze maandamano ni haramu kwa mutumia nguvu kisha maafisa wa polisi watumie nguvu zaidi.

Ulaghai. Majoka anapanga kuongoza mishahara ya waalimu na wauguzi kwa aslimia kidogo kisha apandishe kodi.

Kudhibiti vyombo vya dora. Majoka anapanga kufunga vituo vya runinga sagamoyo ili abakie na vichache anavyotaka vya kutangaza habari anazotaka.

Wavamizi. Majoka anatumia wavamizi, Tunu anaumizwa mfupa wa muundi, Siti ana majeraha kutokana na uvamizi.

Ulinzi mkali. Majoka na watu wake wana ulinzi mkali. Kenga ana walinzi, Majoka analindwa na maafisa wa polisi.

Tunu na watu wake nanafurushwa wanapojaribu kukaribia soko la Chapakazi.

 

Kufuta kazi wasiomuunga. Majoka anamfuta kazi kingi kwa kutomtii kupiga watu risasi sokoni Chapakazi.

                          MATAKWA  YA WANASAGAMOYO.

  • Soko ambalo ni tegemeo lao linafungwa. Waataka soko lao lifunguliwe na kujengwa upya pia lisafishwe.
  • Hawana usalama, askari wanatumiwa kuwatawanya na kuwatishia. Wanaishi kwa hofu.
  • Hawana uhuru wa kutangamano kwani viongozi wao wahahofia maanamano.
  • Haki zao zimekiukwa. Mauaji yanapangwa kwa njama za kuwaangamiza.
  • Wanataka kujengewa hospitali, barabara na vyoo.Waletewe nguvu za umeme.
  • Wanataka wapate elimu Sagamoyo na ajira kwa vijana.
  • Wanasagamoyo wana njaa
  • Walimu na wauguzi Sagamoyo wana mishahara duni.
  • Kuna vilio Sagamoyo, mauaji yanapangwa. Wanasagamoyo wanataka mauaji haya yakome na haki kutendwa.
  • Wanasagamoyo wananyanyaswa na viongozi, bei ya chakula inapandishwa ilihali wengi wa wananchi ni maskini.
  • Mazingira Sagamoyo ni chafu hadi kuhatarisha maisha yao. Wanataka soko kusafishwa.

           WAHUSIKA

MAJOKA.

Ni kiongozi wa jimbo la Sagamoyo.

Ni katili.

Anaamuru Tunu auliwe, anavunjwa mfupa wa muundi.

Anamwambia kingi awapige watu risasi katika soko la Chapakazi.

 

Ni mkware.

Anapanga njama ya kumpata Ashua, anamtaka kimapenzi licha ya kuwa na mke na mtoto.

Ashua anapofika ofisini mwake, anataka kumkumbatia na kumbusu.

Mwenye hasira.

Anakasirika Ashua anapokataa asimkumbatie na kusema kuwa hasira yake imeanza kufunganya virago. (uk 20)

Mwenye majisifu.

Majoka anataka sifa, anauirahi sana Ashua anapomwita Ngao jina lake la ujana.

Anajisifu kuwa yeye pia anajua kuzaa na wala si kuzaa tu bali kuzaa na kulea. (uk22)

Mwenye dharau.

Anawadharau watoto wa Ashua  kwa kuwaita vichekechea. (uk22)

Anamdharau Sudi mumewe Ashua kwa kumwita zebe.

Anamdharau Tunu kuwa  ni daktari na hana kazi ya maana.

Tunu anapokataa poza ya Ngao Junior anamdharau kuwa msichana mdogo hata ubwabwa wa shingo haujamtoka.

Mpenda anasa.

Majoka anamwambia Ashua asilie bali aseme na ampendaye, astarehe kwenye kifua cha shujaa wake.(uk22)

Anataka kumpa Ashua huba ,anamwita muhibu wake.(uk21)

Mnafiki.

Anamwambia Ashua kuwa,

“…haja zako ni haja zangu, shida zako ni shida zangu na kiu yako ni kiu yangu.”

Nia yake ni kumteka Ashua kimapenzi, hana moyo wa kujali.

Anadai kuwa hapendi rafu Ashua wanapopigana na Husda ofisini huku ni yeye huzua rafu Sagamoyo kwa kupanga mauaji hadi watu kuandamana.

Mpyoro.

Anawatusi wanasagamoyo kuwa wajinga katika soko la Chapakazi.

Anamwita Sudi mumewe Ashua Zebe.

“…uliona nini kwa huyo zebe wako.”  (uk24)

Mwenye kiburi.

Anajiita mwana wa shujaa kwamba ana akili ndipo kuwa mwana wa shujaa. Anasema kuwa aliitwa Ngao kwa kuwa na sifa.

 

Anajifananisha ma Samsoni Myaudi na shujaa Lyona wa Waswahili.

Anadai kuwa Ashua amembandika jina la kumkwaza kwa kumwita mzee.

Ni katili.

Anamfungia  Ashua licha ya kumwomba msamaha kuwa ananyonyesha.

Anapanga njama za mauaji bila kujali haki za raia.

Anawafungia wanasagamoyo soko ambalo ni tegemeo lao biala kujali.

Ni dikteta.

Majoka hutoa amri, polisi watawanye waandamanaji.

Kenga anasubiri amri ya Majoka ili amkomeshe Tunu kufanya uchunguzi kuhusu kifo cha Jabali.

UMUHIMU WA MAJOKA.

Ametumika kuonyesha jinsi ambavyo viongozi hutumia mamlaka yao vibaya kunyakua ardhi ya umma, kuvunja sheria za katiba, kudhibithi vyombo vya dora, kupanga njama za mauaji, kunyanyasa maskini na kudhulumu wnawake kimapenzi.

Ni kielelezo cha viongozi katika mataifa yanayoendelea na shida zinazoyakumba kutokana na uongozi mbaya.

 TUNU.

Ni mwanamke Sagamoyo ambaye anapinga maovu ya Majoka, rafikiye Sudi na mtoto wa Hashima.

Ni mwanamapinduzi.

Anaongoza maandamano Sagamoyo.

Anahutubia wanahabari kuhusu hali halisi Sagamoyo.

Anakiri kutolegeza msimamo wao hadi soko lifunguliwe.

Ni msomi.

Ana shahada ya sheria kutoka chuo kikuu.

Ni mtetezi wa haki .

Anapanga kuleta wachunguzi kutoka nje ili kuchunguza kuhusu kifo cha Jabali .

Anamwambia Majoka wazi kuwa kila mtu Sagamoyo ana haki nya kuishi.

Mwenye msimamo dhabiti.

Anakataa wazo la Majoka kumwoza kwa Ngao Junior.

Licha ya kuumizwa mguu, halegezi kamba kuwapigania wanasagamoyo.

Ni jasiri.

Haogopi yeyote, anataka kukutana na viongozi katili ili awakashifu.

Anamwambia Majoka wazi kuwa hawezi kuolewa na mhuni, kwanba wanakula watu kwa jina la ugatuzi. (uk42)

Ni mzalendo.

Tunu anapigania haki za Wanasagamoyo, anamwambia Majoka kuwa wanasagamoyo wana haki ya kuishi na kuwa ugatuzi si unyakuzi.

Mdadisi.

Anamdadisi mamake ili ajue maana ya ndoto ya Mzee Marara kumfukuza ili amnyanganye mkufu wake wa dhahabu.

Anapanga kuchunguza ajali iliyosababisha kifo cha Tunu.

Mwajibikaji.

Tunu amawajibika, anaelewa athari ya pombe, na kukataa pombe anayopewa kwa mamapima.

Mwenye usawa

Anapigania usalama wa kila mtu Sagamoyo, habagui yeyote. Hambagui mamapima anapomwomba msamaha.

UMUHIMU WAKE.

Tunu ametumika kuonyesha kuwa kuna wazalendo katika jamii ambao wamejitolea kupinga uongozi mbaya ili kuleta haki na usawa katika jamii.

Mwandishi amemtumia mhusika Tunu kuonyesha kuwa licha ya changamoto zinazomkumba mtoto wa kike, bado ana nafasi muhimu katika ujenzi wa jamii mpya, wanawake ni muhimu katika uongozi ili kuleta maendeleo.

 ASHUA

Ni mkewe Sudi, mamake Pendo na Pili

Ni mwenye msimamo thabiti.

Licha ya kushawishiwa kimapenzi na Majoka, hakubaliani na kauli  yake. Anashikilia msimamo wake kuwa ana mume na hataki kuvunja ndoa yake, anakataa huba kutoka kwa Majoka.

Ni jasiri.

Anamkabili Majoka kwa kupasa sauti ofisini mwake, haogopi. Anamwambia kwa ujasiri kuwa anefika kwake kuomba msaada.

Ni mnyenyekevu.

Ananyenyekea mbele ya Majoka ofisini mwake na kumwomba msamaha, anamwomba Majoka amkanye Husda asimtusi.

Ni mwenye heshima.

Anakiri kuwa anamheshimu Majoka.

Ni mwaminifu.

Ashua ni mwaminifu katika ndoa yake. Anakataa kufanya mapenzi na Majoka kwa kuhofia talaka yake.

Anathamini ndoia yake, anakataa pendekezo la Majoka kwa madai kuwa yeye ni mke wa mtu.

Ni msomi.

Ashua amesoma na ana shahada ya ualimu.

Amezinduka.

Anadai kuwa kampuni ya Majoka ni ya wahuni. Anaelewa kuwa wanasagamoyo wamenyanyaswa hivyo kujiunga na wanamapinduzi kupigania haki.

Ni mkali.

Ashua anamkabili Husda kwa ukali ofisini mwa Majoka.

Ni mwenye tamaa.

Ashua baada ya kutiwa ndani kwa Majoka, tamaa inamjaa. Anamwambia Sudi kuwa amechoka kupendwa kimaskini, tamaa ya mali inamtawala.

Asiye na subira.

Subira inamhama Ashua. Hawezi kusubiri hadi Sudi awe na uwezo wa kumtunza.

                                  UMUHIMU WAKE.

Ametumika kuwakilisha wanawake ambao wanathamini na kuzienzi ndoa zao, wanawake waaminifu lakini kwa sabavu ya kutawaliwa na tamaa ya mali na ubinafsi, huaribu ndoa zao.

             SUDI.

 

Ni mumewe Ashua, fundi wa kuchonga vinyago Sagamoyo ambaye anashirikiana na Tunu kupinga maovu ya Majoka.

Ni mzalendo.

Kwake taarifa za Majoka hazimfai, za kutangaza mashujaa waliopigania uhuru Sagamoyo.

Haoni maana ya uhuru huo hivyo kutomuunga mkono.

Ana jukumu la kulinda uhai, kulinda haki na kulinda uhuru.

Wanaitaji kuandika historia ya Sagamoyo upya.

Ni mwenye bidii.

Anafanya kazi ya kuchonga vinyago kwa bidii.

Ni mwenye msimamo thabiti.

Licha ya kushawishiwa na kuhaidiwa mengi na Kenga ili achonge kinyago cha Ngao, anakataa na kushikilia msimamo wake.

Ni jasiri.

Anamwambia Kenga kwa ujasiri wamemulikwa mbali. (uk12).

Haogopi kuchonga kinyago cha mwanamke.

Amezinduka.

Hali keki ya uhuru wanayoletewa na Kenga kwa madai kuwa ni makombo. Anaelewa kuwa viongozi wanawanyanyasa.

Ni mwajibikaji.

Sudi amewajibika, anajitahidi kwa udi na uvumba ili kumkidhi Ashua. Kila kitu anachokipata humletea Ashua.

Ni mwenye mapenzi ya dhati .

Sudi anampenda mkewe kwa dhati. Hufanya kila kitu ili kumkidhi.

Ni mwaminifu.

Sudi ni mwaminifu katika ndoa yake. Anampenda Ashua na anajelea kumpa talaka Ashua anapoiomba.

Ni msomi.

Sudi ana shahada, walisoma shule moja na Tunu.

 

                    UMUHIMU WAKE.

 

Mwandishi amemtumia mhusika Sudi kuonyesha kuwa kuna, wazalendo katika jamii ambao wamejitolea kuoigania haki ili kujenga janii mpya, watu ambao wamejitolea kupinga uongozi mbaya.

     KENGA.

Ni mshauri mkuu wa Majoka.

Ni mshauri mbaya.

Anamshauri Majoka visivyo. Anamwambia atangaze kuwa maandamano ni haramu kisha aamuru maafisa wa polisi watumie nguvu zaidi.

Ni kikaragosi.

Anamuunga Majoka mkono hata kwa mambo yasiyofaa nia yake ikiwa ni kujinufaisha kutokana na uongozi wake.

Ni fisadi.

Yeye na  Majoka wanadai kitu kidogo kutoka kwa wanasagamoyo.

Baada ya soko kufungwa, Majoka anamwambia kuwa kipande chake cha ardhi kipo. Anakipata kwa njia isiyo halali.

Ni mwoga.

Kenga abahofia maandamano yanayoendelea na kumshauri Majoka asiyapuuze

Ni mwenye matumaini.

Hafi moyo, anasema atarudi tena na tena ili kusema na Sudi ili achonge kinyago.

UMUHIMU WAKE.

Kenga anawakilisha washauri wabaya wa viongozi katika jamii, watu ambao nia yao ni kujinufaisha wenyewe bila kujali maslahi ya wanyonge.

Washauri ambao ni katili na hata hupanga njama za mauaji ili kuendelea jufaidi kutoka kwa viongozi.                                              NGURUMO.

Ni kijana mpenda anasa, mfuasi wa Majoka.

Ni mlevi.

Ngurumo ni mlevi kupindukia,anajulikana Sagamoyo kutokana na ulevi wake.

Ni msaliti.

Anasaliti wanamapinduzi kwa madai kuwa Sagamoyo ni pazuri tangu soko kufungwa.

Anasaliti katiba ya nchi yake kwa kunywa pombe haramu, kinyume na sheria.

Ni mpenda anasa.

Ngurumo anapenda anasa, kwake kulewa ni starehe.

Mwenye taasubi ya kiume.

Anamdharau Tunu kwa kuwa mwanamke, anadai kuwa yeye si kitu Sagamoyo.

Anamwimbia wimbo wenye ujumbe kuwa aolewe ili asije akazeekea kwao

Ni kikaragosi.

Yeye ni  mfuasi wa Majoka, anaunga uongozi wake mkono licha ya kuwa haufai.

         UMUHIMI WAKE.

Mwandishi amemtumia Ngurumo kuonyesha kuwa kuna vijana ambao wamepotoshwa na anasa katika jamii na kukosa mwelekeo. Ngurumo ni kijana lakini mlevi kupindukia.

       BOZA

Ni fundi wa kuchonga vinyago Sagamoyo, mumewe Asiya (mamapima)

Ni mwenye hasira.

Anamwambia Sudi kwa hasira kuwa embe lake linanuka fee. (uk1)

Ni kikaragosi.

Anatetea viongozi kuwa ni jukumu lao kusanya kodi, kuwa huku ndilo kujenga nchi na kujitegemea. (uk3)

Anafurahia wimbo wa uzalendo unaosifia uongozi wa Majoka ilhali hali ni tofauti  Sagamoyo kulingana na maudhui katika wimbo huo.

Anamuunga Majoka mkono ili afaidi.

Mwenye majisifu.

Anajisifu kuwa keki ya uhuru imeokwa na mke wake mwenyewe.

Ni msaliti.

Anawasaliti wanamapinduzi kwa kuunga mkono uongozi Mbaya wa Majoka mkono.

 

 

     UMUHIMU WAKE.

Boza ametumika kuonyesha watu ambao hawajazinduka katika jamii, wanaotumikizwa na viongozi na kufumbwa kwa mambo madogomadogo ili waendelee kuunga uongozi mbaya mkono.

       HUSDA

Ni mkewe Majoka.

Ni mwenye tamaa ya mali.

Anaolewa na Majoka kwa sababu ya pesa na wala si mapenzi halisi

Ni mkali.

Anasema atamuua  mtu anapompata Ashua na Majoka.

Mpyoro.

Anamtusi Ashua na kumwita kidudumtu na mdaku.

Mbinafsi.

Husda ana ubinafsi, anaolewa sababu ya mali ili kujinufaisha.

 

UMUHIMU WAKE.

Husda ni kielelezo cha wanawake wanaoongozwa na tamaa ya mali hata hata katika ndoa, wanawake wanaoolewa kwa sababu ya mali na wala si mapenzi ya kweli.

         MAMAPIMA

Huyu ni Asiya mkewe poza anayeuza pombe Sagamoyo.

Ni laghai.

Anawapunja walevi.

Ni mwenye tamaa ya pesa.

Anawapunja walevi kwa sababu ya tamaa ya pesa.

Amekiuka sheria.

Anauza pombe haramu kinyume cha sheria.

 

         UMUHIMU WAKE.

Mamapima ametumika kuonyesha watu ambao  huongozwa na tamaa hadi kiwango cha kukiuka sheria.

 

 

        BABU.

Ni babuye Majoka ambaye ametokea ndotoni.

Ni mshauri mwema.

Anamshauri Majoka abadili mienendo yake na asikie vilio vya wanasagamoyo na aone maovu aliyoyatenda. (uk 83)

Ni mwenye hekima.

Anathibitisha kauli kuwa maisha ni mabadiliko na maovu yana mwisho.

Anamwonya Majoka dhidi ya kuishi kwa kutojali, kuwa hasara itamwandama akataliwe na watu asiwe mtu tena.

Anampa Majoka wosia kuwa binadami ni mavumbi na atarejea mavumbini kwa hivyo asihishi kwa kuwanyanyasa wengine wala asiongozwe na tamaa maishani.

Anamshauri kuwa mkwea ngazi huteremka. (uk84).

Anamwambia Majoka atende wema daima na ataishi maisha mema iwapo atakufa, atajiandikia tarijama njema huko ahera.

  UMUHIMU WA BABU.

Mwandishi amemtumia kuonya umma kuwa si vyema kutendea wengine mabaya, maana maovu yana mwisho. Wanadamu wasiishi kwa kuwanyanyasa wengine wala kuongozwa na tamaa bali watende mema daima

    MBINU ZA UANDISHI.

         KINAYA.

Habari zinazotolewa na mjumbe katika rununu ni za kinaya, kuwa wanasagamoyo wasirudishe maendeleo nyuma bali wafurahie ufanisi ambao umepatikana katika kipindi cha miaka tisini baada ya uhuru.

Ujumbe huu ni kinaya kwa vile Sagamoyo hakuna maendeleo wala ufanisi. Watu wana njaa na wanakosa mambo ya kimsingi kama vile maji, elimu na matakwa mengine mengi.

Boza anadai kuwa kulipa kodi ni kujenga nchi na kujitegemea. Kauli hii ni kinaya kwa vile kodi wanayolipa wanasagamoyo haitumiki kujenga nchi kwa vyovyote vile.

 

Sudi anasema kuwa katika kipindi cha mwezi mzima wa uhuru wale mali walizochuna kwa miaka sitini. Ni kinaya kwa kuwa hakuna walichovuna, viongozi hujilimbikizia mali.

Boza anamwambia Sudi kuwa wanatia doa kwa kila jambo nzuri. Ni kinaya kwa vile hakuna mambo mazuri ambayo Majoka amefanya Sagamoyo. (uk5)

Wanasagamoyo kusheherekea miaka sitini ya uhuru ni kinaya kwani hakuna cha muhimu kusheherekewa, hakuna maendeleo Sagamoyo.

Boza anadai kuwa kinyago chake chapendeza na kufanana na shujaa Marara Bin Ngao, ni kinaya kwani kinyago hicho hakifanani na shujaa huyo.

Mzee Majoka kudai kuwa anamheshimu sudi ni kinaya. Majoka hana heshima kwa raia wake, nia yake ni kutaka Sudi amchongee kinyago. (uk13)

Kenga kumwambia Sudi kuwa ipo siku atamtafuta mzee Majoka ni kinaya kwani Sudi hana haja naye.

Majoka kudai kuwa takataka za soko zitaaribu sifa nzuri za jimbo la Sagamoyo ni kinaya kwa vile hakuna sifa nzuri Sagamoyo. Viongozi wanaendeleza maovu na hata kupanga mauaji.

Kauli ya Husda kuwa Ashua ni kimada wa Majoka ni kinaya kwa vile Ashua hana nia yoyote na Majoka. Amefika kwake kuomba msaada.

Ni kinaya kwa polisi Sagamoyo kutawanya waandamanaji. Polisi wanapaswa kulinda na kutetea haki za wananchi.

Majoka kusema kuwa Sagamoyo wanajiweza  ni kinaya. Watu wana matakwa mengi, ni maskini, wana njaa na hata kupata ufadhili kitoka nje kwa miradi isiyo muhimu.

Ni kinaya Kenga anapomwambia Majoka aache moyo wa huruma, kwa sababu Majoka hana hata chembe cha huruma. Anapanga mauaji na kunyanyasa raia.

Majoka anaposema kuwa juhudi za Tunu kuandaa migomo hazitamfikisha mahali ni kinaya kwa vile Tunu wanafanikiwa katika maandamano yao na hata kuungwa mkono na wengi.

Ni kinaya kwa Ashua kumwambia Sudi kuwa ni kosa lake kutiwa ndani. Kosa ni la Majoka na njama yake ya kutaka kuchongewa kinyago.

 

Ashua anasema kuwa katika jela kuna amani na amechoshwa na Sudi. Ni kinaya kwani Ashua anapata maumivu akiwa jelani.

Uvumi unaoenea kuwa Sudi na Ashua ndio wanaowinda roho ya Tunu ni kinaya kwani wote hawa ni wanamapinduzi wanaopigania haki Sagamoyo.

Madai ya Ngurumo ni kinaya kuwa tangu soko kufungwa Sagamoyo ni pazuri mno. Eti mauzo ni maradufu ilihali watu hawana mahali pa kuuzia bidhaa zao, kifungwa kwa soko kunawaangaisha raia hata zaidi.

Ngurumo kusema kuwa pombe ni starehe ni kinaya kwani watu wanaangamia kutokana na pombe, wengine kuwa vipofu.

Watu wengi wanatarajiwa kufika katika uwanja wa ikulu ya Majoka kusherehekea uhuru siku ya sherehe lakini ni kinaya kwa kuwa ni watu kumi tu ambao wanafika.

          JAZANDA.

Kinyago cha shujaa anachochonga Sudi kwamba shujaa huyo ni mkubwa kuliko jina lake na urembo wa shujaa huyo ni bora zaidi. Shujaa anayerejelewa hapa ni Tunu, yale ambayo anatendea Sagamoyo ni makuu kuliko jina lake, kutetea haki za wanyonge. (uk10)

Husda anamwambia Ashua kuwa hawezi kumtoa bonge kinywani hivi hivi. Bonge ni Majoka bwanake Husda kuwa Ashua hawezi kumnyanganya bwana.

Husda kumwita Majoka pwagu, pwagu ni mwizi na Majoka amewaibia wanasagamoyo; ananyakua ardhi, anaiba kodi na kuwalaghai wanasagamoyo. (uk27)

 

Husda anamwambia Ashua kuwa ameshindwa kufuga kuku na kanga hatamweza. Kuku ni mumewe Sudi, na Kanga ni Majoka, kwamba Ashua ameshindwa kumtunza Sudi na Majoka hampati. (uk28)

 

Tunu kuwekewa vidhibitimwendo ni kukomeshwa au kuwekewa vikwazo ili afe moyo kutetea haki za wanasagamoyo.

 

Majoka anasema kuwa hatatumia bomu kuulia mbu. Anamrejelea Tunu kuwa mbu kunaanisha hatatumia nguvu nyingi kumwangamiza. (uk35)

 

Majoka anasema ili kuongoza Sagamoyo ni lazima uwe na ngozi ngumu, kumaanisha ni lazima uwe mkali na mwenye nguvu.

 

Jukwaa kupakwa rangi kwa ajili ya sherehe ya uhuru ni kufunika uozo ulio Sagamoyo.

Majoka anaposema salamu zinamgoja Sudi kwake, salamu ni Ashua mkewe aliye ndani ya jela.

Majoka anamshauri Sudi anawe mikono iwapo anataka kula na watu wazima. Kunawa mikono ni kukubali kuchonga kinyago ndiposa Ashua mkewe aachiliwe.

Chopi anamwambia Sudi iwapo shamba limemshinda kulima aseme. Shamba anarejelea Ashua kuwa iwapo Ashua amemshinda kutunza, aseme atunziwe na Majoka.

Siafu huwa wengi na si rahisi kuwamaliza. Siafu ni wanasagamoyo ambao ni wengi kuliko Majoka na si rahisi kuwashnda. Hatimaye raia wanamshinda Majoka. (uk52)

 

Tunu anasema kuwa moto umewaka na utateketea wasipouzima. Moto ni harakati za mapinduzi Sagamoyo .Kuteketea nice kumng`oa Majoka mamlakani.

Hashima anamwonya Tunu asijipeleke kwenye pango la joka.Pango la joka anarejelea majoka na watu wake ambao ni kati na wauaji.

 

Majoka anadai lazima mtu mmoja atolewe kafara ili watu wajue kuwa kuna usalama Sagamoyo. Chatu anamrejelea Sudi au Tunu ambao ni tishio kwa uongozi wake na kuwatoa kafara ni kuua mmoja wao ili kukomesha maandamano.

Majoka anaposema yupo kwenye chombo cha safari ya jongomeo anamaanisha kuwa mwisho wake uko karibu kuondolewa mamlakani.

 

Kinyago cha mke mrembo shujaa anachochonga Sudi kinaashiria Tunu ambaye ni shujaa wa kweli Sagamoyo

 

Husda anafananishwa na chui anayeishi ndani ya ngozi ya kondoo kuashiria kuwa yeye ni mnafiki. Hana mapenzi ya kweli kwa Majoka ila aliolewa naye kwa sababu ya mali.

Jazanda ya marubani ambao hawaendesha vyombo vyao vizuri ni viongozi ambao hawaingozi kwa haki. wamejawa na ulaghai na tamaa. (uk80)

 

Babu anamwambia Majoka kuwa hawezi kuelewa mambo kwa vile hajapambua ngozi yake ya zamani. Majoka anapaswa kubadili mienendo yake mbaya.

 

Chombo anachopanda Majoka kinaenda kinyume badala ya kwenda mbele, Majoka hajafanya maendeleo Sagamoyo kwa sababu ya ufisadi na tamaa. (uk81)

Kisima kuingiwa na paka maji hayanyweki tena. Sagamoyo ni dhiki tele, hakukaliki kwa kuwa na shida nyingi; soko kufungwa, mauaji kutekelezwa na unyakuzi.

    SADFA.

Majoka akiwa ofisini mwake, Ashua anaingia bila kutarajiwa.

Ashua akiwa na Majoka ofisini, Husda anaingia bila kutarajiwa, Ashua anamaka na kubakia kinywa wazi.

Majoka anaposoma gazeti anaona maoni kuwa Tunu awanie uongozi Sagamoyo, hakutarajia kuyaona maoni hayo gazetini.

Chopi wanapozungumza na Majoka Mwango anafika na habari kuwa Majoka ana wageni, Tunu na Sudi ambao hakutarajia.

Majoka anapongojea Husda katika hoteli ya kifahari Sagamoyo, Kenga anafika na habari kuwa mipango haikwenda walivyopanga, kuwa Tunu bado yupo, hakuvunjwa miguu, Majoka hatarajii Tunu kuwa mzima.

 

Ni sadfa kwa kifo cha Ngao Junior kutokea sawia na kifo cha Ngurumo.

 

Majoka anazirai siku kabla ya sherehe ya uhuru, anapopata habari kuhusu kifo cha Ngao Junior.

 

Inasadafu kuwa siku ya sherehe ndio waandamanaji wanakuwa na mkutano katika soko la chapajazi wakati ambapo wanatarajiwa juhudhuria sherehe.

 

 

          WIMBO.

WIMBO WA UZALENDO.

Wimbo huu unaimbwa katika kituo cha habari cha wazalendo, ni wimbo unaosifu Sagamoyo na kiongozi wake kuwa;

 

Sagamoyo ni jimbo tukufu, wanamtukuza Ngao kuwa kiongozi shupavu.

Maudhui katika wimbo huu ni kinaya kwa vile Majoka sio kiongozi shupavu, uongozi wake una dosari. (uk5)

WIMBO WA HASHIMA.

Anaimba wimbo huu akiwa nyumbani kwake. Wimbo huu unaashiria kuwa mambo hubadilika, kila siku wasema heri yalipita jana. (uk51)

WIMBO WA MAMAPIMA.

Ni wimbo wa kishairi unaorejela Sudi na Tunu. Mamapima anawashauri wajipe raha kwa kujiunga nao katika ulevi. (uk60)

WIMBO WA NGURUMO.

Ngurumo anaimba wimbo kwa mamapima akimrejelea Tunu. Ni wimbo wa kumsuta Tunu kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke anapaswa kuolewa.

WIMBO WA UMATI.

Umati unaimba wimbo katika lango la soko la chapakazi. Watu wanaimba kuwa yote yanawezekana bila Majoka. Wimbo huu unasifia juhudi za Tunu kuikomboa Sagamoyo na kuleta uhuru halisi.

WIMBO WA ASHUA.

Ashua anaimba kuwa soko lafunguliwa bila chopi kumaanishwa vikaragosi hawana nguvu dhidhi ya wanamapinduzi. (uk92)

 

                         USHAIRI.

 

Majoka anatunia ushairi kupitisha ujumbe wake kuwa Ashua anamuumiza Majoka moyoni kimapenzi. Kuwa anamkondesha na kumkosesha raha kwa kumkataa. Ashua kumkimbia alimwachia aibu Majoka na penzi lake kwa Ashua linamsongoa. (uk76)

 

Ushairi wa babu, anamshauri Majoka abadili mienendo yake, asikie vilio vya wanasagamoyo ,aone maovu  anayoyatenda, ahisi dhiki zinazowakumba wanasagamoyo.

Anamshauri kuwa maisha ni njia mbili: mema na maovu na kuwa maovu yana mwisho.

          NDOTO.

Tunu anaota ndoto kuwa anafukuzwa na mzee Marara akitaka mkufu wake wa dhababu.

Mzee marara kumfukuza Tunu ni ishara kumkomesha asiwe kiongozi Sagamoyo (kumnyanganya mkufu), mkufu wa dhahabu ni ishara ya uongozi. (uk53)

 

Majoka anasema na babu katika  ndoto. Babu anamshauri Majoka abadili mienendo yake na asikie vilio vya wanasagamoyo.

Babu anamwonya Majoka dhidi ya kuishi kwa kutojali na kumwambia Majoka atende mema.

          TAHARUKI.

 

Kombe na Boza wanaagizwa wachonge vinyago, je wanavichonga?

 

Majoka anampenda sana Ashua, anampata? kama hakumpata, alifanya nini?

 

Ashua anaomba talaka yake akiwa jela, je anapewa?

 

Kuna wafungwa ambao wamefungiwa, walifanya kisa gani?  je wanaachiliwa? iwapo hawakuachiliwa, hatima yao ilikuwa ipi?

 

Wageni wanatarajiwa Sagamoyo siku ya uhuru. Je wanafika?

 

Mpango wa Majoka kumsafirisha Chopi kwa kushindwa kumvunja Tunu mguu, je anasafirishwa? iwapo anasafirishwa, anachukuliwa wapi na kufanyiwa nini?

 

Anwani ya tamthilia, kigogo ni nani? anafanya nini na wapi?

 

Kuna taharuki kuhusu kifo cha Ngao Junior. Ni kipi kinasababisha kifo chake? Majoka na Husda wanafanya nini? ni nani atakuwa mrithi wa Majojka katika siasa?

 

Hoteli la kifahari Majoka analotaka kulijenga baada ya kufunga soko, je anafaulu kulijenga?

 

Majoka anaagiza Ngurumo azikwe kabla ya jua kutua, je anazikwa? watu wanasema nini kuhusu kifo chake.

          MBINU REJESHI/KISENGERE NYUMA.

 

Majoka anakumbuka hadithi kuwa binadamu siku zote humwauni kuku na kumhini kunguru. (uk22)

 

Majoka anarejelea siku Ashua alipokataa pete yake ya uchumba kuwa hiyo ndiyo siku aliyojikosea heshima na sasa hangekuwa ombaomba.

 

Majoka anarejelea kisa cha kifo cha Jabali na wafuasi wake, jinsi walivyopanga njama na kumwangamiza.

 

Ashua anakumbuka mengi Sudi aliyomwahidi siku zao za kwanza za mapenzi.

 

Tukio la Mzee Marara kumfukuza Tunu ndotoni ni la zamani, la utotoni.

 

Hashima anakumbuka jinsi alivyoathirika na marehemu mume wake, Marara na watu wake waliwatendea ukatili.

 

Sudi akiwa kwa mamapima anakumbuka mashujaa waliofungwa wakati wa ukoloni. Mashujaa hao waliangaisha wakoloni na hata wengine wakaenda jongomeo. (uk59).

             KIANGAZAMBELE.

Maoni gazetini kuwa Tunu awanie uongozi Sagamoyo, baadaye Tunu anakuwa kiongozi baada ya kumpindua Majoka.

 

Majoka anahofia kuwa maandamano yatatia doa sherehe za uhuru, siku ya sherehe, watu hawahudhurii.

 

Majoka anahofia kuwa waandamanaji watafika ofisini wammalize. Mwishowe wanammaliza wanapomtoa mamlakani.

       TAMATHALI ZA USEMI.

 

METHALI.

 

Fuata nyuki ule asali (ukitaka kula asali kaa na nyuki) (uk7).

Methali hii imetumika kuonyesha kuwa ukitaka kupata kitu, kaa na walionacho.

Asiya na Ngurumo walimwandama Bi. Husda hadi wakapata kandarasi ya kuoka keki.

Chelewa chelewa utapata mwana si wako.

Boza, Kombe na, Sudi wasichelewe kuchonga vinyago ili wafaidi, na majina yao yajulikane nje.(uk9)

Mbio za sakafuni, huishia ukingoni.

Kenga anatumia methali hii kurejelea kuwa harakati za Tunu kuleta mabadiliko Sagamoyo hayatafanikiwa. Kauli hii ni kinaya, (uk12).

 

Udongo haubishani na mfinyanzi.

Wenye nguvu hawabishani na wanyonge. Boza anatumua methali hii kumwonya Sudi asibishane na Majoka anapodai kuwa keki wanayoletewa ni makombo. (uk13)

Aketiye na cha upele, haishi kujikuna.

Sudi anatumia methali hii kurejelea Kombe anapomuunga mkono na kusema mambo yamekwenda kombo Sagamoyo. (uk15)

Simba hageuki paka kwa kukatwa makucha.

Kuwa Majoka alikosa fursa ya kumwoa Ashua haimanishi hana uwezo wa kumfanyia lolote. (uk21)

Kuvuja kwa pakacha ni nafuu kwa mchukuzi.

Kuvunjika kwa ndoa ya Ashua au Ashua kutalikiwa itakuwa heri kwa Majoka ili ampate Ashua

Heri kufuga mbuzi, binadamu wana maudhi.

Majoka anatumia methali hii Ashua anapokataa ombi lake. (uk26)

Kila mwamba ngoma, ngozi huivuta kwake.

Kenga anarejelea wafadhili wa gazeti kuwa walimtetea Tunu na habari kumhusu zimetiwa chuvi. Waandishi wa gazeti ni wafadhili wa Tunu. (uk33)

Dalili ya mvua ni mawingu.

Tunu huenda akaongoza Sagamoyo.(uk34)

Ukitaka kuwafurusha ndege, kata mti.

Kenga anamrejelea Jabali, kuwa ukitaka kuwaangamiza maadui ua kiongozi wao. Jabali alikufa na wafuasi wake kumfuata ahera. (uk35)

Udongo uwahi ungali mbichi.

Wangemkomesha Tunu kabla ya kupata umaarufu.

Asante ya punda ni mateke.

Majoka anamrejelea Tunu kwa kumpinga baada ya kugharamia masomo yake baada ya kifo cha babake.

Maji ukiyavulia nguo yakoge.

Majoka amekubali kuhukumiwa na kujibu mashtaka  kwa kutowajibika kwake na kusaliti nchi yake. (uk79)

 

 

   MASWALI BALAGHA.

Hiyo rununu hitulii mfukoni, yakuuma? (uk1)

Kwani umeota pua ya pili?  (uk1)

Kwani u mjamzito? (uk1)

Kwa nini washerehekee mwezi mzima? (uk5)

Eeh! viini ni nini? (uk16

Hujayaacha hayo?

Siwezi nini? (uk21)

umenizidi kwa nini?

*kuna  mifano zaidi.

  KUCHANGANYA NDIMI.

look at the bigger future man (uk18)

Its for our good

what? (uk35)

But one stone is enough (uk36)

Live coverage. (uk38)

Over my dead body (uk45)

Ni afadjali iwe one touch (uk68)

Chopi, time is money. Humjui Asiya (uk71)

*mifano zaidi.

 

         NIDAA.

 

Linanuka fee! (uk1)

Enhe! (uk19)

Kisa na maana ni wewe! (uk26)

Chunga ulimi wako! (uk27)

Na wewe! (uk27

        TAKIRIRI.

 

Siwezi suwezi, mimi siwezi.

Kila kitu ni Tunu,Tunu,Tunu,Tunu (uk48)

TASHBIHI.

Ashua angeishi kama malkia.

Husda hataki jua lifanye  ngozi yake ngumu kama ya mamba  (uk67)

Pengime Tunu atambae kama nyoka. (uk69)

Siku hizi wake hawashikiki, ni kama masikio ya syngura. (uk76)

Kuishi kulivyo ni kama mshumaa. (uk80)

 

                           MASWALI.

 

  1. A) Maswali ya insha.

 

1) Jadili jinsi maudhui ya uzalendo yamejitokeza katika tamthilia ya Kigogo. (al 20)

2) “Mwandishi wa tamthilia ya kigogo anadhamiria kujenga jamii mpya”  Thibitisha ukweli wa kauli hii. (al 20).

3) “Maandamano na migomo ni tatizo sugu katika mataifa yanayoendeleaa.” Kwa kurejelea tamthilia ya kigogo, eleza chanzo na athari za maandamano na migomo. (al20)

4 )Jadili ufaafu wa anwani “kigogo” katika tamthilia ya kigogo. (al 20)

5) “Mataifa mengi ya Afrika yamekumbwa na tatizo la uongozi mbaya.”  Thibitisha ukweli wa kauli hii kwa kurejelea tamthilia ya kigogo. (al 20)

6) “Katika jamii ya kisasa, asasi ya ndoa imo atharini.”  Kwa kutoa mifano katika tamthilia ya kigogo, tetea ukweli wa kauli hii. (al 20)

7) Jadili jinsi mwandishi wa tamthilia ya kigogo alivyofaulu kutumia mbinu ya kinaya katika kazi yake. (al 20)

8)  “Majoka ni mfano halisi wa viongozi katika mataifa mengi ya Afrika.” Thibitisha kauli hii. (al20)

9) Eleza umuhimu wa mhusika Tunu katika tamthilia ya Kigogo. (al 20)

10) Fafanua mbinu anazotumia Majoka kuongoza Sagamoyo. (al 20)

11) “Wananchi katika mataifa ya Afrika hukumbwa na matatizo si haba.” Thibitisha kauli hii kwa kutolea mifano kutoka tamthilia ya kigogo. (al 20)

12) Jadili nafasi ya mwanamke katika jamii kwa kurejelea tamthilia ya kigogo. (al 20)

13) Vifo/mauaji ni suala ambalo mwandishi wa tamthilia ya kigoo ameangazia. Eleza chanzo cha vifo/mauaji haya. (al 14)

  1. b) eleza umuhimu wa mhusika babu katika tamthilia ya kigogo. (al 6)

 

  1. B) Maswali ya dondoo.

 

14) “…mmemulikwa mbali.”

  1. a) eleza muktadha wa dondoo hili. (al 4)

b)Taja na ueleze sifa mbili za msemaji wa maneno haya. (al 4)

  1. c) kulingana na dindoo hili, ni nani na nani wamemulikwa? (al 2)

d)Fafanua mambo ambayo warejelewa waliyafanya ambayo yamemlikwa Sagamoyo.

(al 10)

15)  “…kulinda uhai, kulinda haki, kulinda uhuru…”

a)Weka dondoo hili katika muktadha,wake. (al 4)

b)Taja na ufafanue maudhui mawili yanayojitokeza katika dondoo hili. (al 4)

c)Msemaji wa maneno haya alifanikiwa kulinda uhai, kulinda haki, kulinda uhuru. Thibitisha kwa kurejelea tamthilia nzima. (al 12)

16) ” Sitaki kazi ya uchafu hapa Sagamoyo.”

  1. a) Eleza muktadha wa dondoo hili. (al 4)
  2. b) Taja na ueleze maudhui mawili yanayojitokeza katika dobdoo hili. (al 4)

c)Sagamoyo kuna uchafu.Thibitisha kwa kurejekea tamthilia nzima. (al 12)

17) “…wa kujichunga ni wewe pwaguzi.”

  1. a) Eleza muktadha wa dondoo hili.(al 4)

b)Eleza sifa ya msemewa kutokana na dondoo hili (al 2)

c)Taja tamathali ya usemi iliyotumika katika dondoo hili. (al 2)

 

  1. d) Kwa kurejelea tamthilia nzima, thibitisha kuwa msemewa wa maneno haya alikuwa pwagu Sagamoyo. (al 12)

18)  “Siafu huwa wengi na si rahisi kuwamaliza.”

a)Eleza muktadha wa dondoo hili.(al 4)

b)Eleza mbinu ya uandishi iliyotumika katika dondoo hili.(al 2)

  1. c) Ni maudhui yepi yanayojitokeza katika dondoo hili? (al 2)
  2. d) Thibitisha ukweli wa kauli kuwa siafu ni wengi, na si rahisi kuwamaliza kwa kurejelea tamthilia nzima. (al 12)

19) “Kimba ni kimba tu.”

a)weka dondoo hili katika muktadha wake. (al 4)

b)Taja sifa  mbili za msemaji kulingana na dondoo hili.(al2)

  1. c) Kwa kutolea mifamo mwafaka, fafanua mambo yaliyosababisha kuwepo kimba Sagamoyo. ((al 14)

20)  “Kuishi kwa kutojali ni muhali.”

a)Eleza muktadha wa dondoo hili (al 4)

b)Fafanua sifa mbili za msemaji wa maneno haya. (al2)

  1. c) Msemewa wa maneno haya aliishi kwa mutojali. Thibithisha kwa kurejelea tamthilia nzima. (al 8)

d )Ni vipi kutojali kwa msemewa hapo juu kulikuwa muhali Sagamoyo? (ak 6)

F 3 GEOGRAPHY NOTES NEW SYLLABUS

F 3 GEOGRAPHY

STATISTICS                                                                       COMPOUND/CUMULATIVE/DIVIDED

BAR GRAPH

Major cash crops exported in Kenya in tonnes

CROP 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
COFFEE 4500 5000 5200 6000 5900
TEA 1300 1100 2500 2100 2200
MAIZE 800 900 500 400 400
WHEAT 600 500 600 700 500

Steps

CROP 1990 CT 1991 CT 1992 CT 1993 CT 1994
COFFEE 4500 4500 5000 5000 5200 5200 6000 6000 5900
TEA 1300 5800 1100 6100 2500 7700 2100 8100 2200
MAIZE 800 6600 900 7000 500 8200 400 8500 400
WHEAT 600 7200 500 7500 600 8800 700 9200 500
TOTAL 7200 7500 8800 9200 9000
  1. Set cumulative totals for the data each year

 

  1. Draw vertical axis(Y) to represent dependent variable
  2. Draw horizontal axis(x) to represent independent variable
  3. Label both axis using suitable scale
  4. Plot the cumulative values for each year
  5. Use values for components to subdivide the cumulative bar
  6. The subdivisions are placed in descending order with the longest at the bottom(coffee)
  7. Shade each component differently
  8. Put title and key

Advantages

  1. Its easy to construct
  2. It has good visual impression
  3. There is easy comparison for the same component in different bars because of uniform shading
  4. Easy to interpret because bars are shaded differently
  5. Total value of the bar can be identified easily

 

Disadvantages

  1. It doesn’t show the trend of components (change over time).
  2. Cant be used to show many components as there is limited space upwards
  3. Tedious as there is a lot of calculation work involved.
  4. Not easy to trace individual contribution made by members of the same bar
  5. Poor choice of vertical scale causes exaggeration of bars length leading to wrong conclusions

 

                                       Analysis

  • Coffee was the leading export earner in the five years.
  • Tea was the second leading export earner.
  • Wheat had the lowest export quantity.
  • 1993 recorded the highest export quantity.
  • 1990 recorded the lowest export quantity.

PIECHART/DIVIDEDCIRCLES/CIRCLE CHARTS

  • A circle which has been subdivided into degrees used to represent statistical data where component values have been converted in degrees.

Major countries producing commercial vehicles in the world in 000s

USA FRANCE JAPAN UK GERMANY RUSSIA
1800 240 2050 400 240 750

Steps

  1. Convert components into degrees

USA 1800×360/5480=118.2◦

FRANCE 240×360/5480=15.8◦

JAPAN 2050×360/5480=134.7◦

UK 400×360/5480=26.3◦

GERMANY 240×360/5480=15.8◦

RUSSIA 750×360/5480=49.3◦

  1. Draw a circle of convenient size using a pair of compasses.
  2. From the centre of the circle mark out each calculated angle using a protractor.
  3. Shade the sectors differently and provide the key for various shadings.

Advantages

  1. Gives a good/clear visual impression
  2. Easy to draw.
  3. Can be used to present varying types of data e.g. minerals, population, etc.
  4. Easy to read and interpret as segments are arranged in descending order and are also well shaded.
  5. Easy to compare individual segments.

Disadvantages

  1. Difficult to interpret if segments are many.
  2. Tedious due to a lot of mathematical calculations and marking out of angles involved.
  3. Can’t be used to show trend/change over a certain period.
  4. Small quantities or decimals may not be easily represented.

                                                       Analysis

  1. The main producer of commercial vehicles is Japan.
  2. The second largest producer is USA followed by Russia.
  3. The lowest producers were France and West Germany with.

                       PROPORTIONAL CIRCLES

This is use of circles of various sizes to represent different sets of statistical data.

Table showing mineral production In Kenya from year1998-2000

MINERALS QUANTITY IN TONNES
  1998 1999 2000
Graphite 200 490 930
Fluorspar 30 255 450
Soda ash 270 300 350
Diamond 500 870 1270
TOTAL 1000 1915 3000

Steps

  1. Determining the radii of circles by finding the square roots of the totals

1998 √1000=31.62=32

1999 √1915=43.76=44

2000 √3000=54.77=55

  1. Scale:1cm represents 10 tonnes

1998=3.2 cm

1999=4.4 cm

2000=5.5 cm

  1. Using a pair of compasses draw circles of different radii representing mineral production in Kenya between 1998 and 2000.
  2. Convert component values into degrees

Component value/  total value of data×360

1998: Graphite-200/1000×360=72◦

Fluorspar-30/1000×360=10.8◦

Soda ash-270/1000×360=97.2◦

Diamond-500/1000×360=180◦

1999: Graphite-490/1915×360=92.1◦

Fluorspar-255/1915×360=47.9◦

Soda ash-300/1915×360=56.4◦

Diamond-870/1915×360=163.6◦

2000: Graphite-930/3000×360=11.6◦

Fluorspar-450/3000×360=54◦

Soda ash-350/3000×360=42.1◦

Diamond-1270/3000×360=152.3◦

  1. On the proportional circle for each year use a protractor and mark out the angles
  2. Shade the segments and then provide a key.

Advantages

  1. They give a good visual impression.
  2. Easy to compare various components.
  3. Simple to construct.
  4. Easy to interpret as segments are arranged in descending order.
  5. Can be used to present varying types of data.

Disadvantages

  1. Tedious in calculation and measurement of angles
  2. Actual values represented by each component cant be known at a glance
  3. Difficult to accurately measure and draw sectors whose values are too small.
  4. Comparison can be difficult if the circles represent values which are almost equal.

Analysis/Conclusions

  1. Diamond was leading in production.
  2. The second leading mineral in production was graphite.
  3. The mineral with the lowest production was fluorspar.

 

 

 

 

                  

 

 

 

MAP WORK

Description of Relief

  1. Describe the general appearance of the entire area e.g. hilly, mountainous, plain, undulating landscape, has many hills, isolated hills, etc.
  2. State the highest and lowest parts of the area.
  3. Look out for valleys which are occupied by rivers.
  4. Divide into relief regions such as plateau, escarpment and lowland.
  5. Explain the type of slop e.g. gentle, steep, even or irregular.
  6. Direction of slope.
  7. Identify the land forms present in the area.

Gentle Slope

Slope is the gradient of land surface.

Gentle slope is one in which land doesn’t rise or fall steeply

Contours are wide apart

Steep Slopes

  • Where land rises or falls sharply
  • Contours are close to each other

 

Even Slopes

  • Shown by contours which are evenly spaced.

 

Uneven Slopes

  • Indicated by unevenly spaced contours.

Convex Slopes

  • One curved outwards
  • Indicated by contours which are close together at the bottom and widely spaced together at the top.

Concave Slopes

  • One curved inwards.
  • Contours are close together at the top and widely spaced at the bottom.

A Valley

  • A low area between higher grounds.
  • Indicated by U-shaped contours pointing towards a higher ground.

A Spur

  • Land which is projected from high to low ground.
  • Indicated by U-shaped contours bulging towards lower ground.

Interlocking Spurs

  • Spurs which appear as if to fit together.

Truncated Spurs

  • Spurs in glaciated highlands whose tips have been eroded and straightened.

Conical Hills

  • Hills are uplands which rise above relatively lower ground
  • Conical hills are small rounded hills

Irregular Shaped Hills

-A hill with some sides with uneven gentle and others with uneven steep slopes.

Ridges

  • A range of hills with steep slopes on all sides.
  • A ridge can contain hills, cols, passes or water shed.

A Col

  • A low area which occurs between two hills.

A Pass

  • A narrow steep sided gap in a highland.

A Water Shed

  • The boundary separating drainage systems which drains into different directions
  • Escarpment and ridges often form water sheds.

Escarpment

  • A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same direction
  • Has two slopes: a long gentle slope (dip slope) and short steep slope (scarp slope).

A Plateau

  • A high flat land bound by steep slopes.

Description of Vegetation

Natural vegetation is classified as woodlands, thickets, scrubs or grasslands.

Symbols are given as pictures of vegetation.

  • Types present
  • Distribution
  • Reasons for distribution e.g. seasonal streams, scrub or grassland due to low rainfall.
  1. Forests

Likely indications of the following in the area:

  • Heavy rainfall
  • Fertile rainfall
  • Cool temperature depending on altitude
  1. Thickets and shrubs
  • Seasonal rainfall
  • Poor soil
  • High temperature
  1. Riverine trees
  • High moisture content in the river valley

Describing Drainage

  • Identify drainage features present

Natural drainage features include lakes, rivers, swamps, sea, rapids, water falls, cataracts, springs, deltas, fjords, sand or mud, and bays

Artificial features include ponds, wells, boreholes, water holes, cattle dips, cattle troughs, canals, reservoirs, irrigation channels, aqueducts, water treatment plants and man made lakes.

  • Identify main rivers by name
  • Size of rivers-big or small-shown by thickness of blue lines.
  • Give the general direction of flow.
  • Location of water shed if any
  • Characteristic of each feature
  1. a) Permanent Rivers
  • Which flow throughout the year
  • Shown by continuous blue lines

Likely indication of:

  • Heavy rainfall
  • Impermeable rocks
  1. b) Seasonal Rivers
  • Which flow seasonally or during the rain season
  • Shown by broken blue lines

Likely indication of:

  • Low rainfall
  • River doesn’t have a rich catchment area
  1. c) Disappearing Rivers

Blue lines ending abruptly

Likely indication of:

  • Permeable rocks
  • Very low rainfall
  • Underground drainage

 

  • Identify drainage patterns and description

-Drainage pattern is the layout of a river and its tributaries on the landscape.

  1. a) Dendritic

-Resembles a tree trunk and branches or veins of a leaf.

-Tributaries join the main river at acute angles.

  1. a) Trellis

Tributaries join the main river and other tributaries at right angles

of hard and soft rocks)

Common in folded areas where rivers flow downwards separated by vertical uplands.

  1. b) Rectangular Pattern

-Looks like a large block of rectangles.

-Tributaries tend to take sharp angular bends along their course.

  1. c) Parallel Pattern

-Rivers and tributaries flow virtually parallel to each other

Influenced by slope

-Common on slopes of high mountain ranges

  1. d) Centripetal Pattern

-Rivers flow from many directions into a central depression such as a lake, sea or swamp.

-Examples are rivers flowing into some of the Rift Valley lakes such as Nakuru and Bogoria.

  1. e) Annular Pattern

Streams (rivers which are small in size) are arranged in series of curves about a basin or crater

It’s controlled by the slope.

  1. f) Radial

-Resembles the spikes of a bicycle

-Formed by rivers which flow downwards from a central point in all directions such as on a volcanic cone e.g. on Mt. Kenya, Elgon and Kilimanjaro.

  1. g) Fault –Guided Pattern
  • Flow of river is guided by direction of fault lines

Human/Economic Activities

Description of Human Activities

  • Identify types
  • Evidence –man made features
  • Reasons e.g. tea-cool temps and heavy rainfall

Agriculture

  1. a) Plantation farming

Evidenced by presence of:

-“C”-coffee

-Named estates e.g. Kaimosi tea estate

  1. b) Small scale crop farming
  • Cotton ginnery or sheds
  • Coffee hullerlies
  • Posho mills for maize, millet, sorghum
  • Tea factory/store

Livestock Farming

  • Dairy farms
  • Veterinary stations
  • Cattle dips
  • Creameries
  • Water holes
  • Dams
  • Butcheries
  • Slaughter houses

Mining

  • Symbol for a mine/mineral works
  • Name of the mine
  • Particular mineral e.g. soda ash
  • Quarry symbol
  • Processing plant of a mineral e.g. cement indicates cement is mined in that area

Forestry/Lumbering

  • Saw mills
  • Forest reserves
  • Forest station
  • Forest guard post
  • Roads ending abruptly into a forest estate used to transport logs to saw mills

Fishing

  • Fish traps
  • Fishing co-operative society
  • Fish ponds
  • Fish hatcheries
  • Fisheries department
  • Fish landing grounds(banda)

Manufacturing/Processing Industry

  • Saw mills for lumber products
  • Ginnery for cotton processing
  • Mill for maize, millet, wheat processing
  • Creameries for milk processing
  • Factory for manufacturing or processing a known commodity.

Services

  1. a) Trade
  • Shops
  • Markets
  • Stores
  • Trading centres
  1. b) Transport
  2. i) Land
  • Roads
    • All weather roads- which are used all year round i.e. tarmac and murrum roads.
    • Dry weather roads- which are used reliably during dry seasons.
    • Motorable trucks- rough roads which are used by people on foot and by vehicles on dry season.
  • Other trucks and foot paths
  • Railways, station, sliding, level crossing lines and railways light
  1. ii) Air
  • Air fields
  • Airports
  • Air strips

iii)  Water

  • Ferries
  • Bridges
  1. c) Communication
  • Post offices(P.O.)
  • Telegraph(T.G.)
  • Telephone lines(T)
  1. d) Tourism
  • Camping sites
  • Tourist class hotels and restaurants
  • National parks
  • Game reserves
  • Curio shops
  • Museums
  • Historical monuments
  1. e) Administration
  • DO, DC, PC, police post, chiefs camp.

Social Services

  1. a) Religious Services
  • Church
  • Mosque
  • Temples
  1. b) Education
  • Schools
  • Colleges
  • Universities
  1. c) Health Services
  • Hospitals
  • Dispensaries
  1. d) Recreational Services
  • Golf clubs/courses
  • Stadiums

Description of Settlement

A settlement is a place with housing units where people live together

  • Densely distributed settlements- high concentration of settlements(black dots)
  • Moderately distributed settlements- settlements moderate in quantity
  • Sparsely distributed settlements-few settlements spread over a large area.
  • Very sparse if very few
  • Identify type of settlement patterns present
  • Type of Settlements
  1. a) Rural settlements

Consist of villages and homesteads and homesteads in which people are involved in subsistence agriculture and traditional activities such as pottery weaving, curving, etc.

  1. b) Urban settlement

Consist of dense permanent and sometimes high buildings and population engaged in non agricultural activities such as industrial activities.

Factors Influencing Settlement

  1. Physical Factors
  2. a) Climate

Areas with moderate temps and adequate rainfall are densely settled while those with extremely low or high temps have fewer settlements.

  1. b) Relief

Terrain: Steep slopes are less settled due to thin soils and difficulty to erect buildings.

Aspect: Slopes facing away from the sun in high latitudes are less settled than those facing the sun.

Wind ward slopes of mountains on the path of rain bearing winds are more settled due to heavy rainfall making them ideal for agriculture.

  1. c) Drainage

Rivers and springs attract settlements because they provide clean water.

Areas with drainage swamps are less settled because it’s difficult to erect buildings and they also harbour mosquitoes and snails which cause diseases.

  1. d) Vegetation

Dense forests discourage settlements because of wild animals and also harbour disease vectors such as tsetse flies e.g. Miombo woodland of Tanzania and Lambwe valley in Kenya.

  1. e) Pests and diseases

Areas prone to pests and diseases are less settled because people like to live in healthy environment.

  1. f) Natural resources

Settlements start where there is mineral extraction. e.g. Magadi

Lakes with abundant fish may also attract settlement.

  1. g) Human Factors
  2. i) Political factors
  • 1967 TZ settled peoples in villages and the rest of land was left for farming (Ujamaa villages)
  • After independence Kenya settled its landless in settlement schemes e.g. Mwea, Laikipia, Nyandarua.
  • Settlement of refugees in refugee camps due to political upheavals
  1. ii) Historical factors
  • Weaker communities were forced to move elsewhere by wars.
  • Settlement of communities in strategic sites such as hilltops or plateaus to see approaching enemies e.g. Fulani of Nigeria in Jos plateau.

iii) Cultural factors

  • Farming communities settled in agriculturally productive areas.
  • Pastoralists settle in areas with enough land to provide pasture for their animals at ease.

iii) Economic factors

  • Rural to urban migration for employment and trading.
  • Mining activities may lead to development of settlements e.g. Magadi due to trona mining.

 

Types of Settlements Patterns

  1. Nucleated/Clustered Settlement Pattern
  • Buildings are close to each other

                                       Factors

  • Availability of social amenities such as schools and health care
  • Shortage of building land
  • Favourable climate leading to high agricultural potential e.g. Kenya highlands.
  • Fertile soils.
  • Presence of natural resources e.g. minerals in Magadi, Mwadui, Kimberly.
  • Security concern especially in banditry prone areas

 

  1. b) Linear Settlement
  • Buildings are arranged in a line
  • Presence of a transport line e.g. road or railway.
  • Presence of a river or a spring to provide water for domestic or commercial use
  • Presence of a coast line which has a favourable fishing ground e.g. shore of E. African coast.
  • Suitable terrain for cultivation of crops such as at the foot of a scarp
  1. c) Dispersed/Scattered Settlement
  • Buildings are scattered
  • Plenty of land to build whenever they want
  • Avoidance of harsh climate e.g. arid and semi-arid areas.
  • Poor infertile soils.
  • Pests and diseases.
  • Physical features such as ridges, valleys which separate houses.

 

  1. d) Radial Pattern

Buildings are arranged like a star

-Common at cross roads where housing units point in all directions.

Enlargement and Reduction of Maps

Steps

  1. Identify the area requiring to be enlarged
  2. Measure its length and width
  3. Multiply (E) or divide (R) the by the number of times given. The scale also changes e.g.1:50000/2(enlarged)×2(reduced)
  4. Draw the new frame with new dimensions
  5. Insert the grid squares e.g. 2×2cm, 2/2, etc.
  6. Draw diagonals on the frame
  7. Transfer features exactly where they were

Drawing a Cross Section/Profile

-Line drawn on a piece of paper showing the nature of relief of a particular area.

Steps

  1. Identify the given points and name them A and B
  2. Joint point A and B using a pencil
  3. Take a piece of paper and fold it into two parts
  4. Place the papers edge along the line joining A and B
  5. Mark all contours and their heights
  6. Mark features along A-B e.g. R- river, H- hill, M- mountain
  7. Determine the highest and lowest contour height to determine the appropriate vertical scale
  8. Draw horizontal axis and mark it A-B
  9. Draw vertical axis from A to B
  10. Place the edge of folded paper along horizontal axis
  11. Use values along vertical axis to plot contour heights. Remember to show features marked along A-B
  12. Join plotted points using smooth curve (cross

Section)

  1. Include title on top vertical and horizontal map scale.

Calculation and Interpretation of Vertical Exaggeration and Gradient

Vertical Exaggeration

Number of times that the vertical scale is larger than horizontal scale

V.E. =Denominator of H.S. /D. of V.S. (cross section scale.

e.g. V.S. =1:20M

H.S=1:50000

 

V.E.=50000/20×100 (To convert into cm) =25

Interpretation

The vertical height has been exaggerated 25 times compared to the horizontal distance

Intervisibility

Ability of one place to be seen from another

Steps

  • Draw cross section
  • Join points A-B using visibility line
  • If the visibility line is above the cross section, the two points are intervisible. If below they are not intervisible.

 

Gradient

Degree of steepness of a slope between two given points

STEPS

  1. Identify the two points
  2. Calculate difference in height between the two points(Vertical Interval) e.g. 500m
  3. Joint them with a light line
  4. Measure ground distance between the two points(Horizontal Equivalent)e.g.12 cm

G=V.I./H.E.

=500×100/12×50000=50000/600000=1/12=1:12

Interpretation

For every 12 m travelled on the Ground, there is a vertical rise of 1m

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXTERNAL LAND FORMING PROCESSES

  • Processes operating on the exterior of the earth resulting in the formation of natural physical features.

These are:

  1. weathering
  2. mass wasting
  3. erosion
  4. transportation
  5. deposition

Weathering

  • Mechanical breakdown or chemical decay of rocks “in situ” (without movement)

Agents of weathering

-Things that work to cause it:

  1. Weather elements:
  • rainfall
  • temperature
  • frost
  • gases e.g. CO2,O2
  1. Plants
  2. Animals
  3. People

Factors That Influence Weathering

Climate

  • Different areas with different climatic elements experience different types of weathering e.g. block disintegration are experienced in arid areas while frost action is experienced in temperate regions and mountainous regions of tropics.
  • Topography
  • Weathering is faster on steep slopes than on gentle slopes because weathered material is washed away quickly exposing the rock once again to agents while on gentle slopes materials remain in one position shielding the rock from weathering agents.
  • Nature of rocks
  • Dark coloured rocks absorb more heat than light coloured ones hence break faster due to excessive expansion and contraction.
  • A rock with different minerals may disintegrate faster due to differential expansion and contraction of minerals.
  • A well jointed rock will break faster because physical and chemical agents can penetrate faster e.g. by freezing and thawing.
  • Fine textured rocks have a large surface area on which chemical processes can act e.g. Limestone.

Biological organisms

  • Bacteria facilitate rotting of organic matter producing organic acids which reacts with some minerals causing the rock to break up.
  • Plant roots and burrowing animals penetrate rocks resulting in cracks providing passage for agents such as water to act on rocks.
  • People accelerate the rate of weathering by exposing rocks buried deep below by digging, blasting and drilling.

Types of Weathering

  1. Mechanical Weathering
  • Physical break up of rocks without change in their chemical composition.

Processes

  1. a) Block Disintegration/Separation
  • Breaking of rocks into blocks along the joints.
  • It’s effective in arid areas because of great diurnal temperature range.
  • Day, well jointed rocks are subjected to intense heating causing minerals in it to expand.
  • In the night the rock is cooled causing it to contract.
  • The rock joints enlarge due to the alternating cooling and contraction.
  • The process is repeated over a long time causing the rock to disintegrate into blocks along the joints e.g. Mundanda rock in Tsavo East.
  1. b) Exfoliation
  • Peeling off of layers of rocks.
  • Also common in arid areas.
  • Day, rock surface is heated more than inner layers because rocks are poor conductors of heat.
  • The surface expands more than inner layers causing strain between the two layers.
  • With time outer layer develops cracks and later peels off and pieces of rocks fall down under gravity e.g. along Mombassa-Nairobi road between Mtito Andei and Voi.
  1. c) Granular Disintegration
  • Disintegration of rocks into grains.
  • Occurs in rocks with different minerals.
  • When the rock is heated, different minerals expand differently.
  • Internal stress results and with time the rock disintegrates into grains.
  1. d) Pressure Release/Sheeting/Unloading
  • Disintegration of rocks due to expansion when weight is removed from over it.
  • Soil and other materials lying on top of a rock are removed by erosion and mass wasting (denudation).
  • The exposed rock expands when the weight that was pressing it is removed.
  • The outer layer curves and eventually shells are pulled out from the rock.
  • The result is formation of a high rocky hills called granitic tors e.g. Maragoli and parts of Machakos.
  1. e) Frost Action
  • Breaking of rocks into angular blocks due to repeated freezing and thawing.
  • Common in temperate regions or mountainous regions of tropics where temperature fall below zero.
  • Water from melting ice collects into small cracks of rocks.
  • It freezes and expands and exerts pressure on cracks widening them.
  • Repeated freezing and thawing causes the rocks to break into angular blocks e.g. on Mt. Kenya, Kilimanjaro and Ruwenzori.
  1. f) Crystal Growth
  • Break up of rocks due to crystal growth.
  • It occurs in arid areas.
  • High rate of evaporation draws out moisture and dissolved minerals from the rock interior through capillary action.
  • The moisture evaporates when it gets to the surface of the rock leaving behind crystals in the cracks and pores of rocks.
  • The crystals continue to grow exerting pressure on the cracks or pores widening them and eventually causing the rock to break down e.g. at Hells Gate near Naivasha.
  1. g) Slaking/Rain Water Action
  • Breaking up of sedimentary rocks due to alternate wetting and drying.
  • When it rains, the rock absorbs water and swells.
  • When dry season comes, the rock loses water and the outer surface shrinks.
  • The process is repeated and the minerals become loosely attached to another e.g. in Kenyan Coast at Tudor and Miritini areas.
  1. Chemical Weathering
  • Weathering involving changes in the chemical composition of minerals making up rocks

Processes

  1. a) Solution
  • Break up of rocks as a result of dissolving of minerals in water without chemical change in them.
  • Rain water falls on rocks with soluble minerals.
  • The minerals are dissolved and carried down in solution.
  • The rock gets weakened and crumbles.
  1. b) Carbonation
  • Weathering caused by reaction of calcium carbonate in rocks with rain water containing a weak carbonic acid.
  • Common in temperate regions.
  • Rain water absorbs small quantities of carbon dioxide forming a weak carbonic acid.

H2O+CO2àH2CO3

  • The weak carbonic acid falls on limestone rocks reacting with calcite forming calcium bicarbonate.

CACO3+H2CO3àCA (HCO3)

  • Calcium bicarbonate is removed from the rock in solution.
  1. c) Hydrolysis
  • Weathering caused by reaction of hydrogen ions of water and ions of rock minerals.
  • Igneous rocks are greatly affected.
  1. d) Oxidation
  • Weathering in which minerals in rocks combine with oxygen in the presence of moisture to form new minerals.
  • Rocks containing iron are affected.
  • Ferric oxide is formed on the rock surface which appears as a soft brown or red earth which can be scooped by hands.
  1. e) Hydration
  • Weathering in which hygroscopic minerals in rocks take up water causing them to swell and expand causing disintegration of rock due to internal stress.
  1. Biological Weathering

-Weathering of rocks due to action of living organisms on them.

  1. a) Action of plants

Mechanical

  • The roots grow bigger into the cracks and joints of rocks widening them.
  • With time the rock separate into blocks (wedging mechanism).
  • The widened joints and cracks also provide passages for moisture and air to penetrate deeper into cracks facilitating hydrolysis and solution to act at deeper levels.
  • Burrowing animals dig and break up small bits of rock from the main rock mass and bring them to the surface.
  • By digging they also provide passages for other elements like gases and moisture to reach rocks that are deep.
  • Large herds of animals such as cattle, zebra etc. pound the rocks with their hooves as they move resulting in resulting in mechanical breakdown of rocks.
  • People break up rocks by using explosives in mining by exploding bombs on the ground and during building of houses and construction of roads.

Chemical

  1. Plants rot on rock in the presence of moisture and produce organic acid
  2. It reacts with some minerals within the rock causing decay.
  3. Animals excrete on rocks and release chemical substances which react with some minerals in rocks causing them to break up.
  4. Chemical substances released from the industries to rivers cause the water to act on rocks over which it flows.
  5. Gases such as CO2 emitted from motor vehicles and industries are
  6. Absorbed by rain and acids such as carbonic or sulphurous which react with minerals causing rock to decay.

Significance of Weathering

Positive

  1. Leads to soil formation which is important for agriculture.
  2. Produces other natural resources such as clay used in pottery, brick making, etc.
  3. Weathered rocks form beautiful scenery for tourist attraction e.g. Hells Gate and crying stones of Kakamega.
  4. Weakens rocks easing their exploitation by quarrying and mining

Negative

  • May weaken the earths crust resulting in unstable foundations of buildings and roads and eventually lead to their collapse.

MASS WASTING

  • Movement of weathered material down slope under the influence of gravity

Factors Influencing Mass Wasting

  1. a) Degree of slope
  • Movement of weathered material is faster on steep slopes than on gentle slopes due to the influence of gravity.
  1. b) Climate
  • Weathered material in areas receiving heavy rainfall move faster since wet materials have less cohesion.
  1. c) Nature of the material
  • Material saturated with water is more likely to move down slope as its heavy.
  • Mass wasting is more likely to occur in areas where the weathered material is deep.
  • Weathering is more likely where massive rocks lie on weak rocks such as clays, shale than where fine materials lie over weak rocks.

Vegetation

  • Surfaces with vegetation experience less mass wasting because it binds weathered material together.

Tectonic movements

  • Earth movements such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or faulting cause large and widespread mass wasting.

Human activities

  • Explosives used in mining and quarrying shake the ground initiating downward movement of materials.
  • Mining and quarrying also interferes with the stability of the surface by loosening it making it easy for the loosened materials to move down slope.

Types of Mass Wasting

  1. Slow Mass Wasting
  • Slow but steady movement of soil or loose rock debris down slope.

Processes

  1. a) Soil Creep
  • Slow and steady movement of soil and other fine materials along a very gentle slope.

Causes

  • Alternate heating and cooling causing expansion and contraction of particles causing them to change their positions.
  • Alternate wetting and drying of soil whereby when it’s wet its compact and when dry the particles are loosened and tend to move away from each other.
  • Trampling and burrowing of animals.
  • External forces e.g. shaking by earthquakes, explosives, heavy vehicles, etc.
  • Ploughing down hill
  • Freezing of soil water causing it to expand which lifts particles at right angles to the slope in a process called heaving.            
  1. b) Solifluction
  • Movement of saturated soil, gravel and weathered rock down a moderate slope.
  • Common in mountainous and very cold climates
  • Thawing occurs during spring causing top soil to become saturated.
  • Saturated soil begins to creep over the subsoil which still remains frozen(permafrost).
  1. c) Talus Creep
  • Slow and gentle movement of the mass of broken rock particles which accumulate at the base of cliffs (scree) down hill.
  1. d) Rock Creep
  • Slow movement of individual rocks which lie on clay at a very low speed down slope in the presence of moisture.
  1. Rapid Mass Wasting
  • Type of mass wasting involving large amounts of weathered material moving suddenly and fast down slope.
  1. a) Mud Flow
  • Movement of oversaturated weathered material inform of liquid down slope.
  • It occurs mainly in dry areas after heavy rains.
  1. b) Earth Flow
  • Movement of saturated earth material on hill sides down slope.
  1. c) Land Slide
  • Sudden slipping of large quantities of loosened surface rock or soil down a slope.
  1. d) Slump
  • Erosion occurs on the weak rocks at the base of a cliff undercutting the weak rock.
  • The overlying rocks break off causing the overlying rocks to slide down hill rotating around a curved plane.
  1. e) Debris Slide
  • Sudden downhill movement of accumulated rock debris and other loose material downhill as a whole
  1. f) Debris fall
  • Sudden free fall of debris from a vertical or hanging cliff to the base of the slope.
  1. g) Rock Slide
  • Sliding down of masses of rock a steep slope along a bending plane, joint of fault.
  1. h) Rock fall
  • Falling or rolling of individual rocks or boulders down a steep slope or a cliff.
  • Most rapid of all mass wasting.
  1. h) Avalanche
  • Sudden slipping and falling of a large mass of snow, ice and loose rock materials down a mountain side.

 

  1. i) Rain Wash
  • Type of mass wasting involving removal of weathered materials by rain water.
  • When rains come, the first drops scatter soil particles that have been loosened by drying.
  • The increasing downpour then washes large quantities of loosened soil down hill.

Types

  1. a) Sheet wash
  • Uniform removal of soil from a large area.
  • Rainfall with uniform drops fall on loosened soil on a land with uniform slope.
  • The water from the rainfall then flows down slope.
  • As it does so, it uniformly sweeps all the loose soil from the surface. Its common around L. Baringo and Marigat.
  1. b) Gulleying
  • Removal of soil through wide and deep channels called gullies.
    • Rain falls on an even slope
    • The water irregularly runs down slope along specific channels called rills.
    • The channels are widened and deepened by the water to form gullies.
    • Neighbouring gullies are widened and the ridges between them are reduced to form earth pillars.
  1. Splash erosion
  • Removal of soil by rain drops scattering loose particles and carrying them down slope by runoff.

Effects of Mass Wasting On Physical and Human Environment

Positive

  1. Make the soil to become fertile where soil from fertile areas is deposited.
  2. Leads to formation of new land forms such as scars, depressions, lakes, rock pillars, etc.

Negative

  1. Soil creep may destroy walls built across the slope when creeping soil exerts pressure on them.
  2. Decrease soil fertility where fertile soil moves down slope.
  3. Makes the ground prone to soil erosion especially where scars have formed.
  4. Hinders transport and communication by blocking railway lines making maintenance to be costly.
  5. Hinders mechanisation of agriculture e.g. gulleying does not allow movement of vehicles and machinery on farms.
  6. Leads to destruction of property and loss of live by burying people in their houses and stones falling on escarpments along roads causing accidents.
  7. May Cause Rivers to change their courses e.g. mud flow.

 

 

 

 

HYDROLOGICAL/WATER CYCLE

  • Endless interchange of water between the sea, atmosphere and land.

Processes in Which Circulation Is Carried Out

  1. Evaporation
    • Changing of water into water into water vapour when it’s heated by solar radiation.
    • Evapotranspiration: Combined loss of water from the soil through direct evaporation and transpiration by plants.
  2. Cooling
  • Reduction of water vapour temperature as it rises into the atmosphere when it expands due to reduced temperature and pressure.
  1. Condensation
  • Turning of water vapour into tiny water droplets which form clouds when cooling continues below dew point.
  1. Precipitation

-The process in which the earth receives moisture from the atmosphere.

It occurs when droplets formed by condensation combine forming heavier drops which fall on the ground as rain or may become frozen to form snow, hail, sleet, etc.

  1. Surface runoff
  • Some of the water from precipitation that flows on the surface into valleys, ponds, lakes, etc.
  1. Infiltration
  • Entry of water into the ground through pores, joints and cracks in rocks.
  1. Percolation
  • Downwards and sideways movement of water that has entered into the ground.
  1. Overland flow

Surface runoff makes the overland flow.

River water flows back to the oceans where evaporation takes place again and water cycle is repeated.

Significance of Hydrolological Cycle

Positive

  1. Provides water to man from precipitation and underground water.
  2. Provides rain to man who is useful in agriculture.
  3. Atmospheric water is important in regulating heat loss from the earth by absorbing terrestrial radiation and reflecting it back to the earth keeping the lower atmosphere warm.

Negative

  1. May lead to shortage of water when evaporation rate exceeds precipitation.
  2. May lead to decreased agricultural production as a result of excessive evaporation causing weathering of crops.
  3. May lead to flooding when excessive evaporation cause increased rainfall.
  4. May lead to shortage of rainfall if there is less evaporation due to low temperature.

ACTION OF RIVERS

A river is a mass of water flowing over the land in a definite channel.

Work of a River

  1. Drain excess water from the land.
  2. Sculpturing land through erosion, transportation and transportation.

River Erosion

  • Removal by river water of materials from the sides and bed of the river channel.

Factors Influencing River Erosion

  1. River volume
  • A river with a large volume has a greater kinetic energy to erode than one with a small volume.
  1. Slope of land
  • A river flowing on a steep channel has greater velocity and therefore more energy to erode its channel than one flowing over gentle or flat land.
  1. Rivers load
  • A river with large, rough and heavy load e.g. tree trunks and boulders erodes more than one with light, fine and smooth materials e.g. sand.
  • A river carrying more load erodes more than one with less load as it has more abrasive tools.
  1. Nature of bed rock
  • Erosion is faster where a river flows over soft bed rock and less where it flows over hard rock.

Processes/Ways of river erosion

  1. 1. Solution/Corrosion
  • River water dissolving soluble minerals and carrying them away.
  1. 2. Hydraulic Action
  • Erosion by the force of river water when it thrusts itself into cracks and joints of rocks on the sides of the channel dislodging lumps.
  • Also by pushing air into the cracks, compressing it increasing pressure which widens the cracks eventually dislodging lumps.
  1. Abrasion/Corrasion
  • Abrasion is scratching of the bed and banks by materials are carried away by the river.
  • Corrosion is hurling of rock fragments carried by the river against rocks which weaken and eventually break them.
  1. Attrition
  • Hitting against one another of rock fragments carried by river water breaking one another into smaller pieces.

Types of River Erosion

  1. Vertical Erosion
  • Erosion in which the river cuts downwards into its channel.
  1. Lateral Erosion
  • Erosion in which the river erodes the sides of the channel.
  1. Headward Erosion
  • Erosion in which a river cuts back at its source.
  1. Where there is a water fall.
  • The river undercuts at the base of a waterfall.
  • The rock above the undercut cliff collapses.
  • The position of waterfall shifts upstream.
  1. Where gulleying or soil creep occurs where there is a spring causing its position to shift upstream (spring sapping).

Resultant Features of River Erosion

  1. Stream Cut Valleys
    • Valleys with V, open V or U shaped cross sections along the river channel.
  • In the source region a river cuts itself a channel which starts as a gulley.
  • The channel is deepened by vertical erosion resulting into a v-shaped valley.
  • In the middle stage lateral erosion widens and deepens the valley resulting in a more open v-cross section.
  • In the old stage lateral erosion creates a very wide channel with a U-shaped cross section.
  1. Gorges
  • Narrow, deep, steep-sided valley.

Ways/modes of formation

  1. Where a river flows along a fault or a section of soft rocks eroding the channel vertically through the soft rocks or fault.
  2. By headward erosion at a water fall when the river’s erosive activity is increased due to increased gradient causing the river to undercut at the base of the water fall, then the rock above the undercut base collapses causing the waterfall to shift upstream resulting in a gorge below the water fall.
  3. Where a river flows across a plateau with alternating horizontal layers of hard and soft rocks eroding them resulting in a gorge with stepped sides called a canyon e.g. Grand canyon on R. Colorado in USA.
  4. Due to river rejuvenation when the river’s erosive activity is renewed causing the river to vigorously erode deep into its channel.
  5. Where a river maintains its course across land which is being uplifted gradually.

Rapids

  • A section of the rivers course where the bed is suddenly steepened causing the water to suddenly flow swiftly.

                                     How they are formed

  1. Where a less hard rock lies below a soft rock and the soft rock is eroded more resulting in a steep slope.
  2. Where a water fall has been eroded by headward erosion reducing its height.
  3. c) Where resistant rock dips down stream and is unevenly eroded.

Water Falls

  • A place on a rivers course where a river bed is vertical or nearly vertical.

Formation

  1. Where a river descends over a sharp edge of a plateau encountering a sharp drop.
  2. Where a river descends a cliff into the sea.
  3. Where a river descends a fault scarp.
  4. Where a river descends a sharp edge of a plateau.
  5. Where a river is blocked by lava flow causing water to accumulate on the upstream side and a water fall forms at the point of overflow.
  6. Where a resistant rock lies across a river with a less resistant one on the downstream side and the less resistant one is eroded faster causing a rapid to be first formed, then a waterfall.

Pot Holes

  • Circular depressions on a river bed.
  • Form where a river flows over shallow depression and develops strong circulating currents which cause the load to scratch the bed in circular motion.

Interlocking Spurs

  • Highland projections which appear as they fit together.

Formation

  • Where In the youthful stage, a river flows around spurs undercutting the outer bank more than the inner bank causing the bends to be more pronounced making the spurs to appear as if to fit together. The outer bank becomes river cliff/bluff and the inner bank slip off slope.

River Transportation

  • River carrying away materials that its water has eroded from the channel.

Factors Influencing River Transportation

  1. a) Rivers Volume

A river with large volume of water has more energy and therefore greater carrying ability than one with a small volume.

  1. b) Gradient

A river flowing on a steep channel has greater ability to transport than one on a gentle slope because it flows fast due to gravity.

  1. c) Rivers Load
  • Small and light particles are transported over long distances while heavy materials are transported for a short distance.
  • Dissolved load is carried all the way to the rivers mouth.
  • Small amount of load is transported for a long distance while large amounts of load collide reducing the speed and therefore rivers ability to transport causing some of the load to be dropped along the way.

Processes/ways of River Transportation

  1. a) Suspension
  • River transportation of light and insoluble materials in form of a mixture.
  1. b) Saltation/Hydraulic Lift
  • River transportation of large particles through a series of jumps and hops.
  • Materials are lifted by force of moving water and pushed for a short distance and land back on the river bed by gravity.
  • The process is repeated causing the load to be transported downstream.
  1. c) Traction
  • River transportation of heavy materials like boulders by rolling them by the force of water.
  1. d) Solution
  • River transportation of load in solution form.

Load transported by suspension, Saltation and traction is called clastic load while that by solution is called dissolved load.

Deposition

  • Laying down of some of the load carried by the river when energy decreases.

Factors Influencing Deposition

  1. a) Gradient

When gradient reduces the river’s speed decreases and hence its energy is reduced causing it to drop some of the heavy load.

  1. b) Rivers Volume

When rivers volume decreases its energy also decreases causing it to deposit heaviest load then lighter ones.

  1. c) Obstacles

Obstacles such as swamp vegetation and rock outcrop reduce the river’s speed and also trap some of the load thereby facilitating deposition.

  1. d) River Bed Width and Depth

Where a rivers channel becomes wide and shallow there is less water per unit area and hence the river has lower capacity to transport so deposition of excess load begins.

Resultant Features of River Deposition

  1. a) Alluvial Fans and Bajadas
  • Fan shaped deposits of alluvium.

Formation

  • The river flowing through a narrow channel enters a plain from a higher ground and suddenly spreads out.
  • There is a sudden loss of velocity causing the river to scatter alluvium all around to form an alluvial fan.
  • Alluvial fans merge to form a continuous feature called bajada or piedmont fan.
  1. b) Meanders and Oxbow Lakes

Meanders are loop-like bends in a rivers course.

Oxbow lake is a horse shoe shaped section of a former river.

Formation

  • In mature stage river flows sluggishly due to reduced gradient.
  • It meets an obstacle and flows around it.
  • Erosion is greater on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank causing the river to form loop like bends.
  • Erosion continues on the outer bank (bluff) narrowing the land between the two outer banks forming a pronounced meander e.g. on rivers Yala, Nzoia and Tana.
  • During the floods when the river has more energy it cuts across the narrow land.
  • The former bends are cut off by deposition to form an oxbow lake e.g. Kanyaboli on R.Yala and Shakababo on R.Tana.

Flood Plains

  • Wide gently sloping plain of alluvium on the floor of a river valley.

Formation

  • A river meanders.
  • There is erosion on outer bank and deposition on the inner bank.
  • The process continues and layers of alluvium deposited on inner bank join to form a plain e.g. Nzoia and Yala flood plains.

River Braids

  • Net work of diverging and converging channels along a rivers course.

Factors favouring formation of braids

  1. River must be carrying large load.
  2. Reduced gradient on the section.
  3. Reduced amount of water such as in dry season or arid conditions.
  4. Presence of obstacles such as rock out crops.

Formation

  • River flows sluggishly due to low gradient.
  • Deposits of alluvium are laid on river bed.
  • The deposits raise the river bed causing the channel to be subdivided into channels or distributaries.

 

 

 

Natural Levees

  • Raised river banks which are made of alluvial materials.

Formation

  • River floods and spills over its banks.
  • Deposition of coarse materials near the banks and fine materials are carried further on the flood plain.
  • Coarse materials accumulate raising the banks above the general level of the flood plain.

Effects of Levee Formation

  1. Creation of differed tributaries and confluences.

Differed tributary: Tributary blocked from joining the main river by levees.

Differed confluence: New point where the differed tributary joins the main river downstream.

  1. Destructive flooding.
  • Due to the river bursting its banks during the flood season due to the bed being raised above the general level of the flood plain.
  • Due to differed tributaries flowing into the flood plains.
  • Because the river channel has become narrower and shallower due to deposited alluvium.

Estuaries

  • Broad channel at the mouth of a river where the river enters the ocean as a whole.
  • Some are deep and narrow because sediments are carried away by ocean currents while others are wide and shallow due to sediments covered by water e.g. on R. Congo and Gabon.

Deltas

  • Low lying tract of alluvial deposits formed at the rivers mouth.

Ideal Conditions for Formation of A Delta At A Rivers Mouth

  1. Large load such as from a large catchment area where erosion is taking place actively.
  2. The rivers course to be free from obstacles such as swamps so as not to filter sediments before they reach the mouth.
  3. Low speed at the point where the river is entering a sea or lake for deposition to take place.
  4. The rate of deposition should be higher than the rate of erosion by sea or lake currents.

How a Delta Forms

  • The speed of the river is checked by sea or lake.
  • Heavy load is first deposited.
  • Lighter load is carried further into the sea causing that part of the sea to become shallower.
  • The part is colonised by plants making it swampy but firmer.
  • Plants trap more alluvium making the delta to grow in height.
  • The river builds levees making it narrower.
  • The river burst its banks and small channels branch off the main river and carries water into the sea or lake (distributaries).

Types of Deltas

  1. Marine: Type formed at sea.
  2. Lacustrine: at a lake.
  3. Inland Delta: Deltas which form along a rivers course before it reaches the lake or sea.

Formation

  • The velocity of the river is checked on entering a relatively flat swampy land.
  • The river builds up levees.
  • The river bursts banks forming distributaries.
  • Alluvial deposits are spread over vast areas when river floods e.g. Niger and Okavango deltas.
  1. Arcuate Delta
  • A delta with a convex shoreline on the seaward end due to strong currents spreading materials over a wide area on seaward side.
  • Has many distributaries e.g. Tana and Rufiji deltas.
  1. Birds Foot Delta
  • Type of a delta with a pattern resembling the foot of a bird.
  • Has few distributaries.
  • Formed on a river carrying large quantities of fine alluvium into water where there is low wave energy e.g. Omo and Mississippi deltas.
  1. Estuarine Delta
  • Delta which has formed on an estuary.

Formation

  • The rivers load is deposited on the estuary when the speed is checked by sea.
  • The river cuts across in a single channel that may be bordered by levees e.g. on R.Volta in Ghana and on R. Zambezi.

Development of a River Profile

  • Longitudinal section of a river from source to mouth.
  1. Youthful/ Torrent Stage

Characteristics

  1. Steep gradient.
  2. The river flows very fast.
  3. Vertical erosion is dominant
  4. Headward erosion is evident.

                                                    Features

  1. V- shaped valleys
  2. Waterfalls
  3. Rapids
  4. Potholes
  5. Gorges
  6. Interlocking spurs.
  7. Mature/ Valley Stage

Characteristics

  1. Low and almost regular gradient.
  2. The flow is less swift.
  3. The river is wider due to being joined by tributaries.
  4. Lateral and vertical erosion but lateral is more active.
  5. Deposition starts at some sections.

Features

  1. Wider open v-shaped valley
  2. Meanders
  3. River bluffs/cliffs
  4. Slip off slopes

 

  1. Old/ Plain Stage

Characteristics

  1. Very gentle/almost level gradient.
  2. Very slow flow of river.
  3. The main work of the river is deposition.
  4. Some lateral erosion occurs.
  5. Seasonal floods are common.

Features

  1. Shallow broad flat bottomed u-shaped valley.
  2. Meanders
  3. Oxbow lakes
  4. Natural levees
  5. Differed tributaries
  6. Differed confluences
  7. Braided channels
  8. Flood plains
  9. Deltas
  10. Distributaries

River Capture/Beheading/Piracy/Abstraction

  • Diversion of head waters of one river into the system of an adjacent powerful river due to erosion.

The river that captures is called pirate.

The captured one is called victim.

How it occurs

  • At first there are a powerful river and a weaker river flowing adjacent to each other.
  • The powerful river erodes vertically and laterally than the weak river making it to flow at a lower level.
  • At the same time, it extends its valley backwards by headward erosion.
  • The stronger river eventually joins the valley of the weak river.
  • The headwaters of the weaker river start flowing into the valley of the stronger river e.g. R. Tano in Ghana was captured by the Black Volta River and R. Eyong was captured by Imo in S. Nigeria.

The remaining section of the beheaded river is called a misfit/beheaded river.

The dry valley between the elbow of capture and the new course of the misfit stream is called a wind gap.

 

River Rejuvenation

  • Renewal of erosive activity of a river.
  • Happens in the old stage.

Causes

  1. Change in the Base Level

Base level is the lowest level to which a river can erode its bed.

Rejuvenation resulting is called dynamic rejuvenation

  1. Drop in sea level
    • The river mouth moves further seawards.
    • A steep gradient occurs between the old and the new mouths causing the river to starts to move swiftly.
    • Vertical erosion resumes extending back to the flood plain.
  2. Uplift of a section of land along the rivers course.
  • Faulting or folding may occur.
  • A section of land along a rivers course is uplifted.
  • The gradient is increased causing the river to flow swiftly and undercut through the uplifted section.
  • An antecedent gorge is formed.
  1. Unequal sinking of land along a rivers course.
  • The downstream side sinks more than the upstream one.
  • An increase ingredient occurs causing the river to flow swiftly
  • The river starts to undercut more vigorously than before.
  1. Increase in Rivers Discharge

Rejuvenation resulting is called static rejuvenation

  • The rivers discharge increases due to high precipitation or capture.
  • The rate of erosion becomes higher due to increased discharge.
  • The river starts to undercut more vigorously.
  1. Change in Rock Structure
  • A river passes a resistant rock and starts flowing over a less resistant rock.
  • The river starts eroding more vigorously into the softer rocks.

Features of River Rejuvenation

  1. Knick Points
  • A sudden break of slope in a rivers profile as a result of change in sea level.
  1. River Terraces
  • Step like features formed when a river rejuvenates and cuts a new valley through the flood plain causing a plat form will form where the floor of the former flood plain was.
  1. Water Falls

-Are formed when knick points are deepened e.g. Charlotte falls in Sierra Leone.

  1. Antecedent Gorges
  • Gorges which form where a river undercuts though a section of land that is being uplifted e.g. Turkwel gorge.
  1. Incised Meanders
  • Meanders that have been cut deeper into by a rejuvenated river.

Types

  1. a) Entrenched Meanders
  • Formed from vertical erosion causing both valleys to be steep and symmetrical.
  1. b) Ingrown Meanders
  • Formed by lateral and vertical erosion causing one valley side to be steeper than the other and hence asymmetrical in cross section.
  1. Abandoned Meanders
  • Meanders abandoned during formation of oxbow lakes when the river takes a short-cut leaving an enclosed portion of land surrounded by an oxbow lake.

Drainage Systems

  • Main river together with its tributaries.

Types

  1. 1. Accordant Drainage System
  • Drainage system in which a river flows according to slope and rock structure by following areas of weak lines.
  1. 2. Discordant Drainage System
  • Drainage systems in which rivers don’t flow in accordance with the slope, rock structure and land forming processes.

Types

  1. a) Antecedent Drainage System
  • Drainage system where a river maintains its course while the surrounding land is being uplifted.
  1. b) Superimposed Drainage System
  • Drainage system which develops where a river maintains its flow over a new set of rocks after removing a former set of rocks.
  1. Back Tilted/Reversed Drainage System
  • Drainage system where direction of flow is reversed be due to capture, uplifting or down warping e.g. R. Kagera, Katonga and Kafu.

Significance of Rivers and Their Features

Positive

  1. Rivers are sources of water for domestic and industrial use.
  2. Rivers water is used for irrigation.
  3. They provide port facilities where they have rias and estuaries.
  4. Some rivers are used for transportation e.g. R. Congo and Nile.
  5. Some rivers are fishing grounds e.g. Tana.
  6. Rivers are dammed and used for H.E.P generation.
  7. Features formed by river action such as waterfalls, gorges and oxbow lakes are a tourist attraction.

Negative

  1. Rivers flood causing loss of life and property.
  2. Rivers may lead to drowning accidents especially when they are flooded.
  3. River water can be a medium of spreading diseases such as bilhazia and malaria.
  4. Some wide rivers are barriers to transport and communication.
  5. Some rivers also harbour dangerous wild animals which can kill humans e.g. crocodiles, hippos and snakes.

                  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LAKES

A lake is a depression on the earth’s surface where water has accumulated.

Classification /Types of Lakes

According To the Nature of Water

  1. Fresh water lakes which contain fresh water.
  2. Salty lakes which have salty water.

According To the Mode of Formation of Depression They Occupy

  1. by Earth or Tectonic Movements
  2. a) Faulted or Rift Valley Lakes
  • During Rift Valley formation some parts of the rift valley floor sunk more than others.
  • A long narrow and deep depression formed.
  • Water from seepage and rain accumulated into these depressions to form lakes.
  1. b) Down Warped and Tilted Lakes
  • Tensional and compression forces caused some parts of the earths crust to up warp while others down warped.
  • A shallow depression formed.
  • The depression may also be filled with water from rain or ground water.
  • In the case of L. Victoria Rivers Kafu, Kagera and Katonga were tilted eastwards and Nyando, Yala and Nzoia continued flowing west wards adding water into the depression.
  • Victoria is the second largest fresh water lake after L.Superior.
  • Has a maximum depth of 87m deep. Other examples of lakes are L. Kyoga and Wamala.

 

Playas/sebkha is a lake contained in an inland drainage basin in a desert formed when rain or flood water flows into a basin formed by crustal warping e.g. Chemchane Sebkha in Mauritania.

  1. by Vulcanicity
  2. i) Crater Lakes
  • Lake formed by water accumulating into a crater.
  • Are usually salty.
  • A crater lake formed on an explosion crater is called maar.
  • Examples are Lakes Mossoko in Tanzania, Paradise in Marsabit and Myungu in Uganda.

 

  1. ii) Lava Dammed Lakes
  • Formed as a result water accumulating on the upstream side of a lava barrier across a river.
  • Highly viscous lava erupts across a rivers course.
  • It solidifies and blocks the river forming a lava dam.
  • The rivers water accumulates behind the lava dam.
  • A narrow and winding lake is formed e.g. Lakes Bunyonyi, Mutanda and Bulera in Uganda.
  1. by Erosion
  2. a) Glacial Erosion

(i) Corrie/Tarn Lakes

  • Lake formed when water from melting snow accumulates into a corrie/cirque e.g. Teleki, Nanyuki and Hidden tarns on Mt. Kenya.

(ii) Ribbon Lakes

  • Finger like on a glaciated valley.
  • Glacier erodes the floor of a u-shaped valley.
  • It over deepens some of its sections.
  • Elongated hollow results.
  • Water from melting ice accumulates into it forming a lake.

 

 

  1. b) Wind Erosion
  • Lakes formed when ground water accumulates in a depression formed by wind deflation and abrasion.
  • Wind continuously erodes the earths crust by deflation and abrasion.
  • The water bearing rocks are reached.

Water oozes from the water table into the hollow or water from flash floods may accumulate in it to form temporary lakes called pans e.g. in Quattara depression between Egypt and Libya and Etosha pan in Namib.

  1. c) Solution Lakes
  • Lakes formed when rain or ground water accumulates in depressions formed in limestone rocks when rain water containing a weak carbonic acid dissolves limestone rocks e.g. Lakes Barber in Morrocco and Ojikoto in Namibia.
  1. by Deposition
  2. a) River Deposition
  • Formed when river deposition occur cutting off a section of a pronounced meander e.g. oxbow lakes Shakababo and Mukunguya at lower part of Tana.
  1. b) Wave Deposition
  • Lakes formed when wave deposition occurs across a rivers mouth or where the coastline changes suddenly enclosing a body of calm water.
  • Waves break at an angle.
  • The long shore drift causes materials to be progressively arranged across a rivers mouth resulting in a body of calm water called a lagoon/sound.
  1. by Man
  2. a) Dams are Lakes formed when water accumulates behind dams constructed across rivers resulting into a large man made reservoir called man made lake e.g. behind Seven Forks Dam and Lakes Volta in Ghana and Nasser in Egypt.
  3. b) Barrage is a bank of earth or stones built across a river to provide water for farming.

Significance of Lakes

Positive

  1. Fresh water lakes provide water for domestic and industrial use.
  2. Fresh water lakes also provide water for irrigation e.g. Naivasha for horticultural farms around it.
  3. Man made lakes and some other lakes e.g. Victoria (Owen falls) are used for generation of H.E.P.
  4. Lakes are used for transport.
  5. Some lakes contain valuable minerals e.g. trona at L. Magadi and salt at L. Katwe in Uganda.
  6. Many lakes have fish which is a source of food and employment to fishermen and traders.
  7. Lakes are also a tourist attraction by providing recreational facilities and being habitats for wildlife.
  8. Some lakes are sources of rivers e.g. Victoria for White Nile and L.Tana for Blue Nile.
  9. Lakes modify the climate of surrounding areas by sea breezes and convectional rainfall.

                                      Negative

  1. Lakes are habitats for disease vectors e.g. mosquitoes and snails which transmit Malaria and bilhazia.
  2. Lakes may cause flooding due to excessive rainfall or when dams break leading to loss of life and property.
  3. Lakes are habitats for dangerous animals like crocodiles, hippos and snakes which kill humans.
  4. Lakes cause drowning accidents to people in time of storms.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OCEANS, SEAS AND THEIR COASTS

An ocean is a large and extensive body of saline water occupying a basin between continents while a sea is a large body of saline water on the margins of continents.

Nature of Ocean Water

  1. Ocean water is salty
  • Due to abundant sodium chloride which rivers dissolved from land, from rocks that the water is in contact with and volcanic materials on the ocean floor?
  • Ocean water has high salinity in areas where there is addition of little water and high rate of evaporation leading to high salt concentration e.g. Dead Sea and lower where there is low temperatures and addition of fresh water from rivers, rain or snow melts e.g. Baltic Sea.
  1. Surface water is warmer than that at the bottom except in Polar Regions where a thin layer of cold water may overlie warmer water.
  2. Ocean water is a habitat for living organisms

Planktons are plants and animals occupying ocean surface.

  1. a) Phytoplankton are ocean plants e.g. algae.
  2. b) Zooplankton are ocean animals e.g. lobsters, jelly fish, crabs, etc.

Types

  1. Nektons are all forms of fish.
  2. Benthos are ocean creatures which live only at the bottom of margins of continents where sunlight reaches Sea floor e.g. snails, starfish and sea anemones.
  3. Ocean water is pollutedg. by industrial effluents, pesticides and herbicides carried by rivers and runoff to the sea.
  4. Ocean topography is composed of several features
  5. Continental shelf- Relatively flat part of the continent covered by ocean water.
  6. Continental slope- Steeply dipping surface between continental shelf and the ocean basin proper.
  7. Abbysal plain- Almost level area of the ocean where sediments are deposited.
  8. Mid ocean ridges- Range of hills which are submerged formed by volcanic and seismic activities.
  9. Sea Islands– pieces of land surrounded by water.
  10. i) Continental islandsOnes rising from continental shelf.
  11. ii) Oceanic islandsOnes which rise from the sea floor e.g. Canary and Cape Verde.

iii) Coral islands-Ones made of coral.

  1. Deep sea trenches – narrow steep sided submarine valleys on the ocean floor.
  2. Guyots– submerged atolls forming an under water mountain.
  3. Sea mount– a volcano which doesn’t rise above the sea floor.
  4. A portion of ocean water moves

There are two types of movements namely:

Vertical Movements

  • Movement of ocean water from surface to bottom and vice versa.

How they occur

  1. Cold polar water sinking before moving horizontally towards equator.
  2. Ocean currents converge
  3. When ocean water sinks at lower depths after ocean currents converge.
  4. When ocean water rises to the surface in a process called upwelling.

Significance of vertical movements

  1. i) Carries nutrients for sea animals by upwelling.
  2. ii) Oxygenation of water vital for fish survival.

Horizontal Movements

It occurs in the following ways:

  1. Ocean Currents

An ocean current is a large mass of surface ocean water which is moving in a particular direction e.g.

  • Mozambique- warm
  • Canaries -cold
  • Benguela-cold
  • Atlantic drift-warm
  • Gulf stream drift-warm

Factors that influencing formation of ocean currents

  1. Wind by blowing over water causing a mass of surface ocean water to move in its direction forming drift currents.
  2. Rotation of the earth by causing deflection of ocean currents.
  3. Shape of land mass by influencing current direction and causing it to flow following the coastal outline.
  4. Differences in temperature by causing cold polar water which is dense due to low temp moves towards the equator passing on the ocean floor and warm water of the tropics to move towards the poles passing on the surface.
  5. Tides
  • Periodic rise and fall in the level of ocean and other large water bodies.
  • Occurs when the moon and to some e the sun exert gravitational pull on the water bodies on the earth.
  • Moons gravitational pull is exerted on the earth causing the water on that side A to bulge resulting in high tide 1
  • Some water flows from sides C and D to side B to occupy space created by the moons pull resulting in high tide 2 and low tides 1 and 2 at C and D.

Rotation of the Earth

  • It brings any longitude under the influence of 2 high and 2low tides in a lunar day.
  • Similar tides occur at an interval of 12hrs 26 minutes.
  • A lunar day is time taken by the earth to complete one rotation with respect to the moon (24 hrs 52 min)
  • Lunar month is time taken by the moon to complete one revolution around the earth (27.3 days)
  • The moon is always ahead of the earth by 52 minutes due to its revolution e.g. if Nairobi is opposite the moon at 6pm the following day the high tide will be at 6.52pm.

Tidal range is the difference between the highest level reached by high tide and lowest level reached by low tide.

Types of tides

  • Caused by relative positions of the moon and the sun from the earth.
  • Sometimes the moon and the earth are nearer or farther from each other due to their elliptical orbits.
  1. a) Spring Tides
  • In which the highest and lowest tides occur.
  • Occurs when the sun, moon and the earth are in a line (syzygy position) and pulling in the same plane causing pulling force to be greatest.
  1. b) Neap Tides
  • In which high tide is lower than normal and low tide is higher than normal.
  • Occurs when the sun, moon and earth form a right angle and pulling water to themselves.
  1. c) Perigian Tides
  • In which tidal range is 20% higher than normal.
  • Occur when the moon is nearest to the earth (perigee position) causing pulling force to be greatest.
  1. d) Apogean Tides
  • In which tidal range is lower than normal.
  • Occur when moon is farthest from the earth (apogee position) causing pulling force to be weakest.
  1. e) Diurnal Tides
  • 1H1L in a lunar day
  1. f) Semi Diurnal Tides
  • 2H2L in a lunar day which may rise or drop at the same level.
  • Occur in most of Pacific Ocean.
  1. g) Mixed Tides
  • 2H2L in a lunar day where one pair may fluctuate in level while the other remains constant.
  1. Waves
  • A wave is a moving ridge of water on the sea.
  • It’s formed when wind blows over an open water body causing oscillation of water particles.

Parts of a wave

Crest – the top of a wave.

Trough – the bottom of a wave.

Wavelength – horizontal distance between two successive crests.

Height – difference in height between crest and trough.

  • When a wave reaches the shore, the water particles below the surface start touching the ocean floor causing it to break.
  • There is forward movement of water to the beach which is called swash/send.
  • There is backward movement of water to the sea due to gravity called
  • The rest flows at the bottom back into the sea in a water current called undertow.

Types of waves

  1. a) Constructive Waves
  • Waves in which swash is stronger than backwash resulting in deposition.
  1. b) Destructive Waves
  • Waves in which swash is weaker than backwash resulting in erosion.

Wave Erosion

Processes of Wave Erosion

  1. Abrasion
  • Scratching of ocean floor by materials carried by the back wash.
    1. / Corrasion
  • Hurling of pebbles and rock fragments against the rocks causing some particles to break off.
  1. c) Attrition
  • Rock fragments dragged up and down by the swash and backwash hitting against each other becoming smaller in size. It provides tools for abrasion and corrosion.
  1. d) Hydraulic Action
  • Removal of materials from the coast by action of the force of moving water.
  1. i) Direct wave force
  • Large amounts of wave water crush against a rock face weakening and eventually breaking of the rock.
  1. ii) Compressed air action
  2. Waves crush against a rock.
  3. The force of water pushes air into cracks compressing it and exerting pressure causing them to widen.
  4. Wave retreats causing trapped air to expand resulting in sudden pressure release causing cracks to expand further.
  5. The process is repeated several times causing the rocks to shatter.
  6. e) Solution
  • Some soluble minerals in rocks dissolve directly in water and are carried away in solution leaving cavities in rocks.
  1. f) Corrosion
  • Some minerals such as limestone reacting with sea water which has dissolved carbonic acid.

Factors influencing wave erosion

  1. a) Waves must have strong backwash and a weak swash
  2. b) Slope –The coast that slopes steeply into the sea favours erosion.
  3. c) Load-large amount provides more abrasive tools. Angular shaped load is more effective in abrasion.
  4. d) Amount of water in a wave – the larger the amount the greater the hydraulic force.

Features Resulting From Wave Erosion

  1. a) Cliff and Wave Cut Platform

Cliff – A steep rock face which borders the sea.

Wave Cut Platform – A fairly flat part of the shore formed when a cliff retreats inland.

  • Breaking waves erode rock surface of a steep coast cutting a notch.
  • Erosion continues causing the base of the rock to be undercut resulting into an overhanging rock.

 

  • Undercutting continues causing the overhanging rock to eventually collapse forming a cliff.

 

  • The process is repeated and a fairly flat part of the shore is formed between the new and the former cliff.
  1. b) Bays and Headlands

Bay – Piece of sea water jutting into the land or a curved inlet of sea.

Headland – a piece of land jutting into the sea.

  • At first there is a coast with hard and soft rocks.
  • Soft rocks are eroded more by wave action to form sea inlets called bays.
  • Resistant rocks called headlands are left sticking into the sea. A big bay is called a gulf.
  1. c) Caves, Blow Hole and Geos

Cave – Natural cylindrical tunnel like chamber extending into the cliff or into the side of a headland.

  • A small hollow form on a weak area of the cliff after limestone is acted upon by carbonation.
  • Corrosion and direct dissolving act on the hollow extending it into the cliff forming a cave.

Blow Hole/ Gloup – Vertical hole formed on the side of cliff bordering the land.

  • Formed when a cave reaches the surface some distance inland as a vertical pit.

It’s called a blow hole because when the waves break water is forced out of the hole.                              

Geos – Narrow sea inlet formed when the roof of a cave between the blow hole and the sea collapses.

  1. d) Natural Arch, stack and stump

Natural arch – Opening from one side of a headland to the other.

  • Formed when a cave extends into the head land to the other side.
  • Or when caves which have developed on both sides of headland join each other.

Stack – Pillar of rock left standing on the seaward side.

  • Formed when continuous wave erosion causes the roof of the arch to collapse.

Stump – The base of stack left when it collapses as a result of erosion at the base.

Wave Transportation

Types of load moved by waves are such as shingle, sand, mud and other objects dumped into the sea.

How the sea acquires its load

  1. Materials brought by rivers and wind.
  2. Products of erosion and weathering.
  3. Materials brought by rivers and wind.
  4. Debris from volcanic eruptions in the sea or on land bordering the sea.

Waves transport load by a process called long shore drift. Long shore drift is progressive dragging of materials along the beach as a result of waves breaking at an angle.

  • Waves break at an angle.
  • Swash pushes materials up the beach at an angle.
  • Backwash brings them back at right angle to the edge of water.
  • Process is repeated causing materials to be progressively dragged along the beach.

Factors Influencing Wave Transportation

  1. Strength of waves

Strong waves carry large quantities of load over a long distance while weak waves carry small quantities of load over a short distance.

  1. Tides

Tides cause waves to break farther inland causing materials that were not in contact with breaking waves to be moved about.

  1. Ocean currents

Ocean currents cause movement of materials from one part of the ocean to another e.g. coconut fruits from southern part of Africa to Gulf of Guinea by Benguela current.

  1. Gradient of the shore

On gentle coasts transportation of materials is favoured by long shore drift while on a steep coast they bounce off cliffs and remain floating.

  1. Orientation of coast line.

Transportation by long shore drift is favoured where coast is aligned obliquely to the direction of breaking waves while on transversely aligned coast swash moves materials back and fourth along the same line.

  1. Nature of the load.

Lighter materials such as sand are carried over long distances while heavy load is transported over a short distance.

Deposition

  • Process in which materials transported by waves are laid down on the shore.

Factors Influencing Wave Deposition

  1. Load

Deposition occurs in selective manner:

  • Boulders are deposited at farthest end of land because they are swept towards the land by powerful swash during high tide followed by pebbles.
  • Then sand and finally mud because the weak backwash brings them back towards the sea as they are light.
  1. Waves

Waves must have a strong swash and a weak backwash in order to cause excess load to be left behind on the shore.

  1. gradient of the shore

The coast must be sloping to reduce the velocity and hence the energy of waves so that depositing occurs.

  1. Depth of Water

Deposition takes place where water is shallow for waves to come into contact with ocean floor and break the cyclic motion of water.

Features Resulting From Wave Deposition

  1. a) Beaches
  • Gently sloping mass of accumulated materials such as sand, shingle and pebbles along the coast.
  • Formed by constructive waves during a relatively calm weather when backwash is weakest resulting in materials accumulating at the shore.

During storms destructive waves destroy beaches creating other minor features such as:                           i) Beach cusps

  • Horn like projections of sand and gravel which gives the coast line a series of curves.
  • Waves break at right angles.
  • Powerful swash in form of eddies scour depressions moving coarse materials to either side forming head like projections called cusps leaving finer materials forming bay like inlets.
  1. ii) Beach Ridges and Beach Berms

Beach Ridges – Low ridges of coarse sand, boulders and shingle deposited roughly parallel to the shore formed by waves approaching the coast at right angles.

iii) Beach Berms

  • Narrow terrace of shingle thrown up the beach by storm waves formed where tidal range is high.
  1. iv) Beach Rock Shells

Masses of sand, shells and pebbles cemented together by calcium carbonate forming projections above the beach.

 

  1. b) Spits
  • Low lying ridge of sand, shingle and pebbles with one end attached to the coast and the other projecting to the sea.
  • Movement of materials by long shore drift is halted causing deposition due to coast changing its direction towards the land e.g. across estuary or entrance of a bay.
  • The process continues and the accumulation grows towards the sea.
  • Waves carry sand to the inner end of the spit creating a hook like feature e.g. at the mouth of R. Senegal.
  1. c) Tombolo
  • Spit that grows out from the coast into the sea and joins an island e.g. Ras Hafur in Somalia and Ngomeni on Kenyan coast.
  1. d) Bars
  • Ridge of sand, shingles and mud which lies almost parallel to the coast.

Types

  1. i) Bay bar – Bar which forms across the entrance of a bay.

Offshore bar – Bar which forms off a very shallow coast line.

  • Wave is forced to break off shore due to water shallowness.
  • They throw up a ridge of materials off the coast.
  • Between the bar and the coast there will be a shallow lagoon colonised by marsh plants.
  1. e) Cuspate foreland
  • Broad triangular shaped deposits of sand or shingle projecting from the mainland into the sea.
  • Two spits grow towards each other at an angle.
  • A triangular feature called cuspate barrier develops which encloses a lagoon.
  • The lagoon is filled with mud and sand to form the foreland.
  • Vegetation grows on the marsh and with time dries up e.g. ‘A’ Laree in Malagasy.
  1. f) Dune Belts
  • Belt of low lying mounds of sand found on extreme landward side of the beach above the high tide level.
  • Sand on the beach dries up during the high tide.
  • It’s picked by onshore winds and deposited at a distance away from the reach of breaking waves.
  • It collects behind obstacles like grass or other vegetation and gradually builds up forming a dune.
  • The dunes may be covered with vegetation to form marshes.
  1. g) Mud Flats and Salt Marshes

Mudflats – Platform of mud consisting of fine silt and alluvium deposited in sea inlets such as bays and river estuaries.

Salt marshes – Vegetation such as grasses and mangrove that grows on a mudflat

  • Fine silt and river alluvium are deposited in sea inlets by tides.
  • A platform of mud builds up and is colonised by vegetation forming a swamp called salt marsh.
  • The dense network of plants roots trap more mud and alluvium causing the mudflats to extend seawards.

Factors Determining the Type of Coasts

  1. Wave action

Wave erosion makes a coast to have erosion features while deposition causes depositional features.

  1. Tidal currents

Where tidal range is high more surface area is exposed to wave action.

  1. Nature of rocks

Weak rocks are eroded to form bays (inlets) while resistant ones are left standing to form headlands.

  1. Alignment of coast

There is more erosion on exposed coasts while deposition occurs where the coast is obliquely aligned to the breaking waves.

  1. Change in sea level

Fall in sea level leads to emergence and rise to submergence.

Types of Coasts

According To the Alignment of Coast

  1. discordant/transverse/irregular coast
  • Coast which lies transversely to the coast line.
  • Has a large number of inlets and receives heavy rainfall because winds blow onshore e.g. Mombasa.
  1. Concordant coasts/regular/longitudinal coasts
  • One which lies almost parallel to the coastline.
  • Almost straight and lacks inlets and receives little rainfall due to winds blowing offshore e.g. Lamu.

According To Features Present

  1. Submerged Coasts
  • Coasts where a part of coastal land lies under the sea.

Causes of submergence

  1. a) Rise in sea level e.g. when large quantities of melt water were released to the sea causing its level to rise due to climate change at the end of ice age.
    1. Sinking of coastal land and a part of the sea floor.

Types

  1. a) Submerged Highland Coasts
  • Found where submergence occurs on a coast characterised by steep slopes.
  • Characterised by drowned features.
  1. i) Ria Coast

A Ria is a drowned river mouth.

Characteristics

  1. Funnel shaped
  2. U-shaped in cross section.
  3. Deeper and wider on the seaward side and shallower and narrower inland e.g. the Kenyan coast at Kilindini and Mtwapa.
  4. ii) Fiord/Fjord coast

A fiord is a submerged glaciated valley.

  • Ice deepens and widens glacial valleys until the floor lies below the sea level.
  • When the ice retreats sea water flows in drowning the valley forming inlets called fiords.

Characteristics

  1. Deeper inland.
  2. Shallower at the sea ward end due to terminal moraine deposited when glacier was melting.

iii) Longitudinal/Dalmatian Coasts

  • Coast where ridges and valleys lying parallel to the coast line are drowned.
  • Valleys form inlets called sounds while ridges form islands.
  1. b) Submerged Lowland Coasts
  • Found where submergence occurs on a coast characterised by gentle slopes.

Types

  1. i) Estuarine Coast
  • Coast characterised by broad shallow estuaries and mud flats which are visible at low tide.
  • Wider and shallower than rias e.g. coastlines of Guinea and Senegal.
  1. ii) Fjard Coast
  • Coast characterised by numerous inlets formed by submergence of glaciated rocky lowland coasts.
  • Have numerous islands and are deeper than rias e.g. S.E. coast of Sweden.
  1. Emerged Coasts
  • Coast where part of seafloor has become permanently exposed.

Causes of Emergence

  1. Decrease in sea level due to decline in the source of water e.g. waters being held up in a glacier instead of it flowing back as rivers to the ocean.
  2. Uplift of the coastal land by faulting, folding or isostatic adjustment.

Types

  1. i) Emerged Highland Coasts
  • Found where emergence occurs on a coast characterised by steep slopes.
  • Characterised wave action features which are isolated on land e.g. raised beaches, raised cliffs, raised wave cut platforms and raised arches.
  1. ii) Emerged Lowland Coasts
  • Found where emergence occurs on a coast characterised by gentle slopes.
  • Characterised by exposed depositional features e.g. spits and offshore bars which are found on land and a coastal plain formed as a result of a part of continental shelf becoming exposed.
  1. Coral Coasts
  • Coasts composed of coral rocks which are exoskeletons of marine organisms called coral polyps.
  • They live in colonies/groups, feed on plankton and extract lime from the sea and build shells for protection.

Conditions Necessary for Coral Growth

  1. warm water(25-29◦C)
  2. Saline and clear water.
  3. Sunlight should penetrate at least to a depth of 50m to allow plankton growth.
  4. Plentiful supply of plankton which they feed on.
  5. Shallow water.

Types of coral reefs

  1. i) Fringing Reefs
  • Platform of coral formed when coral polyps start building a reef near the shore.

Characteristics

  1. Flat or concave shaped
  2. Higher on the seaward side
  3. Outer edge falls steeply into the sea
  4. ii) Barrier Reefs
  • Platform of coral formed a long distance from the shore.
  • Formed when polyps start to grow and extend seawards where conditions are favourable.

Characteristics

  1. Its coral is joined to the shore.
  2. Its outer edge falls steeply into the sea.

iii) Atoll Reef

  • Coral ring formed around a submerged island.

Characteristics

  1. Circular in shape.
  2. Encloses a fairly deep lagoon.

                              Theories of Formation

                      Darwin’s Theory

  • Fringing reef develops around an island.
  • The island starts to sink.
  • Coral continues to grow upwards to keep pace with rising sea level and seawards because there is more food and water is clear.
  • The reef extends great distance away from the land to become barrier reef.
  • The island continues to sink becoming completely submerged.
  • The barrier reef forms a ring of coral called atolls.

                                Murray’s Theory

  • Fringing reef grows on a submarine hill.
  • It disintegrates due to wave attack.
  • Coral fragments accumulate on the seaward end.
  • Polyps start building on it upwards where there is more food and clear water to form barrier reef.
  • The barrier reef forms a ring of coral called atolls.

                           Daly’s Theory

  • During ice age there was withdrawal of water causing global fall in sea level.
  • Coral growth was retarded by low temperatures.
  • Waves pounded coral reefs and islands and flattened them to the same level as the sea.
  • At the end of ice age temperatures began to rise again favouring the growth of coral once again.
  • More water was added to oceans causing polyps to continue to grow upwards to keep pace with the rising sea level.
  • They were permanently exposed on the surface to form atolls

Significance of Oceans, Coasts and Coastal Features

Oceans

Positive

  1. Influence climate by contributing the bulk of precipitation, warming effect in cool season and cooling effect in hot season by breezes and ocean currents.
  2. Used for transport by means of boats, steamers and ferries.
  3. Tourist attraction by being site for recreation e.g. swimming and sport fishing and marine life in parks such as in Mombasa and Lamu.
  4. Oceans are a source of fish which is a source of food, income and employment.
  5. Source of fresh water when its water is distilled.
  6. Tropical seas have mangrove forests with mangrove trees which provide strong building and fencing posts and tannin for tanning leather and also habitat for marine life which is a tourist attraction.
  7. Source of salt which crystallizes naturally after water evaporates in constricted bays in hot climates.

Negative

  1. Tsunamis from oceans flood the neighbouring coastal areas causing great loss of life and property.
  2. Oceans may also flood the neighbouring coastal areas as a result of rise in sea level caused by melting of glaciers caused by global warming.
  3. Also harbour dangerous animals such as sharks and crocodiles which may attack and hurt or kill people.
  4. Drowning accidents when there is breakdown of vessels or ship wrecking.

Coasts and Coastal Features

Positive

  1. Fiords, rias and lagoons favour development of deep and well sheltered harbours.
  2. Fiords are also a good breeding ground for fish as their shallow continental shelf encourage growth of plankton which is food for fish.
  3. Coral rocks are used locally as building materials.
  4. Coral rocks are also a source of coral limestone for cement manufacture.
  5. Features such as coral reefs, caves, cliffs and fiords are a tourist attraction.

Negative

  1. Some emerged coastal lands have infertile soils unsuitable for agriculture for being covered by sand, gravel and bare rock.
  2. Deposited sands, bars and coral reefs are barrier to transport as they can cause ship wrecking if vessels hit them.

         

 

 

 

 

 

ACTION OF WINDAND WATER IN ARID AREAS

An arid area is a land which is deficient of moisture leading to scanty or no vegetation.

Action of Wind in Arid Areas

Wind Erosion

Physical weathering is the initial process then it’s followed by wind erosion.

Wind is more effective in tropical deserts due to:

  1. Presence of loose unconsolidated dry masses of mud, sand and gravel.
  2. Occurrence of strong tropical storms.
  3. Absence of vegetation leading to high wind velocity due to little frictional force.

Factors influencing wind erosion

  1. Wind speed– wind with high velocity has more energy to erode than with low velocity.
  2. Load– angular shaped load provide more effective abrasive tools than one which is round shaped.
  3. Nature of surface– Wind erosion is faster where the surface consists of unconsolidated materials.

Processes/Ways in Which Wind Erodes Deserts

  1. a) Abrasion
  • Materials carried by wind such as sand grains scratching rock surfaces across the path of wind.
  • Greater close to the ground because it’s where heavy and more effective abrasion tools are lifted and carried.
  1. b) Deflation
  • Removal of unconsolidated materials such as sand and dust rolling and lifting or scooping and blowing away.
  1. c) Attrition
  • Sand grains carried by wind knocking against each other causing each other to become smaller and rounded in shape.

Resultant Features of Wind Erosion

  1. a) Millet seeds
  • Sand grains which have been rounded to the shape of millet seeds by wind attrition.
  1. b) Ventifacts
  • Boulders, stones and pebbles which are flattened by wind abrasion one or more sides due to changes in wind direction.
  • Dreikanter – Ventifact with three wind faceted surfaces formed when wind is blowing in different directions.
  1. c) Mushroom Block
  • Mushroom shaped rock in desert landscape.
  • Wind abrasion acts on a rock with uniform hardness.
  • It’s intensely undercut at the base and top part is slowly polished by light and less effective abrasive materials.
  • There results a rock with broad smoothed rounded top and a narrow base resembling a mushroom
  1. d) Rock Pedestal
  • Irregular rock pillar with a broad top and a narrow base found in the desert landscape.
  • Wind abrasion acts upon rock with alternating hard and soft layers.
  • Soft layers are eroded more than hard layers leaving hollows and protrusions.
  • There is more undercutting at the base where there is more abrasion.
  • There results an irregular rock with a narrow base.
  1. e) Deflation Hollows
  • Shallow depressions found in desert landscapes formed by deflation.
  • Wind scoops and blows away unconsolidated materials such as dust and sand in a desert.
  • Circulating wind deepen the depression.
  • The hollow reach the water table forming an oasis.
  • If the depression doesn’t reach the water table flash floods water may accumulate into them to form temporary lakes called pans e.g. Etosha pan in Namib.
  1. f) Zeugen (Singular zeuge)
  • Ridges on a ridge and furrow desert landscape.
  • First there is a landscape with horizontal alternating layers of hard and soft rocks.
  • Weathering opens joints and cracks on the top resistant layer.
  • Abrasion erodes the opened joints while deflation carries away the eroded materials.
  • The process continues and with time causes a ridge and furrow landscape to develop. The ridges are zeugen.
  1. g) Yardangs
  • Narrow elongated rock ridges about 6m high on a desert landscape.
  • At first there is a surface with vertical alternating hard and soft rocks lying parallel to wind path.
  • Wind abrasion acts more on soft rocks and deflation carries away worn out particles.
  • The undercut rocks are left standing forming ridges called Yardangs.

Wind Transportation

Factors Influencing Wind Transportation and Deposition

Wind velocity: when speed decreases strength also decreases and its ability to transport so wind starts to deposit materials.

  1. Wind direction- Winds blowing from different direction converge and cause load to collide causing some of it to be deposited.
  2. Nature of desert surface:
  • Wind transportation is more efficient on bare surfaces and hence less deposition there.
  • Water surfaces such as oasis and moist surfaces impede transportation through friction causing wind to deposit materials.
  • Less transportation on surfaces with vegetation as it reduces wind speed and also binds sand particles together.
  1. Obstacles- Objects such as rock masses, land forms and vegetation block and reduce wind speed causing deposition.
  2. Changes in weather conditions such as sudden showers halts transportation and causes deposition by washing down suspended materials.
  3. Load- Heavy load is deposited before light load when wind energy decreases. When many materials are transported by wind they collide causing each other to be deposited.

Processes/ Ways in Which Wind Transports Load

  1. i) Suspension
  • Wind lifting and holding particles such as dusts by air currents and transporting them over long distances.
  1. ii) Saltation
  • Wind transportation of heavy particles by a series of jumps and hops.
  • They are rolled.
  • They collide.
  • Bounce and get lifted.
  • Transported short distance ahead.

iii) Surface Creep

-Wind transportation of heavy particles such as gravel and pebbles by pushing and rolling along the desert.

Resultant Features of Wind Deposition

  1. Sand Dunes

Dune – Low ridge of sand accumulated by wind deposition.

Types

  1. i) Barchans
  • Crescent shaped mound of sand in a desert.
  • Sand accumulates around an obstacle lying on the path of wind.
  • Deposition continues making the mound to grow bigger.
  • Wind blows sand over leeward side creating smooth gentle windward slope.
  • Wind eddies act on the leeward slope making it to be steep and concave in shape.
  • Side wind move the sand grains on the sides forward creating the two edges which are curved e.g. in Sahara and Arabian Deserts.

Characteristics

  1. Crescent/moon shaped
  2. Smooth gentle windward slope
  3. Steep concave leeward slope
  4. Horns or 2 curved edges
  5. Occurs individually or in groups
  6. ii) Seif Dunes
  • Ridge shaped mounds of sand lying parallel to the path of prevailing wind.
  • Wind blows between barchan dunes.
  • Wind eddies move sand towards the sides.
  • Sand accumulates on the sides resulting into ridge shaped mounds e.g. in Namib Desert.

iii) Transverse/Wake Dunes

  • Wave like mounds of sand in a desert which lie at right angles to the prevailing wind.
  • Less strong winds blow over sand from one direction.
  • The wind concentrates larger grains of sand into series of transverse ridges.
  • Wind may continue pushing the sand causing it to accumulate on the leeward side to form wake dune e.g. in W. Sahara.
  1. Drass
  • Biggest sand features in a desert with surface resembling a plateau and with a height of up to 200m.
  • Barchans and Seif dunes may form on such features e.g. in E. Sahara desert.
  1. Loess
  • Fertile soils with great thickness of about 100m formed from deposition of dust from deserts.
  • Dust from deserts is carried beyond to wet areas.
  • It’s washed down by rain causing its deposition.
  • It accumulates into layers.
  • Deposition continues and the layers are compacted forming sedimentary rocks.
  • The sedimentary rocks wither to form fertile soils which favour cultivation e.g. Temperate lands of Europe along Rhine valley from Sahara dusts and along Huang He valley in N. China from dust of Gobi desert.

Action of water in arid areas

  • Receives short occasional rains causing flash floods which erode transport and deposit large loads of materials produced by weathering.
  • Water action is short lived.

 

 

Resultant Features of Water Action in Arid Areas

  1. a) Wadis
  • Wide deep steep sided dry valley in a desert
  • Strong surface runoff and flash floods form rills.
  • Rills are enlarged into gullies.
  • Flash floods flow into gullies widening and deepening them to form wadis.

Characteristics

  • Wide and deep
  • Steep with cliff like walls
  • flat floor
  • Dry (lack permanent drainage)
  1. b) Dry River Valleys
  • Valleys in arid areas through which streams flow during the wet season and dry up in dry season e.g. in Turkana, Wajir and Mandera.
  1. c) Mesas and Buttes

Mesas Extensive table like residual hills found in arid areas.

Buttes – Smaller blocks of table like residual hills found in arid areas.

  • First there are sedimentary rocks occurring in layers with a resistant one on top and a less resistant below.
  • Weathering breaks the hard cap.
  • Then sheet floods break the surface and carries materials away.
  • Large outstanding blocks are left which are called mesas.
  • Mesas may be eroded farther to form smaller blocks called buttes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Features in an Inland Drainage Basin

  • Gently sloping rock surface formed at the edges of desert uplands.
    • A steep/scarp slope of a highland is eroded by sheet flooding reducing its height.
  • The process continues causing the scarp slope to shift its position upwards.
  • The gently sloping surface of 6-7◦results at the foot of the upland.
  1. d) Playas/sebkha
  • Extensive inland drainage basin in a desert formed by deflation or crustal warping or a small fluctuating salty lake contained in an inland drainage basin in a desert formed when water from torrential outpours flows into the basin by multiple temporary streams e.g. Chemchane sebkha in Mauritania.
  1. e) Peripediment
  • Zone of thick alluvial deposits at the edge of playas in form of alkaline crust of mud, sand and gravel formed when streams deposit a lot of materials at the edge of the playa. Materials dry up leaving a hard salty crustal surface called Salina/salar g. in Arizona desert in U.S.A.
  1. f) Pediment
  2. g) Peneplain

Low level plain formed when pediments are eroded to form a low level plain.

  1. h) Pediplain
  • Extensive low and gently sloping lands common in deserts.
  • Pediments surrounding a highland are extended by sheet erosion.
  • With time the highland is reduced to a residual hill like Inselbergs.
  • The hill is eventually eroded forming a continuous plain(Pediplain)
  1. i) Inselbergs
  • Prominent residual rocks in a desert.
  • Formed by extension of pediments into upland areas.

Types

 Bonhardt – Steep isolated round topped mass of rock rising steeply from desert surface.

  • Dissection of plateau by streams producing steep sided valleys.
  • The plateau is further eroded forming remnant hills e.g. Sugar Loaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil.

 Castle kopje – Residual rocks in a desert found in groups.

  • Formed from break down of Bonhardt with closely spaced joints.
  • Or deep withering of a plateau edges.
  • Weathered rocks are then removed by water reducing plateau into Inselbergs e.g. Nzambani rock in Kitui.

Significance of Deserts and Desert Features

Positive

  1. Loess soils are used for agriculture because they are very fertile e.g. in Huang He valley and Ukraine.
  2. Loess soils in Europe and china have dug in caves which are inhabited during winter to provide warmth.
  3. Desert features are a tourist attraction e.g. rock pedestals, Yardangs, Zeugen and sand dunes.
  4. Oasis in deflation hollows are sources of water for domestic use.
  5. Oasis water is also used for irrigation such as of date palms.
  6. Deserts are good sites for testing military weapons, military training and experimenting ground for aircraft because they are sparsely populated.
  7. The scarce vegetation in deserts such as shrubs can be used in livestock keeping e.g. goats, camels etc.
  8. The hot sun in deserts can be harnessed to provide electricity for lighting, pumping of water, etc.
  9. Seasonal streams can be dammed to supply water to surrounding areas e.g. Kigombo dam in Mbororo in Taita which supplies water to Voi town.

Negative

  1. Some desert features can prevent physical development e.g. sand dunes can burry roads and it is difficult to construct bridges across wadis.
  2. Sand dunes can cover oasis and settlements.
  3. Sand dunes may destroy rich agricultural land.
  4. High temperatures, shortage of water, unreliable rainfall and lack of transport and communication infrastructure discourage settlement.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

UNDER/GROUND WATER

  • Water that exists beneath the earth’s surface in pore spaces in soil and rocks.

Sources of Ground Water

  1. a) Rain Water
  • Some rain water which percolates and is trapped after meeting an impermeable rock.
  1. b) Melt Water
  • Water that infiltrates into the ground when snow melts during spring and summer.
  1. c) Surface Water
  • Water from rivers, seas, swamps, oceans, lakes and ponds that seep into the ground.
  1. d) Magmatic/Plutonic Water
  • Water trapped in rocks beneath surface during vulcanicity

Factors Influencing Existence of Ground Water

  1. a) Precipitation
  • For ground water to exist precipitation must exceed evaporation.
  • Light rain falling over a long period of time infiltrates more than heavy short lived downpour.
  1. b) Slope
  • On flat and gently sloping areas rain water has ample time to infiltrate because it remains in one place for a long time.
  • On steep areas there is low infiltration since a lot of water turns into runoff because of getting less time to percolate.
  1. c) Nature of Rocks
  • There is a greater possibility of existence of ground water where there are permeable surface rocks.
  • Ground water exists where impermeable rock overlie an impermeable one so that when water infiltrates and percolates underground it’s trapped by impermeable rock and accumulates above it.

Aquifer – permeable rock which is permanently saturated with water.

Permeable rocks – Rocks which allow water to pass through them.

Types

  1. a) Porous – Those with pores/airspaces between rock grains through which water passes e.g. sandstone, limestone and chalk.
  2. b) Pervious – Ones with cracks fractures and joints through which water enters and passes e.g. granite, limestone and chalk.

Impermeable rocks – Ones which don’t allow water to pass through them.

Types

  1. a) Aquifuge – Impenetrable impermeable rocks e.g. gabbro, shale and slate.
  2. b) Aquiclude – Porous rocks which absorb water and expand narrowing air spaces between grains preventing water to percolate downwards e.g. clay.
  3. d) Vegetation Cover
  • Plants break the speed of rain drops causing drops to hit the ground gently giving rain water ample time to percolate.
  • On bare surfaces most of precipitation flows away as run off.
  1. e) Level of Saturation of Ground
  • Infiltration is more on dry ground because it has wide open air spaces while and less on a ground whose air spaces are saturated with water.

Water Table

  • Water that infiltrates and percolates into the ground fills air spaces creating zones of saturation whose upper levels are called water tables.

Zones of Saturation

  1. a) Zone of Non-saturation
  • Zone of permeable through which water passes but doesn’t remain in the pores for a long time.
  • Well sunk to this zone doesn’t contain any water.
  1. b) Zone of Intermittent Saturation
  • Zone which during the rain season the rocks are saturated with water while during the dry season they are unsaturated.

Temporary water table – Upper level of ground water in the zone of intermittent saturation.

  • Zone of non-saturation and that of intermittent saturation are called vadose zone.
  1. c) Zone Of Permanent Saturation
  • Zone where pores spaces are permanently filled with water.

Permanent water table – Upper level of ground water in the zone of permanent saturation.

Presence of ground water leads to formation of springs, wells boreholes and artesian basins.

Springs

Place where water flows out naturally onto the earth’s surface along a slope.

Ways/Modes Formation

  1. a) Hillside Spring
  • Type formed where a permeable rock lies above an impermeable one on a hill and water comes out at the junction of those two rock layers.
  1. b) Dyke Spring
  • Type formed where an igneous dike cuts across a layer of permeable rock.
  • Ground water on the upslope side is trapped causing water table on that side to rises.
  • A spring develops where the water table is exposed on the surface.

 

  1. c) Vauclusian Spring
  • Type formed on a limestone hill or escarpment overlying an impermeable layer.
  • Limestone rock becomes saturated with water.
  • Water comes out of the ground where water table appears on the surface.

 

  1. d) Valley Spring
  • Type formed where water table intersects the surface along the side of the valley.

                                                   Artesian Basins

  • Saucer shaped depression consisting of a layer of permeable rock sandwiched between two impermeable rocks and the whole system forms a syncline.

                                                           Characteristics

  1. One or both ends are exposed on the surface on a rainy area or beneath a lake.
  2. Water enters at the exposed end or ends.
  3. With time the permeable rock is saturated with water and becomes an aquifer e.g. between Chad and Egypt across Quattara depression.

                                                       Artesian well

Well sunk into the aquifer of an artesian basin from which water will come out without being pumped.

Ideal Conditions for Formation of an Artesian Well

  1. Aquifer to be sandwiched between impermeable rocks to prevent evaporation and percolation.
  2. Aquifer to be exposed in a region which is a source of water e.g. rainy area or lake.
  3. Aquifer to dip from the region of water intake.
  4. Mouth of the well to be at a lower level than the intake area to develop hydraulic pressure which will force water out.

Problems Associated With Artesian Wells

  1. Water may be hot due to high temperatures.
  2. Water may be salty because of water taking long to percolate through rocks thus dissolving large quantities of mineral salts.
  3. Water may fail to come out naturally when water is drawn faster than it’s being replaced in the source region and necessitating pumping.

Significance of Underground Water

  1. Source of rivers and their tributaries.
  2. Source of water for domestic and industrial use e.g. wells, springs, boreholes and oasis.
  3. Used in agriculture e.g. oasis water is used for irrigation of date palms.
  4. Influences settlements due to the availability of water e.g. in deserts people settle near oasis and spring line settlements in limestone areas.
  5. Hot springs are a tourist attraction and their water is trapped and pumped into houses through pipes for heating during winter e.g. in Iceland.
  6. Underground streams help in keeping some lakes fresh e.g. L. Naivasha.

Action of Water in Limestone Lime stone Areas (Karst Region)

Karst region – Region where the surface and the ground is covered with limestone rocks.

Karst scenery – Unique features in a Karst region resulting from the action of water e.g. Shimoni caves at the coast of Kenya.

  • When calcium carbonate is exposed a weak carbonic acid formed by rain dissolving CO2 it’s dissolved to form calcium hydrogen carbonate which is removed from the rock in solution resulting in surface and underground features in such a limestone region.

                       Factors Influencing Development of Karst Scenery

  1. Surface rock and the rock below should be hard and well jointed for acid water to percolate and cause solution to happen e.g. limestone, chalk or dolomite.
  2. Climate should be hot to speed chemical weathering and humid for availability of rain which is a solvent.
  3. Should have a lot of vegetation to release CO2.
  4. Water table to be far below the surface so that the whole limestone rock is not dissolved and underground features fail to be formed.

Surface Features in Limestone Areas

  1. a) Grikes and Clints

Clints – Blocks of limestone rock left standing when water infiltrates through the limestone rocks widening and deepening the joints.

Grikes – Deep groves or gullies formed when rainwater infiltrates through limestone rocks widening the joints by solution.

 

  1. b) Swallow/Sink Holes
  • Deep vertical holes formed on limestone rocks when solution extends the grikes.
  • Referred to as swallow/sink holes because surface runoff or river water may disappear through them as a waterfall and come out of the ground as a vauclusian spring further downhill.
  • Vertical shaft from the surface of the sink hole down into the ground is called ponor.

 

  1. c) Dry Valley
  • Steep valleys with no permanent streams on limestone surface at the section between the swallow hole and where the river emerges.
  1. d) Karst Window
  • Small outlet to the surface from a cavern formed when continuous carbonation at the surface causes the roof of the cave to collapse.
  1. e) Limestone Gorge
  • Deep steep sided river valley in limestone rocks formed when the swallowed river causes solution to continue underground causing the roof of underground water course to collapse.
  1. f) Karst Bridge
  • Small section left joining the roof between the karst window and gorge.
  1. g) Dolines
  • Elliptical hollow with gently sloping sides on the surface of a limestone region formed when several swallow holes collapse and merge.
  1.  h) Uvala
  • Depression which may be as wide as 1 km in diameter formed on the surface of limestone regions when several dolines collapse and merge.
  1.  i) Polje
  • Largest, shallow, elliptical and flat floored depressions on a limestone region formed when several uvalas collapse and merge.
  • May become a temporary lake or may be covered by a marsh.                  

Underground Features in Limestone Areas

  1. a) Stalactites
  • Finger like masses of calcite hanging vertically from the roof of a limestone cave or cavern formed by repeated evaporation of water and giving off of carbon dioxide from drops of water containing calcium bicarbonate hanging from the roof of the cave causing crystallisation of calcium bicarbonate into calcite.
  1. b) Stalactite
  • Stumpy rock masses of calcite which grow from the floor of a limestone cave upwards formed by repeated dripping of solution of calcium bicarbonate from the end of stalactite to the floor of a limestone cave then it spreads out and crystallizes.
  1. c) Limestone Pillars
  • Pillar like structures in limestone caves formed when stalactites and stalagmites grow towards each other, stalagmite grows until it touches the roof of a cave or when a stalactite grows until it touches the floor of the cave.
  1. d) Limestone caves
  • Underground chambers or cavities in limestone rocks.
    • Underground rivers dissolve limestone in horizontal joints forming a horizontal tunnel.
    • Surface water and underground water percolates through the joints into the tunnel enlarging it forming a phreatic cavee. cave below the water table.
    • The water flows out at the vauclusian spring lowering the water table causing the phreatic cave to become a limestone cave.
    • Continued solution from water percolating through the caves roof widens and lowers its floor to form a larger cave called limestone caverng. Carls band cave in New Mexico U.S.A.

Significance of Karst Scenery

Positive

  1. Features in karst scenery are a tourist attraction e.g. caves, gorges, stalactites, stalagmites, etc.
  2. Limestone rock is used in the manufacture of cement e.g. cement factory at Bamburi in Mombasa and Athi River.
  3. Limestone blocks are also used for building.
  4. Limestone regions are very good for grazing particularly sheep because the surface is dry.
  5. Large villages called spring line settlements form at the line of vauclusian springs due to the availability of water.

Negative

  1. Limestone landscape discourages settlement because the surface is rocky, soils are thin and unsuitable for agriculture, surface is rugged with features like grikes and Clints and the water supply is inadequate due to rivers disappearing into swallow holes.

                              

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GLACIATION

  • Action of moving ice.

Glacier – Mass of ice moving outward from an area of accumulation.

  • Formed when snow accumulates on the surface, lower layers are compressed to a harder mass resulting in opaque ice due to air bubbles and accumulation continues compression lower layers squeezing out air forming glassy ice called glacier.

Types

  1. Cirque glacier – ice occupying a cirque.
  2. Valley glacier – Ice confined within a valley
  3. Piedmont glacier: Glacier formed when valley glaciers converge at the foot of the mountain.

Ice bergs – Large mass of ice floating in the ocean formed when an ice sheet moves to the sea e.g. in Arctic and N. Atlantic Ocean.

Ice sheet – Continuous mass of ice covering a large area on the earth’s surface.

Ice caps – Ice covering the mountain peak.

Snow line – Line beyond which there is a permanent snow cover.

Ways of Ice Movement

  1. a) Plastic Flowage
  • Movement of ice like a viscous liquid.
  • Great pressure is exerted at the bottom sides and centre causing some ice particles to melt slightly and move slowly down hill like a viscous liquid.
  1. b) Basal Slip
  • Movement of ice by sliding over the underlying rock.
  • Pressure is exerted on deepest layers of ice in contact with the rock beneath causing melting.
  • A film of water is created which acts as a lubricant between the ice and the rock causing ice to slip and slide over the rock and move down slope.
  1. c) Extrusion Flow
  • Movement of ice by spreading out.
  • Ice accumulates building to great thickness at the centre causing compression of layers of ice beneath.
  • The layers beneath are forced to spread out where there is less pressure.
  1. d) Internal Shearing
  • Breaking of ice into smaller pieces which move alongside one another.
  • Uneven movement causes ice to develop cracks on the surface.
  • The glacier breaks into smaller pieces which move alongside each other down slope.

Factors Influencing Ice Movement

  1. a) Gradient of the Land

Ice moves faster on steep slopes than on gentle slopes due to the influence of gravity.

  1. b) Season

Ice movement is faster in summer due to frequent thawing melting compared to winter when thawing is rare.

  1. c) Friction

Central parts of ice move faster than sides and bottom which are in contact with rock beneath due to friction.

                                              

  1. d) Thickness of Ice

Thicker masses of ice cause more pressure between them and rocks beneath which cause slight melting and therefore faster movement.

Glacial Erosion

Processes/Ways in Which Ice Erodes

  1. a) Plucking
  • Pulling away of parts of a rock at the base of glacier when the ice freezes into the cracks of a well jointed rock.
  1. b) Abrasion
  • Scratching of the underlying ground by stones and boulders carried by the ice as the glacier moves.

Factors Influencing Glacial Erosion

  1. a) Nature of Underlying Rock
  • Abrasion is more effective on soft rocks than hard rocks.
  • Well jointed and faulted rocks are more eroded than those which are not because cracks and joints enable water to enter rocks and freeze which facilitates plucking.
  1. b) Gradient of Slope
  • Glacier on steep slopes moves faster and has greater kinetic energy to erode than slow moving glacier
  1. c) Thickness of Ice
  • Thick ice is heavier and exerts greater pressure on rock debris making them to abrade the underlying rock more effectively.
  1. d) Availability of Debris
  • The more the rock debris the more effective abrasion will be since it acts as abrasive tools.
  • Too heavy debris makes erosion impossible since ice is not able to transport it but glides over it without acting on the rock below.

Erosion Features

On Glaciated Highlands

  1. a) Cirque
  • Arm chair shaped depression on glaciated slopes of high mountains.
  • Snow accumulates into a shallow depression on the side of a mountain.
  • Freezing in winter and thawing in summer causes rocks to wither and break up resulting in enlargement of the hollow.
  • Accumulated ice advances by slipping down slope.
  • A deep crevice called bergshrund develops at the top of ice due to unequal movement.
  • Freezing occur deep down the bergshrund causing the back wall and sides to be steepened by plucking.
  • Plucked debris is carried forward scratching the floor of the basin deepening it forming the cirque, corrie or cwm.
  • Water from melting snow may accumulate in a cirque to form a tarn e.g. Teleki tarn.
  1.               b) Arêtes
    • Narrow knife- edged steep ridge separating two cirques.
    • Formed when two cirques cut backwards on adjacent sides of a mountain leaving a narrow steep ridge separating them.
  1. c) Pyramidal Peaks
  • Sharp steep sided peak at the top of a mountain.
  • Formed when three or more cirques erode on mountain side towards each other leaving a sharp pointed rock separating them at the top of the mountain e.g. Corydon and Delamere on Mt. Kenya.
  1. d) Glacial Trough

Glacial Trough and Related Features

  • Wide flat bottomed valley with steep sides on a glaciated highland.
  • Ice accumulates in a v-shaped valley.
  • Plucking and abrasion by ice occurs.
  • The v-shaped valley is deepened, widened and straightened to become a glacial trough.
  • Glaciated trough may be submerged to form a fiord.
  1. e) Truncated Spurs
    • Interlocking spurs of former river valleys which are eroded and straightened by valley glacier.

Erosion Features on Glaciated Lowlands

  1. a) Roche Mountonnee
  • Rock outcrop with a long smooth gentle slope on the upstream side and a rugged steep slope on the down stream side found on glaciated lowland.
  • Formed ice acts on a rock on its way causing the side facing the upstream side to be polished by abrasion resulting into a smooth gentle slope and the down stream side is affected by plucking resulting in a rugged steep slope leaving a rock outcrop standing just above the surface.
  1. b) Crag and Tail

Crag – projection of resistant rock which protects a mass of softer rock on the downstream side of the glacier.

  • The ice moves over and around over the resistant rock eroding it slightly by abrasion.
  • Cracks develop on the upstream side causing the ice to move and pluck materials from the resistant rock leaving a projection of resistant rock with a steep rugged upstream side is formed.

Tail – elongated feature on the downstream side of the crag formed by formed by material deposited by the glacier on the downstream side and the weaker rock.

  1. c) Depressional Lakes
    • Depressions filled with water from melting ice found in glaciated lowlands.
    • Formed when soft rocks are scooped out by moving ice sheet forming depressions which are filled with water to form a lake.

Glacial Deposition

  • Material carried by the glacier is called moraine.

Types of Moraine

  1. a) Ground/sub-glacier moraine – load carried at the base of the glacier.
  2. b) Englacial moraine – load within the glacier.
  3. c) Lateral moraine – load carried at the sides of the glacier.
  4. d) Medial moraine – load carried in the centre of the valley by glacier.
  5. e) Terminal/recessional moraine – load deposited at the point where a glacier melts.

Types of Glacial Deposits/Drift:

  1. a) Till – directly deposited by ice on melting in unstratified manner.
  2. b) Fluvial – materials deposited by water from the melting ice in stratified manner.

Causes of Glacial Deposition

  1. Amount of glacial drift

When ground moraine is too much the glacier glides over it leaving it behind.

  1. Weight of glacier

When more ice is added to a stationary glacier pressure is exerted at the base causing melting and the material which was embedded in the ice is dropped.

  1. Climatic change

During summer and spring ice melts depositing some materials the glacier was carrying.

  1. Friction beneath the ice

Friction between ice and surface reduces ice speed causing heavy materials to be deposited beneath ice sheets.

  1. Slope

Lowlands allow glacier to accumulate a lot of materials which are finally deposited by melting ice.

Features Resulting From Glacial Deposition

  1. a) Till Plain
    • Extensive area of flat relief resulting from burying of former valleys and hills by glacial deposits.
  1. b) Erratics
  • Large boulders of resistant rocks transported by glacier from highland and deposited on the till plain.
  1. c) Drumlins
  • Long egg shaped hills deposited and shaped under an ice sheet of very broad glacier.
  • Glacier deposits boulder clay at the valley bottom due to friction between the bed rock and the boulder clay.
  • With more deposition large mounds of deposits are formed.
  • The moving ice streamlines the till that has been deposited irregularly resulting into the upstream sides of the till being steep but smoothed.
  1. d) Terminal Moraine Ridge
    • Ridge like feature formed by extensive deposition of moraine along the edge of an ice sheet.
  • Ice remains stagnant for a very long time.
  • The ice at the edges of sheet melt and a lot of materials are deposited.
  1. e) Eskers
    • Long winding ridge composed of gravel formed by glacial deposition.
  • Streams carrying large amounts of load flow fast in a sub-glacial tunnel parallel to the direction of moving ice.
  • When the ice melts the tunnels collapse causing streams to slow down and deposit much of the load forming a ridge.
  1. f) Kame
    • Isolated hill made of sand and gravel which have been deposited in strata by glacial water.
  1. g) Kame Terrace
  • Ridge of sand and gravel occurring in narrow lakes that exist between the glacier and an adjacent highland.
  1. h) Outwash Plains
  • Wide gently sloping plain composed of gravel and sand formed by glacial deposition.
  • Formed when finer materials of terminal moraine are deposited in very thick layers over an extensive area forming a plain.

 

 

 

Significance of Glaciation

Positive

  1. Some outwash plains have fertile morainic soils suitable for agriculture e.g. Canadian prairies where wheat is grown.
  2. Water falls on hanging valleys are used for generation of H.E.P.
  3. Glaciated highlands are a tourist attraction especially during winter when sporting activities such as skiing and ice skating are carried out.
  4. Glacial lakes such as great lakes of N.America provide natural route ways and fish sources e.g. L.Superior and Huron.
  5. Glaciated mountains are catchment areas for permanent rivers.
  6. Sheltered water of fiords is a suitable bleeding ground of fish as natural harbours.
  7. Sand excavated from outwash plains and eskers is used for construction.

                                                     Negative

  1. Land in glaciated areas can’t be fully utilised for agriculture due to being marshy because of boulder clay deposits e.g. central Ireland.
  2. Infertile sands deposited in outwash plains make land unsuitable for agriculture.
  3. Numerous lakes formed as a result of morainic deposits reduce the land available for agriculture.
  4. Settlement and transportation in glaciated landscape is difficult due to ruggedness caused by glacial action.

                         

 

 

 

 

 

                                              

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SOIL

  • Uppermost layer of the earth’s crust on which plants grow.

                                     Constituents/Composition of Soil

  1. Inorganic Matter
  • Weathered rock fragments made of minerals from parent rock.
  • Forms skeleton or fabric of soil.
  • Forms 45% of total volume.
  1. Organic Matter
  • Decomposed remains of animals and their wastes.
  • Forms 5% of total volume.

Significance of Organic Matter

  1. Broken down by bacteria forming humus improving the soil fertility.
  2. Soil with high organic matter is alkaline while one with low organic matter is acidic.
  3.   Soil Water
    • Water contained in the soil.
    • Forms 25% of total volume.

Types of Soil Water

                                              Hygroscopic Water

  • Water held as a thin film around soil particles.

                                                    Gravitation Water

  • Excess water which moves downwards to the zone of ground water.

Importance

  1. Solvent of minerals and nutrients essential for plant growth.
  2. Causes leaching Carrying of minerals.
  3. Causes water logging which blocks air circulation causing soil to lack oxygen and become acidic.
  4.   Soil Air
    • Air contained within air/pore spaces of soil.
    • Forms 25% of total volume.

Importance

  1. a) For plant and soil organisms metabolism.
  2. b) For oxidation which causes conversion of part of organic material into nitrogen.
  1. For respiration of aerobic micro-organisms which break down organic matter to form humus e.g. bacteria.

Soil Formation

Factors Influencing Soil Forming Processes

  1. a) Parent Material
  • Determines the type of soil, mineral composition and texture e.g. granite and sandstone weather to form sandy soils rich in quartz, volcanic lavas form clay soils with low quartz content and plants decompose to form loam rich in humus.
  1. b) Climate
  • Affect rate and type of weathering e.g. heavy rainfall results into deep soils due to heavy weathering and leaching.
  • Wind in deserts causes formation of loess soils.
  1. c) Living Organisms
  • Micro-organisms such as bacteria cause plant and animal remains to decay into humus.
  • Burrowing animals and worms mix organic remains with mineral soil component.
  • Roots penetrate and add more porosity, improve soil depth and aeration.
  1. d) Topography
  • There is maximum soil development in rolling and well drained uplands where the rate of erosion matches that of soil erosion.
  • Steep slopes result in shallow immature soils due to severe erosion.

Time

  • The longer the time taken by soil forming processes the deeper and well developed soil is.

Soil Forming Processes

  1. Weathering
  • Breakdown of parent rock to form rock particles called regolith.
  1. Decomposition of Organic Matter

Processes

  1. a) Mineralization
  • Biological and chemical breakdown of dead plant tissues by soil micro-organisms to simple soluble organic substances.
  1. b) Humification
  • Regrouping of mineralised dead plant material into large molecules to form humus.
  1. Leaching
  • Carrying of minerals from top layer down to the middle layer.

Types

  1. i) Ferralisation/lateralisation
  • Moving in solution or in suspension of weathered material from horizon “A” to “B.”
  • Red soil form in horizon A as ferrisols/laterites (murrum).
  1. ii) Illuviation
  • Accumulation/redeposition of materials which had been leached to horizon B.
  • Hard soil mass (hard pan) results.

iii) Eluviation

  • Mechanical washing down of fine mineral particles in suspension from upper layer to lower layers by water which is percolating downwards. e.g. clay
  1. iv) Podzolisation
  • Heavy depletion of horizon A of all minerals especially bases and iron by soluble organic substances.
  • Forms ash like soils which are acidic.
  1. v) Calcification
  • Limited leaching which allows redeposition of calcium compounds within the same soil profile.
  1. vi) Ribification
  • Dehydration of soils during dry season and leaching during the rainy season.

Properties and Characteristics of Soil

  1.                          a) Texture
  • Composition of soil in terms of its particles.
SOIL CLASS PARTICLE DIAMETER
Coarse sand 0.2 – 2mm
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002mm
Clay Below 0.002mm
  • Can be coarse/gritty (sand), medium (loam) or fine (clay).

Importance

  1. Determines soil water retention by that coarse grained soils have poor retention while those fine grained have high water retention.
  2. Influences ease of root penetration into the soil whereby it is easy on coarse textured and difficult in fine textured.
  3. Determining soil fertility in that clay content prevents humus from being washed down the soil by water.
  4. b) Structure
    • Arrangement of soil particles into aggregate compound particles.

Types

  1. Crump soil structure – soil made of small, soft, groups of particles of irregular shape.
  2. Granular structure – soil made of porous groups of particles of irregular shape called granules.
  • Plate structure – soil made of plate like flat particles arranged in horizontal manner.
  1. Prismatic structure – soil made of vertical prism like particles with rounded tops.
  2. Blocky structure – soil made of irregular pieces of soil with sharp corners and edges.
  3. c) Soil PH
    • Basicity or acidity measure of a soil.
    • Sulphate/phosphate – acidity
    • Calcium/magnesium – Basicity
PH VALUE REACTION DESCRIPTION
8 Alkaline
7 Neutral
6 Slightly acidic
5 Moderately acidic
4 strongly acidic

Importance

  1. Influences the activity of soil micro-organisms and hence decomposition of organic matter.
  2. Influences rate at which roots absorb minerals.
  • Determines the types of crops to be grown e.g. tea-acidic.
  1. Determines availability of different nutrients to the plants e.g. phosphorous is not available at low PH while potassium and iron not available at high PH.
  2. d) Soil Colour
    • Visible quality of soil.

Dark brown or black – considerable amount of organic matter.

Grey – poorly drained or water logged.

Whitish- lacks organic matter, iron oxides and has soluble salts concentration.

Importance

  1. Influences soil temperature in that light coloured soils have low temperature and hence low organism activity.
  2. High temp destroy humus, increase organism activity and provide warmth required for germination.

 

 

  1. e) Soil Porosity
    • Amount of pore spaces in a soil sample.

Importance

  1. Influence soil water retention. Clay has high retention and is water logged because it doesn’t allow drainage due to many tiny pore spaces while sand has poor water retention due to rapid percolation caused by large pore spaces.
  2. f) Soil Permeability
    • Ability to allow the water to pass through.
    • Depends on texture and porosity. Clay is impermeable due to being fine textured and tiny pored while sand is permeable due to being coarse textured and very porous.

Soil Profile

  • Vertical arrangement of different soil layers from the surface to the bed rock.

A mature soil is one with a fully developed profile while a young soil is one with a not fully developed profile.

Superficial layer

  • Dry decaying organic matter covering the soil surface.

Horizon ‘A’

  • Lies under a mat of surface vegetation and raw humus.
  • Darker due to high humus content.
  • Contains most of plant nutrients.
  • Where most plant roots are found.
  • Contains active micro organisms which breakdown organic matter into humus.

Horizon ‘B’

  • Lies below top soil.
  • Has small spaces between particles and hence less aerated.
  • Has a hardpan or layer impeding drainage.
  • Where most materials washed from horizon A have accumulated.

Horizon ‘C’

  • Lies below sub soil.
  • Made of partly mechanically weathered rock.
  • Product of bed rock or may have been transported.

Horizon ‘D’

  • Solid underlying rock.
  • May have ponds of water which can be used by deep rooted plants during dry season.

                                            Importance of Soil Profile

  1. Determines the crops to be planted i.e. mature soils favour deep rooted crops while young soils favour shallow rooted crops.
  2. Bed rock determines the chemical properties of the soil such as PH and nutrients.

Soil Catena

  • Arrangement of soil on a mountain slope from top to bottom.

Factors Influencing Development of a Soil Catena

  1. a) Relief
  • On steep slopes there is high rate of erosion resulting in thin soils while on gentle slopes rate of weathering and erosion is balanced resulting in thick soils.
  • On flat areas such as valley floors where there is deposition there are peat or alluvial soils.
  1. b) Drainage
  • First drainage at mountain tops results in thin stony immature soils.
  • Poor drainage in flat areas results in peat or alluvial soils.
  1. c) Transportation of Debris
  • Surface runoff transports sediments to lower gentle slopes where it accumulates forming deep colluvial soils while thin stony immature soils with little organic matter called xeromorphic soils are left on steep slopes.

Soil Degeneration

  • Decline in the usefulness of a soil.

Types

  1. Physical Degeneration
  • Decline in usefulness of a soil in which texture, structure, moisture and quality of soil are affected.

Causes

  1. Deforestation which leads to removal of vegetation which forms a protective cover of the soil exposing it to erosion agents.
  2. Overgrazing which causes excessive loss of water from the soil causing it to become loose and fine grained and easily eroded.
  3. Poor Cultivation Techniques
  4. Pulling hoe along the surface when removing weeds which loosens the soil and when it rains it’s washed away.
  5. Ploughing of land down slope which accelerates soil erosion.
  • Cultivation of steep slopes and along river banks which encourages soil erosion.
  1. Burning which destroys vegetation covering the soil exposing it to erosion agents.
  2. Growing crops on the same peace of land from season to season which sucks nutrients from the soil making it fine, loose and easy to be eroded.
  3. Planting crops such as maize whose foliage doesn’t provide adequate soil cover encourages soil erosion.
  • Cultivation in areas that suffer prolonged droughts which loosen the soil causing it to be exposed to erosion during dry seasons.
  1. Heavy rain resulting to excessive soil erosion and thus poorly aerated.
  2. Drought which deprives the soil of moisture which holds the soil together causing particles to loosen making it to be easily brown by wind.
  3. Excavation works such as quarrying, open-cast mining, building of estates and road construction which loosen and expose the soil to erosion agents.
  4. Soil erosion which robs the soil of top fertile layer.
  5. Chemical Degeneration
  • Decline in usefulness due to changes in mineral nutrients of the soil.

Causes

  1. Leaching which makes minerals inaccessible to shallow rooted crops.
  2. Excessive application of fertilizers which interferes with bacterial activity and causes the soil to become too acidic and unable to support a variety of crops.
  3. Excess water causing water logging causing acidic conditions.
  4. Planting one type of crop repeatedly which makes the soil deficient of some nutrients.
  5. Excessive drought which causes accumulation of salts in the top soil.
  6. Burning such as in slash and burning which kills micro-organisms causing nitrogen deficiency when nitrogen fixing bacteria is killed.
  7. Biological Degeneration
  • Degeneration due to decline of organic content of the soil and organic matter.
  1. Deforestation which deprives the soil of its organic content and moisture making it loose and more vulnerable to erosion.
  2. Burning such as in slash and burning which kills micro-organisms causing low decomposition rate which robs soil of organic matter.
  3. Overgrazing which causes removal of vegetation causing excessive loss of water from the soil and hence reduced micro-organism activity resulting into shortage of humus.
  4. Drought and excessive moisture which may lead to a shortage of essential organisms such as bacteria, earthworms, termites and burrowing animals.

                            Soil Erosion

  • Removal of top soil.

Agents of soil erosion are water, glacier and wind.

Causes of soil erosion are human activities and geomorphic processes such as earthquakes and faulting which cause land slides and soil creep.

Conditions Favouring Soil Erosion

  1. a) Slope
  • Steep slopes accelerate soil erosion while gentle slopes experience less erosion.
  • Places with rugged terrain experience gulley erosion.
  • Hilly and Steep areas experience rill and gulley erosion.

 

  1. b) Soil Texture
  • Areas with fine textured soils such as volcanic ash are more vulnerable to erosion e.g. Nyambene Hills around Karama and Muthara.
  1. c) Climate
  • Erratic and heavy rains cause splash, rill and sheet erosion.
  • Intense heating by the sun causes loosening of soil particles.
  • Low rainfall and high temperature leads to scanty or no vegetation which forms protective cover on the soil.

Types of Soil Erosion

  1. a) Splash Erosion
  • Removal of soil by rain drops scattering loose particles and carrying them down slope by runoff.
  1. b) Rill Erosion
  • Removal of top soil by rain water through small channels.
  • Occurs when rate of runoff exceeds infiltration and rain water flows over the surface forming small channels called rills.
  1. c) Gulley Erosion
  • Removal of soil through wide and deep channels.
  • Occur when moving water or glacier widen and deepen the existing rills.
  1. d) Sheet Erosion
  • Removal of top soil inform of a thin sheet.
  • Common around L.Baringo and Marigat.

Impact/effect of Soil Erosion

Positive

  1. Creation of rich agricultural lands when eroded soil is carried and deposited e.g. loess and alluvial soils in lower courses of R.Tana.
  2. Sand eroded from steep slopes and deposited on river bed is scooped for construction purposes e.g. Machakos.

                                   Negative

  1. Lowers the agricultural productivity of land when fertile top soil is eroded.
  2. Contributes to desertification when top soil is eroded leaving bare ground destroying vegetation.
  3. Causes water pollution when agro-chemicals and other chemicals are carried to rivers, lakes or oceans.
  4. Contributes to flooding by blocking river channels causing them to burst their banks during the rain season flooding the adjacent areas.
  5. Causes siltation of water reservoirs reducing their utility e.g. For H.E.P. generation.
  6. May cause collapsing of structures such as buildings and bridges when soil around them is eroded weakening their foundation.

Management and Conservation of Soil

Soil management is controlling processes and activities that would cause soil deterioration while soil conservation is protecting soil from destruction.

Soil Management and Conservation Measures

  1. a) Crop Rotation
  • Growing crops which require different nutrients on the same piece of land on rotational basis to prevents exhaustion of particular mineral nutrients from the soil e.g. leguminous plants to improve nitrogen content of the soil.
  1. b) Mixed Farming
  • Growing crops and keeping animals on the same farm.
  • Manure from animals is used to enrich the soil with minerals and improve its structure.
  1. c) Contour Ploughing
  • Ploughing across the slope rather than down the slope.
  • Helps to trap water on horizontal furrows thus preventing excessive soil removal.
  1. d) Terracing
  • Dividing the slope into a series of wide steps and crops are grown on them.
  • Trap the soil from being carried away by running water and also traps water allowing it to gradually infiltrate into the soil.
  1. e) Afforestation and Reafforestation
  • Leaves reduce the force of rain drops preventing soil particles from being removed.
  • Vegetation increases the rate of infiltration of rain water into the soil thus reducing runoff.
  • Roots bind the soil particles together.
  • Decayed vegetation provides humus which binds the soil particles together.
  1. f) Planting Wind Breakers
  • Planting hedges or trees around plots in large fields.
  • Act as wind breakers and also trap soil being carried by water.
  1. g) Regulating Livestock Numbers
  • Matching the number of animals kept to the carrying capacity of land.
  • Overgrazing can also be prevented by paddocking which ensures there is always pasture for animals and no area is overgrazed.
  • The pasture is subdivided into portions by fencing.
  • Animals are left to graze in one paddock at a time.
  • Then they are transferred to the next after a few days.

                 

  1. h) Constructing Gabions
    • Construction of wire mesh boxes which are filled with soil.
    • Allow water to pass through but trap the soil then vegetation gradually grows on the trapped soil.
  1. i) Planting Cover Crops
  • Planting crops which cover the soil properly and holds the soil in place e.g. sweet potato vines.
  1. j) Mulching
  • Covering the soil with crop residues.
  • Reduces the impact of rain drops on the soil.
  • Decays enriching soil with nutrients.
  • Reduce the rate of moisture evaporation from the soil.

Significance of Soils

  1. Gives physical support for the rooting system of plants and protects root system from damage.
  2. Habitat for burrowing animals and bacteria necessary for breakdown of organic matter into humus.
  3. Medium through which nutrients and air are made available to plants.
  4. Provides mineral elements to plants e.g. nitrogen, calcium, phosphates, etc.
  5. Is used in building and construction e.g. clay for making bricks and tiles.
  6. Clay soil is used in ceramics such as making pots.
  7. Some soils are used for decorative purpose e.g. ache used among Maasai.
  8. Source of minerals especially to expectant mothers.
  9. Soil contains valuable mineral elements such as alluvial gold.
  10. Soil supports plant life which is a source of food for people and animals especially herbivores.
  11. Soils are used for medicinal purposes e.g. clay is mixed with some herbs for medical purpose in some communities.

Significance of Soil on Plant Growth

Characteristics and properties of a particular soil influences plant growth and distribution.

PH

  • High PH values favours growth of particular crops e.g. tea requires fairly acidic soils.

Drainage

  • Water logged soils allow growth of particular plants like papyrus, tree swamps and mangrove on poorly drained saline soils.

Depth

  • Deep soils support deep rooted plants e.g. large trees while shallow soils favour shallow rooted plants with spreading root system e.g. grasses.

Moisture content

  • Soils deficient of moisture support drought resistant plants.

Temperature

  • There are stunted plants on cold soils and heath and moors on upper levels of mountains.

Aeration

  • Poor aeration retards the growth of plants and impairs the roots ability to absorb water and nutrients.

                                           

Mineral composition

  • Mineral deficiency in the soil causes retardation.

Soil Classification

-Grouping of soil according to specific properties such as age, texture, colour and climate.

  1. Zonal Order

Mature soils with a well developed profile due to having undergone long time soil formation processes under good drainage conditions.

Sub-orders

  1. a) Podsols
  • Infertile and acidic soils which are heavily leached with base compounds like calcium removed leaving aluminium and iron compounds
  • Found in forested areas and higher latitudes e.g. Scandinavian countries and Canadian Shield.
  1. b) Podzolic Soils
  • Soils similar with Podsols but found in areas with deciduous forests and hot climates e.g. Congo Basin and Kenya highlands.
  1. c) Tundra Soils
  • Soils with excessive moisture due to low evaporation rate causing permanent freezing of the soil.
  • Associated with tundra climate e.g. Iceland and northern edge of Europe and Asia.
  1. d) Latosols
  • Soils with low organic content and high titanium salts content which form in conditions of high rainfall and temperatures.
  • Crumbles into dust if ploughed during dry season and cracks if not ploughed.
  • Found in volcanic areas e.g. Uasin Gishu and Laikipia plateau.
  1. e) Nitosols
  • Deep porous friable red soils known as Kikuyu red loam in Kenya.
  • Well aerated and high capacity for moisture storage.
  • Higher fertility and can support a variety of cash and food crops.
  1. f) Phenozems (Prairie Soils)
  • Dark brown and generally fertile soils.
  • Suitable for growing of cereals e.g. wheat.
  • Common in Prairie Provinces of Canada, Narok and Athi-Kapiti plains.
  1. g) Sierozems (desert soils)
  • Soils found in desert conditions with little seasonal rainfall and high temperature.
  • Relatively little humus due to sparse vegetation.
  • Plenty of calcium carbonate inform of lime crust deposited on surface due to excessive evaporation.
  1. h) Pedocals
  • Dark soils which have had little leaching and rich in calcium carbonate.
  • Common in semi-arid and sub-humid grasslands.

Sub-groups existing in Kenya

  1. i) Chermozems
  • Dark coloured soils with relatively high organic matter from grass vegetation and a calcareous sub-soil.
  • Conducive for cereal crop cultivation due to being found in rolling land and favourable climate for grass growth.
  • Found at bottom lands around Nyambene Hills and N. grazing areas between Isiolo and Nyambene Hills.
  1. ii) Vertisols/Black Cotton Soils
  • Dark cracking clay soils.
  • Poorly drained due to high clay content leading to poor permeability.
  • Suitable for growing of rice, cotton and sun flower.
  • Found in Mwea plains and Kano plains.
  1. Intrazonal Order
  • Soil formed under poor drainage conditions.

Sub-orders

  1. a) Hydromorphic soils
  • Grey coloured soils formed in water logged areas.

Groups

  1. i) Plano soils – found on flat old land surfaces.
  2. ii) Bog and meadow – found in meadows, marshes and swamps e.g. Lorian and Yala swamps.
  3. b) Halmorphic Soils
  • Soils formed under semi-arid and arid conditions through salinisation.
  • Infertile and poorly drained.
  • Found in Amboseli and N.E.Kenya.
  1. c) Calcimorphic Soils
  • Soils formed by calcification e.g. redzina soils which are shallow and rich in lime and humus on the upper profile developed under grass on limestone e.g. in England and steppes of Russia.
  1. d) Andosols
  • Dark brown volcanic ash soils formed from recent volcanic material.
  • High silt content and very vulnerable to soil erosion.
  • Found in Kenyan highlands and support extensive agricultural activities like coffee, tea, wheat and maize growing.
  1. Azonal Order
  • Soils without a well developed profile due to having not undergone full soil forming processes.
  • Found on steep slopes and areas with poor drainage which don’t offer them time to mature.

Sub-orders

  1. a) Lithosols
  • Soils with thin stony soil which is shallow over bedrock without a definite “B” horizon.
  1. b) Regosols
  • Soils without genetic horizons which have developed from material deposits like alluvium.
  • Common in hilly and mountainous areas of the world.
  1. c) Alluvial Soils (Fluvisols)
  • Soils developed from alluvium of recent origin.
  • Common along river valleys and mouths like Tana.
  1. d) Mountain Soils
  • Shallow soils found in mountainous regions.
  • Vulnerable to erosion on steep slopes.
  1. e) Histosols
  • Soils formed from accumulation of organic matter which is 20% of the soil composition.
  • If drained can be used to grow truck crops like vegetables.
  1. f) Arenosols
  • Soils having the appearance of sand largely composed of sand.
  • Less fertile due to low organic matter.
  • Common in coastal areas and N.E. provinces.

 

AGRICULTURE

  • The practice of cultivating crops and rearing of animals

Factors Influencing Agriculture

  1. Physical Factors
  2. a) Climate
  3. i) Temperature
  • Some domestic animals do well in hot and warm areas e.g. goats and camels while others do well in cool areas e.g. exotic breeds of cattle such as Guernsey.
  • Some crops do well in cool areas e.g. tea and wheat while some others do well in warm areas e.g. sisal and cotton.
  • High temperatures increase the rate of evaporation of moisture which causes crops to wither and eventually die.
  • Night frosts damage tender leaves of some crops e.g. tea and bananas.
  1. ii) Sunshine
  • Needed for photosynthesis process in which plants manufacture food for growth and formation of fruits and seeds.
  • Sufficient sunshine is required during ripening of crops to ensure that they have high sugar content.
  • Sunshine is required during harvesting to prevent crop from rotting and also for drying harvested crops.

iii) Winds

  • Winds accelerate evaporation and transpiration which may cause crops to wither and eventually die.
  • Hot and dry winds damage crops such as cocoa by causing them to ripen prematurely.
  • Wind is important for pollination necessary for fruit and seed formation.
  • Violent wind may cause falling of tall varieties of crops like maize and bananas.
  1. iv) Moisture
  • Inadequate moisture causes failed germination and retarded growth of crops.
  • Too much water causes root and fruit rot.
  • Livestock rearing is realised in areas which receive moderate to abundant rainfall
  • Insufficient rainfall leads to shortage of pasture for animals causing poor quality and low production
  1. b) Soil
  • Deep soils favour growth of deep rooted crops while shallow soils favour growth of shallow rooted crops.
  • There is retarded growth of crops in infertile soils.
  • Clay soils are suitable for growing of rice because they retain water for a long time.
  • Volcanic soil favour growth of crops requiring acidic soils e.g. coffee and tea.
  • Soil water is required for germination and facilitating uptake of minerals in solution.
  1. c) Topography/relief
  2. i) Altitude
  • Influences temperature determining type of crops and animals to be reared.
  1. ii) Terrain
  • Most crops do well on sloping land as it is well drained e.g. coffee and tea.
  • Rolling plateaus and plains are suitable for large scale mechanized farming and irrigation.
  • Gentle terrain eases cultivation and favours animals as they can graze with ease.

iii) Aspect

  • Slopes facing the sun can support crop growing and livestock rearing because they are warmer while those facing away tend to be cooler and are dominated by forests and grasslands.
  • Windward slopes are wetter than leeward slopes and more suitable for growing crops and rearing animals while leeward slopes are dominated by grasslands and more suitable for beef livestock rearing.
  1. Biotic factors
  2. a) Weeds
  • Compete with plants for moisture, nutrients and sunlight leading to low and poor quality yields.
  • Can choke pastures on which animals feed.
  • Can increase the cost of agriculture as a lot of money is spent on hiring labour to weed the farms and buying chemical herbicides.
  1. b) Insects
  • Locusts and army warms eat green leaves and stems on their way destroying everything.
  • Tsetse flies and ticks transmit livestock diseases i.e. trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever.
  • Some insects such as bees and butterflies are useful to crop farming because they aid in pollination.
  • Bees give us honey.
  • Controlling pests increases cost of agriculture.
  1. c) Small Animals
  • Squirrels eat newly planted maize.
  • Rats and mice destroy harvested grains.
  • Quelea birds feed on rice while on the farm reducing its yield.
  1. d) Diseases
  • Diseases weaken and eventually kill plants and animals.
  • Diseases also weaken and kill humans which cause labour shortage increasing labour costs.
  • Controlling diseases also increases cost of agriculture.
  1. Human/ Social factors
  2. a) Traditions
  3. i) Gender
  • In some communities, food production is a sole responsibility of women and children so the produce and land under cultivation will depend on women and children labour input e.g. W. Africa.
  1. Traditional foods
  • Types of crops grown in most parts are traditional/staple foods of those communities.
  • Prestige
  • Maasai value cattle and whoever has the most cattle is regarded in high esteem.
  1. b) Land Tenure System
  • Cash crops such as coffee can’t be grown on leased land.
  • Large scale farming can’t be practiced on excessively fragmented land.
  • Nomadic pastoralism and shifting cultivation can be practiced in communally owned land.
  1. c) Religious Beliefs
  • Hindus don’t practise commercial cattle rearing because they treat cow as a sacred animal.
  • Pig rearing isn’t practiced in regions with large presence of Muslims such as Arabic countries because Koran terms pig as unclean.
  1. Economic Factors
  2. a) Operating Costs
  • If capital isn’t available he will farm on a smaller piece of land and vice versa.
  • A farmer may decide not to grow a type of crop such as those easily perishable to avoid incurring cost in transporting and storing of produce to maintain their freshness.              b) Price Fluctuations

Price fall discourage some farmers causing some to neglect or uproot their crops and venture in other areas such as horticulture and dairy farming.

  • When prices are favourable farmers may expand acreage under production.
  1. c) Govt Policy/Political Factors
  • Govt may encourage productivity by subsidies and guaranteeing prices.
  • May tackle overproduction by withdrawing the same.
  • May affecting acreage under particular types of crops e.g. by encouraging growing of cash crops or food crops.

Trade Restrictions

  • Quota system ensures production doesn’t greatly exceed demand since a country won’t be able to export more quantity than it has been allocated.

Types of Agriculture

  1. Arable Farming
    • Cultivation and management of crops.

Types

  1. a) Subsistence Arable farming
  • Growing crops to provide for the farmer and his family.

 Types

  1. i) Shifting Cultivation/Simple Subsistence Farming
  • Farming in which a plot in a virgin forest is cultivated for 3-5 years after which its left fallow to regain fertility and a new section of forest is cultivated.
  • Areas where it’s practiced – D.R.C, Zambia and Malaysia.

Method of Cultivation

  1. A plot is sited in a virgin forest on well drained hill slopes.
  2. Land is slashed and vegetation put on fire for ashes provide potash which improves fertility.
  3. The land is dug using simple tools such as hoes or digging stick.
  4. Staggered planting is done throughout the year to have a continuous supply of food.
  5. The plot is cultivated for a period of 3-5yrs after which it’s abandoned and a new section of forest is cleared.

Characteristics

  1. There is migration from one plot to another when the former plot loses fertility.
  2. Cultivated areas are usually small (1-3 acres).
  3. Very little attention is given to land and crops.
  4. Short periods of crop occupancy alternate with long periods of fallowing.
  5. Mainly uses manual labour provided by the immediate family.
  6. Use of simple tools.
  7. Crops are mainly starchy foods e.g. cassava, yams, millet, etc.
  8. Land is cultivated by slash and burning.

                                                     Disadvantages

  1. Exposes land to soil erosion on the plots which have been left fallow.
  2. Doesn’t guarantee sufficient food production.
  3. Extensive destruction of vegetation when fires get out of control.
  4. Wasteful because sections of land stay fallow for a very long time.
  5. Only practicable in areas with sparse population and plenty of land.
  6. There are hardly any monetary gains because the produce is only enough for home consumption.
  7. ii) Sedentary Subsistence Agriculture
  • Farming in which the community permanently stays in one place.
  • Areas where it’s practiced –tropical lowlands, C. America and S.E Asia.

Characteristics

  1. The community occupies a permanent dwelling spot.
  2. Fallowed fields are frequently reused.
  3. Crop rotation is practiced in some areas.
  4. More attention is given to the land and crops sown.
  5. More labour is used in the field.
  6. Can support a larger population compared to shifting cultivation.

iii) Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

  • Farming which involves maximum utilization of all cultivable land.
  • Carried out in areas experiencing population pressure so as to grow sufficient food to feed the population e.g. Japan, China, Srilanka, Pakistan, Kakamega, Nyeri, Kisii, etc.

Types

  1. Dominated by other types of crops
  2. Dominated by wet paddy

Characteristics

  1. Very small plots resulting from years of fragmentation.
  2. Intensive use of land.
  3. Most work is carried out by hand.
  4. Simple implements e.g. hoes, ploughs etc.
  5. Several crops are grown on the same piece of land during the course of the year.
  6. Crops vary from region to region e.g. Kenya – maize, beans, potatoes, Asia – rice in some areas, others-wheat, soya beans and barley.
  7. Livestock rearing is almost nonexistent because there is no land for growing pasture.
  8. Use of manure and chemical fertilizers to sustain high soil fertility for maximum yields.
  9. Use of Irrigation to make up inadequacy of moisture.
  10. b) Commercial Arable Farming
  11. i) Plantation Agriculture
  • Cultivation of cash crops on large tracts of land called estates or plantations.

Characteristics

  1. Large tracts of land are cultivated.
  2. Cash crops are grown e.g. coffee, tea, cocoa rubber, etc.
  3. A single crop is usually grown.
  4. Done for commercial purpose.
  5. High capital is required to start and meet recurrent expenditure.
  6. Crops take some years after planting before they start yielding.
  7. Most plantations are owned by foreign companies.
  8. Employment of scientific management to produce a lot of output.

Problems

  1. Crops may be destroyed by climatic hazards reducing production.
  2. High expenditure in maintaining plantations.
  3. Subdivision of some plantations to provide land for the landless shareholders who bought them causing decline in output from plantations.
  4. Crops may also be destroyed by insect pests and diseases which also affect labourers.
  5. Rapid deterioration of soil due to monoculture, soil erosion due to complete weeding and most crops not providing sufficient soil cover.
  6. Fluctuations of world prices causing the farmer to suffer great losses as they have no other crop to supplement their income.
  7. Poor management whereby managers misuse funds and shareholders fight over management leaving plantations unattended.
  8. ii) Extensive Mechanised Grain Cultivation
  • Cultivation of grains on large tracts of land.
  • Best developed in temperate grasslands of Prairies, Pampas, Veldt, and Downs which make the granary of the world.
  • In Kenya it’s carried out in Uasin Gishu plateau, Nakuru and Narok.

Characteristics

  1. Extremely large farms in mid-latitudes.
  2. Cultivation is highly mechanized due to large farm sizes and its more economical and efficient.
  3. Wheat is the main crop cultivated with other crops including barley, corn, millet and sorghum in Veldt etc.
  4. Yield per farmer is high due to mechanisation.
  5. Grain is raised on unirrigated land since it requires as little as 325mm annual precipitation.
  6. Farms are individually owned.

iii) Intensive Commercial Agriculture

  • Intensive use of land to produce maximum yield of crop per unit area for sale.
  • Areas – N.W. Europe, E. U.S.A, former U.S.S.R and slopes of Mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics

  1. Soil is utilised intensively to ensure maximum yields per unit area.
  2. Farms are generally small in size.
  3. Manual labour is used to tend crops
  4. Proper care is given to planted crops.
  5. Mechanisation where farms are a bit larger.
  6. Farmers use large amounts of fertilizers, hybrid seeds and pesticides.
  7. Irrigation water is used to supplement rainfall insufficiency.
  8. Farming is sometimes highly specialised with some farms growing crops or keeping animals.

                                    

  1. c) Mediterranean Agriculture
    • Type distinct to areas experiencing Mediterranean climate.

Main areas – middle Chile, Piedmont district in N. Italy and Andalistic District of S. Spain.

                                        Characteristics

  1. Farming is intensive.
  2. It’s highly specialised.
  3. Subsistence farming is practiced alongside commercial farming.
  4. Cereal crops are most widespread e.g. barley and wheat.
  5. Orchard farming is carried out and it’s the leading producer of citrus fruits, olives, dates and figs.
  6. A small number of sheep, goats and cows are reared due to prolonged droughts and coarse bunchy grasses unsuitable for livestock.

Crop Farming

Cash crops are grown mainly in southern part of Kenya due to the following factors:

  1. Suitable climatic conditions for a variety of crops such as temperature ranging from cool to cold, rainfall ranging between 800-2000mm annually and dry sunny periods between rainy seasons.
  2. Fertile volcanic soils in highlands or alluvial soils in the lake basin of Kenya suitable for crop growing.
  3. Adequate labour supply due to high population.
  4. Long tradition of cash crops growing emanating from cash crops introduction by European settlers.
  5. Govt policy to support small scale farmers

Some of the major cash crops grown in Kenya

  1. Pyrethrum – Nakuru, Kisii, Limuru, Nyandarua.
  2. Sisal -Thika, Taita-Taveta, Baringo, Kilifi.
  3. Wattle – Uasin Gishu, Thika, Kiambu.
  4. Cashew nuts – Kilifi.
  5. Cotton-Rachuonyo, Busia, Meru, Kitui, Makueni.
  6. Rice – Busia, Kirinyaga.

Tea Farming In Kenya

  • Tea is a tropical plant with a botanical name Camellia Sinesis.
  • First introduced in Limuru in 1903

Tea types

  1. Aswan variety­ common in India and Srilanka.
  2. Chinese variety.
    • Kenya is the largest producer in Africa, among top 6 world producers and has the best tea in the world market.

Major Growing Areas

  1. Highlands – Kericho, Nandi, Kakamega, Cherangani hills.
  2. Highlands – Nyeri, Murang`a, Kiambu, Thika, etc.

Conditions Necessary for Tea Growing

                                                 Physical Requirements

  1. Warm temperature throughout the year (15◦C-30◦C).
  2. Heavy and well distributed rainfall (1000-2000mm annually).
  3. Deep and slightly acidic soils.
  4. High altitude of about 1000-3000m above sea level.
  5. The area to be free from frost.
  6. Gently sloping land which is well drained.
  7. Area to be shielded from strong sunlight and violent winds.

Human Requirements

  1. Adequate labour for cultivation and processing which are labour intensive.
  2. Good transport routes for quick transport of tea leaves to factory before they start withering.
  3. Location of tea factories near farms for quick processing of tea as soon as possible.
  4. Availability of capital to pay for the labour required in land preparation, planting, regular picking etc.

Tea Cultivation

  • Tea cuttings are raised in a nursery for 6-10 months.
  • Holes are dug at intervals of 0.7-0.9 m with rows being 1.5 m apart.
  • Transplanting is done at the beginning of the rainy season.
  • Young tea plants are intercropped with other crops to prevent soil erosion and to act as mulch.
  • Pegging lateral branches to force them to grow horizontally to aid frame development.
  • Tips of shoots are periodically plucked to encourage growth of more shoots.
  • Tea is ready for harvesting when it attains 4 years.
  • The bushes are pruned to a new level after every 3 years to increase production through new vegetative growth.
  • Tipping or cutting shoots back to required height.

Harvesting Of Tea

  • Picked after 5-7 day during rainy season and 10-14 days during dry season.
  • 2 leaves and a bud are picked and thrown in a basket strapped on the back.
  • A straight stick is used to determine the height.
  • It should not be pressed to prevent premature fermentation.

                                         Processing Of Tea

  • At the factory the leaves are withered by blowing hot and cool air alternately.
  • Passed through a machine which crushes them into small pieces.
  • Crushed leaves are fermented for a few hours.
  • Fermented leaves are dried by blowing with a machine called drier.
  • The cooled tea is graded by passing through a strainer which sieves it.
  • The various tea grades are winnowed by blowing out unwanted fibres.
  • Tea is then packed in chests or bags to await sale or exportation.

                             Problems Facing Kenyan Tea Farmers

  1. Pests e.g. weevils and beetles which attack tender leaves supposed to be picked.
  2. Diseases e.g. root rot which causes the bush to wither, dry and eventually die.
  3. Hail stones which fall on tea bushes causing damage e.g. in Kericho and Nandi.
  4. Fluctuations of world prices which causes the farmers to lose morale and neglect or uproot the crop.
  5. Shortage of rainfall leading to reduction in leaf production.
  6. Transport problems in some areas due to dilapidated roads which cause spoilage of harvested tea before it reaches the factory.
  7. Shortage of labour in some tea growing areas where young people have migrated to towns.
  8. Shortage of capital to meet production costs.

Marketing of Tea in Kenya

  • Some tea is consumed locally and a huge amount is sold on the international market.
  • Major marketer is K.T.D.A.

Functions of KTDA

  1. Collection of tea from buying centres.
  2. Processing of tea.
  3. Providing farmers with inputs such as fertiliser.
  4. Sensitizes farmers on high quality production of tea.
  5. Facilitates sale of tea at best possible prices.
  6. Ensures prompt collection of payment from all tea buyers.
  7. Promotion of tea with the aim of expanding market share.

Outlets through Which It Markets Tea

  1. Factory door sale of tea in polythene bags to farmers accounting for 3% of sales.
  2. Through Mombasa auction where its exported to other countries such as Britain, France Afghanistan. It accounts for 75% of sales.
  3. Dealing directly with interested buyers which accounts for 15% of sales.
    • KETEPA is the largest tea packing company in Africa belonging to tea grower’s grades, blends and packs some of the tea then sells to local market and exports superior qualities.
    • Other companies which pack tea for local sale include Kikuyu Highland Tea Company and Unilever Kenya (Home Cup).

Significance of Tea Farming in Kenya

  1. Earns foreign exchange from tea export.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange that would be used to import tea.
  3. Farmers earn income which raises their standard of living.
  4. It creates employment such as for people working in farms and factories.
  5. Has led to development of industries such as processing factories, blending and packaging industries.
  6. Has led to development of infrastructure by roads being improved to ease transportation of tea to factories..

Sugar Cane Growing In Kenya

  • Sugarcane is a coarse perennial grass belonging to sacharum family.
  • It was introduced in Kenya in 1902 by an Australian farmer whereby commercial growing began in Miwani, Kibos and Ramisi.

Main Growing Areas

Nyanza:  Muhoroni, Miwani, Chemilil and Awendo.

Coastal: Ramisi.

Western: Mumias, Nzoia, Kabras, Nambele.

Conditions Favouring Sugarcane growing (requirements)

Physical

  1. High temperatures(21◦c-27◦C)
  2. High and well distributed rainfall (1200-1500mm annually).
  3. Dry and sunny weather during harvesting to increase sugar accumulation in the cane.
  4. Fertile and well drained soils.
  5. Undulating land for machinery to be used and for easier transportation of cane to factories.
  6. Altitude between sea level and 1600m.

Human Requirements

  1. Abundant labour for planting, weeding, cutting and loading onto trucks.
  2. A good transport infrastructure for sugarcane to reach the factory within a week after harvesting.
  3. Location of processing factories within the growing areas for quick processing of sugarcane before losing its sugar content through drying.
  4. Availability of capital to pay workers in the field, buy farm machinery, etc.

Cultivation of Sugarcane

  • Shallow furrows are made across the field at intervals of 1.2m-1.8m apart.
  • Pieces of older sugarcane are laid horizontally in the furrows.
  • They are covered lightly with the soil which they grow a cluster of shoots called stool.
  • Nitrogenous fertilizer is applied when plants are growing at a high rate.
  • Weeding is done when the crop is fairly short.
  • After about 14 months the cane is ready for harvesting.
  • After harvesting two ratoons the stools are dug out, land tilled and new setts are planted.

Harvesting of Sugarcane

  • The cane may be set on fire to rid it of husks, trash, and harmful insects and animals.
  • it is then cut using pangas within 48 hours if burnt to avoid conversion of tea sugar.
  • The husks and the top green part are removed if it wasn’t burned.
  • The cane is then loaded onto trucks using machines called mechanical grabs.
  • Then it’s transported to the factory to be processed within 48 hours.

Processing of Sugarcane

  • At the factory the cane is put in large water tanks where it is washed.
  • It’s passed through a machine which cuts it up into short pieces.
  • The pieces are passed between rollers to crush and squeeze out the juice.
  • Fine matter in suspension and soluble non-sugars are precipitated leaving the juice.
  • The juice is boiled with lime until it turns into thick syrup.
  • The syrup is passed through crystallizers where sugar crystals grow.
  • It’s then led into centrifuges to separate crystals from molasses resulting into a raw coarse brown sugar.
  • The brown sugar is decolourised with carbon black.
  • Repeated crystallization is done to obtain various grades and sizes.
  • The sugar is then dried and screened.
  • It’s then packed in bags for storage and sale.

Uses of Sugar

  1. In baking to sweeten bread, cakes, etc.
  2. Sweetening foods and drinks e.g. porridge, chapati, tea, coffee, etc.
  3. Making local brews e.g. Karubu, nguru, etc.
  4. In soft drinks industries e.g. soda, juice, etc.
  5. Making sweets and chocolates, etc.
  6. Manufacture of drugs e.g. syrups and sugar coated tablets.

Uses of By-products

  1. Molasses is used as a sweetener for livestock feeds.
  2. It’s also used to manufacture ethanol, acetone and ethyl-acetate.
  3. Bagasse or fibre left after squeezing the juice is used as fuel for boilers, for preparing pulp for making paper used for making cement and fertilizer bags and as fodder or manure.
  4. Filter cake resulting from filtration process is used as manure for cane.

Marketing of Sugar

  • Consumed locally.
  • Factories sell to wholesalers and retail outlets to consumers.

Significance of Sugarcane growing

  1. Creation of employment e.g. in estates, factories, sugar mills.
  2. Promotes development of industries such as processing sugar cane, industrial spirit and breweries manufacturing, etc.
  3. Has led to growth of towns in growing areas e.g. Muhoroni, Awendo and Mumias.
  4. Saves some foreign exchange that would be used in sugar importation.
  5. Farmers earn income through cane sale raising their standards of living.
  6. Provision of social amenities to workers such as schools, houses and health centres to take care of workers welfare e.g. Mumias.

Problems Facing Sugarcane Farming In Kenya

  1. Pests e.g. termites which attack setts lowering the farmers yield.
  2. Diseases e.g. sugarcane mosaic which causes the crop to become stunted with leaves becoming yellow.
  3. Mismanagement of some sugar factories resulting in their closure and subsequent loss of income and jobs.
  4. Inability of some factories to cope with supply of cane from out-growers due to low production capacity and outdated technology.
  5. Local sugar industry faces competition from cheap imported sugar from COMESA countries.
  6. Strikes by cane farmers and transporters due to inadequate pay resulting in drop in output.
  7. Frequent fires which destroy many hectares of cane annually.

Maize Farming in Kenya

  • An annual crop of the grass family with a botanical name zea may.
  • Brought by Portuguese traders to E. African coast in 18th
  • Single most extensively grown crop.

Main Growing Areas

  • Transnzoia, Nakuru, Bungoma and Uasin Gishu districts.

Conditions Favouring Maize Growing In Kenya

Physical Requirements

  1. Warm temperatures (above 15◦c).
  2. High annual rainfall(635-1145mm)
  3. Deep well drained fertile soil with abundant amount of nitrogen.
  4. Undulating landscape to allow use of machines.
  5. Lower altitudes of about 1800m or below sea level.

Human Requirements

  1. Abundant labour for preparation of land, sowing, weeding, shelling and packing.
  2. A good transport network to enable farmers to transport harvested grain to millers and buying centres.
  3. A good and sufficient storage facility for the grain after it has been harvested and before it is sold.
  4. Availability of capital to pay for labour, buy inputs and pay for transportation of grain to the market.

                                            Cultivation of Maize

  • Holes for planting seeds are dug in rows about 1m apart using hoes, pangas or tractor driven planters.
  • Fertilizer is put in holes and mixed with soil.
  • Maize is planted by hand or tractor driven planters.
  • Nitrate fertilizers top dressing is applied when plants reach knee length.
  • The maize is thinned to remove weak seedlings when it is about 15cm high and weeded.
  • Maize takes 4-12 months to mature depending on altitude and seed variety.
  • Maize is left to ripen and dry when standing on the farm.

                               Harvesting of Maize

  • The cobs are picked by hand and put in sacks.
  • Maize cobs are then shelled by beating using heavy sticks or machines.
  • It’s then packed in sacks ready for sale to consumers, millers or NCPB.

Processing of Maize

  • At the mill maize is put on trays to sieve to remove undesired matter e.g. rock particles.
  • It’s then passed through the milling machine which crushes it into flour of various grades.
  • The floor is then packed in small packets and sacks according to desired weight.

Uses of Maize

  1. Used as food for githeri and flour for ugali and porridge.
  2. Grains are also used in the manufacture of animal feeds e.g. maize jam.
  3. Tender maize plants are chopped and mixed with molasses to make silage for livestock.
  4. Used to make salad oil for cooking, industrial alcohol and starch.
  5. Stalks and cobs are used as organic manure and to provide domestic fuel.

Marketing of Maize

  • Mainly sold by NCPB.
  • Farmers also sell directly to consumers and millers.

Importance to Kenya’s Economy

  1. Saves foreign exchange by avoiding importing maize all the time.
  2. Promotes growth of industries where it’s used as raw material e.g. milling and corn oil industries.
  3. Has created employment e.g. for farm workers, milling workers.
  4. Provides income to farmers raising their standard of living.
  5. Government earns revenue from taxes levied on maize products such as corn oil and alcohol.

Problems Facing Maize Farmers in Kenya

  1. Pests such as stalk borers which penetrate to the centre of the plant.
  2. Diseases such as white leaf blight which causes oval, grey lesions on the leaves.
  3. Reduction of maize prices in the local market caused by irregular importation of maize which discourages the farmers.
  4. Inadequate capital on the farmer part to buy inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and insect sides.
  5. Soil exhaustion due prolonged planting of maize leading to poor yields.
  6. Exploitation of farmers by middle men who buy their produce at throw away prices making the farmers unable to meet production costs.

Cocoa Growing In Ghana

  • Cocoa originated from lowlands of C. America.
  • Is grown in W. African countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, Cote d’ivoire and Cameroon.
  • They account for nearly 3/4 of the world’s cocoa production.
  • Ghana is the second leading producer after Cote d’ivoire.

Main Growing Areas

  • Cocoa triangle formed by Accra, Kumasi and Takoradi.

Conditions Favouring Cocoa Growing in Ghana

Physical Factors

  1. High temperatures of over 26◦c throughout the year.
  2. High and well distributed rainfall (1300-1500mm annually).
  3. Low altitude areas below 700m above sea level.
  4. Slightly drier period during harvesting.
  5. High relative humidity of over 75%.
  6. Fertile well drained soils rich in iron and potassium.
  7. Protection from sunshine which causes high rate of evaporation and winds which cause pods to fall off by inter-planting with shady trees such as bananas, oil palms and kola trees.

Human Factors

  1. Abundant labour for cultivation, harvesting and processing.
  2. Availability of market.

Cultivation of Cocoa

  • A piece of land in the forest is cleared of all trees leaving a few to provide shade for the crop.
  • The vegetation is then cleared and set on fire for ashes to enrich the soil.
  • The seeds are planted in nurseries where there is light shade.
  • After 4-5 months the seedlings are transplanted during short rains. Cuttings can also be grown.
  • Crops such as cassava, yams and bananas are inter-planted with young plants to provide shade for the crop.
  • Manuring and weeding are done regularly while tending the crops.
  • Fruiting begins after 5 years with abundant production being reached being attained after 10 years.
  • Pruning is constantly done to rid the plant of any branches that may grow to allow good quality pods to form on the branches.

Harvesting and Processing of Cocoa

  • The ripe pods are cut off from stems and branches using a long knife.
  • The pods are split open using machete to expose the beans.
  • The beans are covered with banana leaves and allowed to ferment for 5-6 days for juicy pulp to drain away.
  • Fermented beans are washed.
  • The beans are dried until they turn brown.
  • Dry beans are put in sacks.

Marketing of Cocoa

  • Farmers take dried beans to the collecting centres.
  • Licensed agents buy the produce e.g. Ghana Co-operative Marketing Association and Cocoa Merchants Limited.
  • The beans are weighed and cash paid to farmers.
  • They are then transported to the ports of Tema and Takoradi.
  • The Cocoa Marketing Board then exports the beans to countries such as U.S.A, Germany and Britain.

Uses of Cocoa

  • Consumed as a beverage.
  • Used to make cocoa butter, chocolates and drugs.

Significance of Cocoa to Ghana’s Economy

  1. Earns Ghana a most foreign exchange (60%).
  2. The foreign exchange from cocoa is used to improve infrastructure and social amenities.
  3. A source of employment for over 20% of working population.
  4. Provides a steady income for farmers which has improves their standard of living.

Problems Facing Cocoa Farming in Ghana

  1. Pests e.g. capsid bug which sucks the pulp in pods and causes the tree to die.
  2. Diseases e.g. black pod which affects the pods.
  3. Fluctuations of cocoa prices in the world market causing the farmer and the country to receive low income.
  4. Shortage of labour during harvesting season which causes delay in harvesting and high expenses when hiring labour from neighbouring countries.

Oil Palm Farming in Nigeria

  • Oil Palm originated from W. Africa.
  • Grows in bunches with each carrying up to 1000 egg shaped fruits which weigh 50 kg.
  • Nigeria is the 2nd leading exporter of palm oil after Malaysia.

Main Growing Areas

  • Forest belt around port Harcout where it’s grown on small farms and Sapele and Calabar where it’s grown in estates.

Conditions Favouring Oil Farming in Nigeria

Physical Factors

  1. High temperatures throughout the year (over 21◦c).
  2. Heavy and well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
  3. High relative humidity.
  4. Well drained porous and fertile soils.
  5. Undulating land which is less exposed to strong winds.

Human Factors

  1. Abundant labour for clearing land, tendering seedlings, regular weeding, etc.
  2. Proper transport network for harvested fruits to reach the processing factories the same day so as not to change into fatty acids.
  3. Location of processing factories within or near growing areas since oil palms are perishable and must be processed the same day.
  4. Efficient management to ensure that the crops are inspected frequently for any disease or pest attack for spraying to be done to control their spread.
  5. Capital to pay labour wages, maintain feeder roads, vehicles and factories.

Cultivation of Oil Palm

  • Oil palm seeds are planted in a nursery where they are watered and sprayed.
  • They are transplanted in the field after one year.
  • They are inter-planted with food crops to force the farmer to weed the fields regularly.
  • The plants are inspected regularly for pests and diseases and sprayed promptly.
  • The palms reach maturity after 10 years by changing their colour to deep orange or red.

Harvesting of Oil Palm

  • Harvested by cutting the base of the bunch using a curved knife tied on a long pole.
  • The fruits are immediately collected and transported to the factory in lorries.

Processing/Extraction of Oil from Oil Palm Fruit

Traditional Technique

  • Fruits are removed from the stalk and boiled in metal drums for up to 3 hours.
  • They are then put in boat like containers and pounded using pestles until pericarp becomes pulp.
  • The nut and the softened pericarp are then put in a hand press and oil squeezed out of the pulp.
  • The nuts are cracked and oil squeezed out of kernels for domestic use.

The method produces very little oil which lacks consistency in quality.

Use of Pioneer Mills

  • Bunches are put in tube-like cages with holes all around.
  • Then cooked by hot steam to ensure they don’t change into fatty acids.
  • Bunches are shaken off stocks using a machine called stripper.
  • Then cooked in digesters.
  • The pericarp is separated from the nut.
  • It’s pressed to remove the oil.
  • The oil is left to settle in tanks so that impurities settle at the bottom.
  • The nuts are cracked to remove the kernels using grinders.
  • The kernels are pressed to produce oil or may be packed whole and exported.

Uses of Palm Oil

  1. Used domestically for cooking, lighting and polishing.
  2. Used in the manufacture of cooking fats, soaps and candles.
  3. Kernel is used to make expensive cooking oil, margarine, cosmetics and oil soaps.
  4. Used as a cleaning agent in industries.

Uses of Palm Tree

  1. Palm leaves are used for thatching, making mats, baskets and brooms.
  2. Pericarp fibres and nut shells are used as fuel.
  3. Palm trees are used as building poles.
  4. The tree is tapped for its sap which is fermented to make palm wine.

Marketing of Oil Palm

  • Most of palm oil and kernels are consumed locally and less than 50% is exported.
  • Most of the kernels are exported to Britain, W. Europe and U.S.A.

Significance of Oil Palm to Nigeria’s Economy

  1. It’s a source of foreign exchange.
  2. It saves some of foreign exchange.
  3. Provides employment to people as farm hands, processing, etc which raises their standard of living.
  4. Has led to development of infrastructure to link processing areas with processing factories.
  5. Promoted development of industries where it’s used as a raw material e.g. making cosmetics, toilet soaps etc.
  6. Farmers earn regular income which raises their standard of living.

Problems Facing Oil Palm Farming in Nigeria

  1. Pests and diseases which young plants due to their vulnerability which calls for regular spraying which is expensive.
  2. Inadequate capital to purchase inputs leading to low yields.
  3. Transport problems in some areas due to impassable roads leading to delays in delivering fruits to processing mills leading to low quality oil.
  4. Government policy to encourage food production to reduce food importation which lowers oil palm production.

Coffee Farming in Kenya and Brazil

  • Coffee tree originated from southern highlands of Ethiopia.
  • Was introduced in Kenya by St. Austin’s missionaries in Nairobi via Kibwezi, Taita and Bura.

Growing Areas

  1. Central Province – Nyeri, Muranga, Kiambu, Thika, Kirinyaga.
  2. Province – Embu, Machakos, Tharaka, Makueni and high areas of Meru.
  3. Coast Province – Taita Taveta in Wundanyi area.
  4. Province – Bungoma, Vihiga, Kakamega.
  5. Nyanza Province – Kisii, Nyamira, Nyabondo, Oyugis.
  6. Nairobi Province – outskirts bordering Kiambu and Thika.

Factors Favouring Coffee Growing

Kenya

Physical Factors

  1. High altitude (910-2100m).
  2. Cool temperatures (14-26◦c).
  3. High and well distributed rainfall (1000-2030mm) annually.
  4. Deep and well drained acidic soils.
  5. Undulating landscape to ensure good drainage and aeration.

Human Factors

  1. Adequate supply of cheap labour for land preparation, planting, weeding, etc.
  2. Good roads for transporting coffee to factories and to the markets.

Brazil

  • She is the leading producer of coffee.

Physical Factors

  1. Cool temperatures (14◦c-26◦c).
  2. High rainfall of 1525mm.
  3. A long dry season of up to 5 months to allow ripening and harvesting.
  4. Terra Rosa soils which are deep, porous and rich in potash and humus.
  5. Undulating surface at the Brazilian plateau around Sao Paolo.

Human Factors

  1. Availability of cheap labour from tenant labourers given small plots to grow subsistence crops which makes production costs to be low.
  2. A good transport infrastructure with roads and railways linking estates to export ports and cities like Sao Paolo, Salvador and Rio de Janeiro.

Methods of Coffee Production

  • Coffee seeds are sown in a nursery for 1 year.
  • Holes are in the field and filled with manure.
  • Seedlings are planted in the holes.
  • Weeding is done regularly to reduce competition for water and nutrients.
  • Plants are pruned regularly to control cropping and facilitate picking.
  • Fertilizers are applied on older plants to maintain soil fertility.
  • Between 2 and 4 years, coffee starts to bear berries.

                              Brazil

  • Most of land is owned by rich land owners and a small percentage by small holders.
  • Two sets of labourers are employed and given small plots to grow subsistence crops, one to care for the crop until maturity and the other to tend crop after it begins to bear fruit.
  • Farmers mainly rely on natural fertility of the soil.
  • Relatively little care is given to soil therefore it becomes exhausted leading to soil erosion.
  • Old estates are abandoned and new estates established by clearing more land in a forest.

Coffee Harvesting

  • Berries are harvested by hand.
  • In Brazil little supervision leads to picking of unripe berries which lowers the quality of beans.

Processing

Wet Processing

  • Ripe berries are soaked in water.
  • Then fed into a machine which removes the outer skin leaving the coffee seed.
  • Seeds in water are passed over sieves to grade them according to weight and size.
  • They are fermented in a tank for 12 hours.
  • Then washed with clean water and dried to a moisture content of 10-11%.
  • The method produces coffee of high quality.

Dry Processing

  • Berries are allowed to ripen and dry on the tree.
  • They are harvested and dried further to a moisture content of 12%.
  • The coffee’s outer cover is removed by hurling leaving the seeds.
  • The seeds are put though a machine that peels off two layers of the inner husk.
  • The seeds are winnowed, graded and packed.
  • They are finally roasted to make a powder.

Marketing

Kenya

  • Handled by co-operatives which own factories.
  • After processing they sell coffee to KPCU.
  • KPCU then passes to Coffee Board of Kenya.
  • Owners of large plantations can directly export their coffee.
  • Exported to countries such as Britain, Germany, Finland, Norway, Japan and N. through the world market where quota is allocated each country.

Brazil

  • Marketing is mainly handled by companies such as Poxupe – Santos.
  • Export sale is through the world market where she’s allocated a bigger quota because she produces more coffee.
  • She also markets its coffee via the internet website which enables her to reach a bigger market.
  • She markets her coffee to the same countries as Kenya.

The Role of Coffee in the Economies

  1. It’s a source of foreign exchange used to import commodities which are not available locally and develop other sectors of the economy.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange that would otherwise be used to import coffee.
  3. Source of income to farmers which reduces poverty and raise their standard of living.
  4. Source of employment for the workers in farms, factories, co-operatives, etc.
  5. It’s a source of foreign exchange used to import unavailable commodities and develop other sectors of the economy.
  6. In Brazil it has led to infrastructural development as roads have been constructed to link estates to export cities.
  7. It also saves some foreign exchange that would otherwise be used to import coffee.

 

 

Problems Facing Coffee Farming

Kenya

  1. Poor payment which causes farmers to neglect or uproot the crop and venture in other areas such as horticulture and dairying.
  2. Diseases e.g. C.B.D and leaf rust which reduce the coffee yields.
  3. Pests e.g. leaf miner which attacks coffee leaves causing them to fall off.
  4. Mismanagement of some co-operatives and embezzlement of funds by leaders which has caused some co-operatives to close up.
  5. Exhaustion of soil as coffee uses a lot of nutrients from the soil.
  6. Inadequate capital making the farmer unable to buy inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals leading to low production.
  7. Unreliable rainfall and drought conditions which causes young berries to ripen prematurely and fall off.
  8. Competition from other crops which have caused farmers to abandon coffee due to low prices.

How the Government Is Assisting Small Scale Farmers

  1. Carrying out research into new species of coffee and control of pests and diseases.
  2. Construction of new roads and improvement of the existing ones to enhance transportation of coffee.
  3. Providing extension workers through the ministry of agriculture to advice farmers on the best farming methods.
  4. Advancing loans to farmers through K.P.C.U. to assist them improve on their farming.
  5. It helps the farmers to market their produce through Coffee Board of Kenya.
  6. It holds courses and has set demonstration farms to update farmers on new farming methods.

Brazil

The future of coffee production is unstable because coffee production has been declining due to the following reasons:

  1. Fluctuations of world prices which has forced some farmers to abandon coffee in favour of other crops.
  2. Diversification or introduction of new crops which fetch higher prices e.g. cotton, sugarcane, and maize which have lowered coffee production.
  3. Increased competition from other coffee producing countries such as Kenya, Columbia and W. Indies.
  4. Indiscriminate picking of ripe and unripe berries causing coffee quality to be among the lowest and thus fetching low prices in the international market.
  5. Climatic hazard of frost which has caused coffee to be replaced with less vulnerable crops such as sugarcane and Soya beans.
  6. Soil exhaustion as a result of exploiting the soil without renewing it which leads to low yields.
  7. Uncontrolled planting where by farmers plant more trees when there is coffee boom resulting in overproduction.

How the Government Is Responding To the Problems

  1. The government lobbies for higher quotas in the world market.
  2. Prohibiting new planting.
  3. Buying and storing surplus to artificially stabilise supply to maintain profit margins.
  4. Creation of artificial shortage of coffee in the world market by the institute for permanent defence of coffee to maintain high prices.
  5. Encouraging crop diversification and mixed farming to reduce overdependence on coffee.

Comparison between Coffee Farming in Kenya and Brazil

Similarities

  • Kenya and Brazil grow similar varieties of coffee i.e. Arabica and Robusta.
  • Coffee is grown in small and large scale in both countries.
  • Coffee farming in both countries is affected by falling prices in the world market.
  • Coffee experiences stiff competition from other producing nations in both countries.
  • Coffee faces competition from other well paying crops in both countries e.g. horticultural crops in Kenya and maize and Soya in Brazil.
  • Problem of soil exhaustion is common in both countries.
  • Coffee farming is scientifically managed in both countries e.g. spraying, application of fertilizers and advanced research.
  • In both countries the governments are involved in coffee marketing.
  • Brazil exports coffee to the same countries as Kenya e.g. Britain, Germany, etc.
  • Cultivation and processing in both countries is done in much the same way.

Differences

  • In Brazil work is done by tenants while in Kenya it’s done by family members or casual labourers.
  • Brazil earns more foreign exchange from coffee than Kenya.
  • In Kenya only ripe berries are picked while in brazil ripe and unripe berries are picked due to little supervision which affects the quality of coffee.
  • In Brazil, coffee is mainly grown on plateaus while in Kenya it’s mainly grown in the highlands.
  • In Brazil farmers are faced with the climatic hazard of frost which is not experienced in Kenya.
  • Brazilian government encourages diversification while Kenyan government doesn’t.
  • Brazil’s coffee production is higher than Kenya’s so it’s allocated a bigger quota in the world market.
  • In Brazil there are two sets of labourers while in Kenya the same set of labourers do all the work.
  • In Brazil there is a good network of roads and railways connecting plantations to export ports while in Kenya transport system requires to be improved.
  • In Kenya coffee is grown in soils such as red volcanic soils while in Brazil it’s grown mainly in terrarossa soils which are quite good for coffee.
  • In Kenya most coffee is produced by small scale holders while in Brazil it’s by large holders.
  • In Brazil little attention is paid to soil fertility leading to soil exhaustion and erosion while in Kenya there is application of fertilizers and manure and control of erosion.

Wheat Farming in Kenya and Canada

Kenya

Wheat was introduced in Kenya by Lord Delamere around Nakuru.

Main Growing Areas

  1. Uasin Gishu District
  2. Nakuru
  3. Narok
  4. Laikipia
  5. Trans Nzoia
  6. Nyandarua
  7. Timau
  8. Mweiga in Nyeri

General Conditions Favouring Wheat growing

  1. Average temperatures not to exceed 20◦c or fall below 6◦c.
  2. Gently sloping landscape for proper drainage and allow use of machines.
  3. Warmth during early periods of growth and sunny dry conditions in later stages for harvesting.
  4. Rainfall of between 305-1015mm annually.
  5. Grows best on light clay soils because they are stiff and give plant firm support.

Factors Favouring Wheat Growing in Kenya

Physical Conditions

  1. Warm temperatures in growing areas of 15-20◦c at least for three months which promotes growth of wheat and protects it against frost.
  2. Moderate rainfall of 1800-1270mm which promotes growth of wheat.
  3. High altitude of growing areas of 1500-2900m which reduces incidences by high humidity.
  4. Deep fertile volcanic soils which lead to high production.
  5. Gently or fairly level land for proper drainage and to allow mechanisation.

Human Factors

  1. Adequate labour for planting, weeding, application of fertilizers etc.
  2. Availability of transport facilities such as lorries and tractors to transport grains from the fields to the store and then to buying centres.

Canada

The main growing areas are the following Prairie Provinces:

  1. Alberta
  2. Saskatchewan
  3. British Columbia
  4. Ontario
  5. Manitoba

Factors Which Have Favoured Wheat Growing In Canada/Which Have Led To the Rise of Canadian Prairies to Be One of the Leading Wheat Producing Regions in the World

  1. Warm summer temperatures (about 15.5◦c) which is ideal for wheat growing.
  2. Low altitude lowlands which are warm and favourable to wheat growth as highlands are too cold for the crop.
  3. Sufficient rainfall of 560mm per annum which supports wheat growth well.
  4. Extensive uninhabited tracts of land which have enabled large scale mechanised wheat cultivation.
  5. Good connection of prairie lands to domestic and international markets by railways, roads and sea ways.
  6. Fertile soils of prairies on which humus has accumulated without disturbance for a long time.
  7. Undulating topography of prairies which offers well drained suitable for wheat cultivation.

Cultivation (Production Methods)

  • Land is prepared by ploughing using tractor driven ploughs.
  • It’s then hallowed several times to allow weeds and stray wheat grains to be killed in the next harrowing.
  • Manure and phosphate fertilizers are applied after the last harrow before sowing.
  • Sowing is done using drills that are pulled by tractors or hands.
  • Weeding is done by spraying or pulling using hands.
  • The crop is regularly inspected for pests and diseases.

Canada

  • Wheat is grown in extensive farms.
  • All work is done by machines e.g. ploughing, harrowing, sowing, weeding, spraying and harvesting.
  • Large amounts of grains are produced on these farms.
  • The grain is mainly for export.
  • Farmers are specialised.

 

Harvesting

  • Wheat is harvested by cutting heads using sharp knifes for small scale farms or combined harvesters for large scale farms which also threshes the grain.
  • The grain is pumped into trucks or tractors which move alongside the harvesters.
  • It’s taken to farm stores where it’s passed through driers before it’s packed for sale.

Processing

  • Wheat is cleaned and soaked in water to make it easier to remove the outer layers.
  • It’s passed through breaker rolls to separate endosperm with the bran.
  • The grain undergoes a series of grinding and sifting to obtain fine flour.
  • The flour may be bleached to give it desirable white qualities.
  • It may also be enriched with vitamins and iron.

Wheat Uses

  1. For bakery e.g. cakes, bread, etc.
  2. Wheat products are also used to make alcohol, preparation of glue and adhesive.
  3. Outer part of kernel is used to make bran for animal and poultry feeds.

Marketing

Kenya

  • All wheat produced is consumed locally.
  • There is no surplus for export.
  • Farmers take their produce to NCPB stores.

                                                          Canada

  • Its large urban population offers a sizeable market where it’s delivered by elaborate road and railway network.
  • The bulk is exported to countries such as Russia, Britain, China, etc. through the Saint Lawrence Sea Way.

Role of Wheat to the Economies

Kenya and Canada

  1. Has promoted development of related industries such as bakery, alcohol manufacturing, etc.
  2. It saves some foreign exchange.
  3. It creates employment in farms, processing, and other related industries.
  4. Provides income to farmers, traders which alleviates poverty and also raises the standard of living.
  5. In Canada it has led to improvement of infrastructure in growing areas to ease transportation of wheat.

Problems

Kenya

  1. Farmers have inadequate capital to buy inputs which lowers the yields.
  2. Pests such as dusty brown beetle which eat stem damaging the plant.
  3. Diseases such as the fungal stem rust which attacks the stem.
  4. Price fluctuations on the domestic market especially when selling through middle men.
  5. Shortage of storage facilities because the produce is transported to straight to NCPB before it sells it.
  6. Climatic hazard such as the stormy rains which flattens the crop leading to rotting and drought which may destroy entire crop.
  7. Soil exhaustion due to monoculture.

Canada

  1. Pests and diseases leading to low yields.
  2. Soil exhaustion due to monoculture which necessitates use of fertilizers.
  3. Adverse climatic conditions such as frost, hail and drought during summer.
  4. Price fluctuations in the world market which reduces farmer’s income.
  5. Transport problem during winter when export routes are frozen causing difficulty in accessing the sole market in USA.

Comparison

Similarities

  • There is mechanisation in both countries.
  • There are extensive farms in both countries.
  • There is a dry sunny spell in both countries.
  • Both countries experience the problem of pests and diseases.
  • Wheat in both countries is grown in areas with gently sloping terrain.
  • Wheat growing in both countries is affected by climatic hazards.

Differences

  • In Kenya wheat is grown in highlands while in Canada it’s grown in lowlands.
  • In Kenya wheat is consumed locally while in Canada most of it is for export.
  • Kenya experiences wheat shortage while Canada experiences overproduction.
  • Canadian farmers specialise while Kenyan farmers carry out mixed farming.
  • In Canada all work is mechanised while in Kenya there is usage of human labour.
  • Kenya has no incentives such as subsidies such as in Canada.
  • In Kenya farming is all year round but Canada experiences winters.
  • In Kenya farming is carried out on plateaus while in Canada it’s on plains.
  • Canada produces more wheat grain than Kenya.
  • Kenya grows spring wheat while Canada grows both spring and winter wheat.

Horticultural Farming in Kenya and Netherlands

Horticulture is the practice of growing fruits, vegetables and flowers for sale.

Main Features/Characteristics of Horticulture

  1. Farms are generally small in size.
  2. Farms are located near good transport routes due to produces perishability.
  3. Farms are located mostly near urban centres close to the markets.
  4. Land is intensely used to get maximum benefits.
  5. Advanced scientific techniques of crop production are used e.g. selected seeds, regular spraying, application of manure and fertilizers.
  6. Most of the work is done manually.
  7. The produce is market oriented (for export or local sale).
  8. It’s capital intensive because a lot of farm inputs are required.
  9. It involves quick and expensive modes of transport e.g. aeroplane because the produce is perishable, the mode is the quickest and the produce is in high demand.

Factors Favouring the Development of the Industry

Kenya

  1. Fertile volcanic soils which support a variety of crops.
  2. Variation of climate from cool to hot with moderate to high rainfall where tropical crops such as pawpaw and pineapple are grown while in cool areas temperate crops such as plums and peers are grown.
  3. High demand for products both locally and internationally (in winter when tropical vegetables, fruits and flowers are in high demand.
  4. Technical and financial assistance from friendly countries.
  5. Availability of capital from large and local overseas companies e.g. Del Monte, Kakuzi, etc.
  6. High labour due to high population as it is labour intensive.
  7. Accessibility to the market of most growing areas through roads and air transport.
  8. Government’s policy of diversification of export crops with the aim of broadening export base.
  9. Well organised marketing systems managed by Horticultural Co-operative Union and Horticultural Development Authority which help farmers to export their produce.

Netherlands/Holland

  • It is a W. European country at the mouth of R. Rhine and Meuse on N. sea.
  • It’s highly specialised in horticulture.

Conditions for Growth of the Industry

Physical Factors

  1. Well drained and quickly warmed sandy soils of the coast which are ideal for horticultural crops.
  2. Warm Gulf Stream Current which washes the coast making the area free from frost throughout the year.
  3. Accessibility to foreign markets due to central position in Europe.
  4. Shortage of land making it appropriate to establish horticultural farms.

Human Factors

  1. Advanced technology such as the use of glass houses.
  2. Good transport system easing movement of horticultural products throughout the country e.g. good harbours like Rotterdam, canals, navigable rivers, roads and railways.
  3. Skilled labour which ensures high production and quality packaging.
  4. High demand in the populous urban areas of continental Europe.
  5. Availability of capital as there are highly organised co-operative societies which provide loans to farmers.

 

Crops Grown and their Distribution

Kenya

Vegetables: cabbages, kales, carrots, tomatoes, turnips, cassava, sweet potatoes etc.

Fruits: oranges, mangoes, lemons, apples, pears, plums, bananas, paw paws.

Flowers: roses, orchids, gladioli, lilies, carnations etc. grown in Limuru, Naivasha, Murang’a, Kiambu, Thika, etc.

Netherlands

Vegetables: lettuces, cucumber, peaches, leaks, asparagus, cauliflower, melons.

Fruits: apples, pears, cherries, goose berries, redcurrants, raspberries etc.

Flowers: azalea, rhododendrons, tulips, hyacinths, roses and clematis.

Cultivation

Kenya

  • Vegetables and fruits are grown in open fields.
  • Flowers are grown in green houses.
  • Moisture is made available to vegetables and flowers through sprinkling.

Advantages of Green Houses

  1. Plants don’t suffer effects of excessive rainfall.
  2. Plants aren’t affected by drought.
  3. Pest and disease spread are controlled.
  4. Uniformity of climate is created for all plants.
  5. Plants are protected from damaging effects of strong winds and airborne diseases.
  6. Crops can be grown throughout the year.
  7. It’s easier to control weeds by chemicals because the area is small.

Netherlands

  • Horticultural crops are grown in the open and in green houses.
  • Tree fruits are mainly grown outdoors.
  • There is the use of glasshouses (green houses made of glass).
  • They are connected to boilers and furnaces used to heat to maintain warm temperatures in winter.
  • There is use of predators to control pests e.g. flies, spider mites and lady birds to avoid degrading the environment.
  • There is specialisation with different areas growing different crops e.g.
  1. i) Flowers in Aalsmear near Amsterdam and Lei den in Harlem.
  1. Vegetables in the triangular area formed by Hague, Rotterdam and Hook of Holland.
  • Fruits in the interior of Rotterdam in provinces of Guilderland, Limburg and Utrecht.

Uses of Horticultural Crops

Fruits and vegetables are used as food while flowers are for decorating houses, offices, churches, weddings and funerals.

Marketing

Kenya

  • Small scale farmers transport their produce to the collecting centres to buyers or middle men.
  • It’s checked and graded.
  • Then packed in packaging materials.
  • Then transported to the airports where most of it is airlifted to W. Europe where it may find its way to Japan and USA.

                                                  

Netherlands

  • The produce is transported to go-downs of collecting agents or to the markets.
  • It’s transported via roads, railways, air or through canals and navigable rivers.
  • It’s destined for Britain, France, Germany, Sweden, Belgium and Luxemburg.

Role to the Economies

  1. A source of foreign exchange.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange.
  3. Has led to industrial development by providing raw materials e.g. fruit canning, vegetable oil manufacturing, etc.
  4. Provides employment to many due to being labour intensive.
  5. It has led to development of infrastructure in the areas with large scale horticultural farms which have been served with better roads, water and electricity.
  6. Earns farmers income when they sell their produce to buyers and middlemen.
  7. Promotes better health and nutrition.
  8. Has led to effective land use e.g. swampy areas in C. Province have been reclaimed for vegetable production.

Problems

Kenya

  1. Inadequate capital in part of small scale farmers to buy inputs which lowers yield quality and quantity.
  2. Transport problem during rainy season in areas served only by seasonal roads leading to losses.
  3. Pests and diseases such as leaf blight which destroy the crops leading to losses.
  4. Lack of organised marketing system such as co-operatives causing exploitation by middlemen and inability to access credit and advisory services.
  5. High transport costs leading to sale of produce to middlemen who exploit farmers.
  6. Exploitation of workers by large horticultural companies leading to unrests e.g. working for long hours with less pay.

Netherlands

  1. Frost affects crops growing in the open.
  2. Inadequate capital to start new farms due to technology being very expensive.

Comparison

Similarities

  • Similar crops are grown e.g. fruits, flowers and vegetables.
  • Horticultural crops are grown both in open and in green houses.
  • It’s market oriented in both countries.
  • There is employment of scientific methods of farming.
  • It’s done extensively in both countries to get maximum returns.
  • Crops grown partly on reclaimed land in both countries.

Differences

  • Farmers have well organised marketing systems (co-operatives) in Netherlands than Kenya.
  • In Kenya the produce is first taken to collecting centres while in Netherlands it’s taken to the go downs of collecting agents or to the markets.
  • Kenya experiences the problem of impassable roads while Netherlands’s transport system is developed and efficient.
  • In Netherlands farming is carried out in coastal areas which are free frost while in Kenya it’s carried out in the cool and hot areas.
  • Netherlands’s soils are generally sandy while Kenya’s are volcanic.
  • There is biological control of pests in Netherlands unlike in Kenya.
  • There is a higher demand for Netherlands’s produce than Kenya’s due to a larger urban population.
  • There is use of more advanced technology in Netherlands than Kenya e.g. use of glass houses.
  • Netherlands produces more horticultural produce than Kenya.
  • There is specialisation in Netherlands with certain areas producing certain crops.
  • Netherlands farmers have more access to capital while Kenyan farmers have inadequate capital due to lack of organised marketing systems.

                                                            

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. LIVESTOCK FARMING
  • Rearing of domestic animals including poultry.
  1. a) Traditional/Pastoral/Subsistence Livestock Farming
  • Rearing of animals on natural pasture involving seasonal migration in search of water and pasture.

Main Areas

  • N and N.E Kenya e.g. Turkana, Wajir, Garissa, Marsabit, Kajiado, Narok, etc.
  • Communities: Maasai, Somali, Borana, Rendile, etc.

Factors Influencing Nomadic Pastoralism

  1. Grazing areas are free from animal pests especially tsetse flies for being dry and hot.
  2. Savannah grassland and semi-desert conditions which cause grass to sprout during rains and drying during the hot dry season.
  3. Availability of grass most times of the year in the bush and wooded savannah.
  4. Gentle or relatively flat terrain of the areas which makes it easy for the movement of animals from one place to another.
  5. Sparse population of N and N.E region due to harsh climatic conditions which encourages nomadic pastoralism because each community is able to occupy large tracts of land.
  6. Desert and semi-desert conditions which don’t favour agriculture making livestock rearing to be way of earning livelihood.
  7. Tradition of the people whereby animals are a sign of wealth and are used for paying dowry and slaughtered for festivals.

Characteristics of Pastoral Farming

  • They keep large numbers of animals as an insurance against natural deaths.
  • They practice uncontrolled breeding which results into large herds.
  • Many kinds of animals are kept e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and camels.
  • Animals are reared for subsistence not for commercial purposes.
  • They keep indigenous cattle which are hardy such as Zebu and Boran.
  • They keep animals of poor quality due to lack of quality feeds and weakening by diseases making them to be of low value.
  • Animals are a sign of wealth and are reared for the purpose of paying dowry and slaughter during cultural festivals.
  • There is seasonal movement whereby they sped the dry season in one place and wet season in another.
  • Disease incidences of both livestock and human are common due to tropical conditions.

Products

  • Milk, blood, meat and skin for shields, sheaths and clothing.

Problems

  1. Shortage of water and pasture due to long dry spell making animals to be of poor quality.
  2. Pests such as ticks and fleas which weaken animals and diseases such as east coast fever, foot and mouth and anthrax which cause heavy losses of stock.
  3. Overstocking causing overgrazing leading to severe erosion, poor pastures and poor quality animals which fetch low prices.
  4. Lack of extension and veterinary services due to insecurity and constant movement hindering improvement of animals reared.
  5. Low levels of education and culture leading to keeping animals for wealth and prestige making them to overstock leading to severe erosion, poor pastures and poor quality animals.
  6. Poor pastures resulting from poor soils with most areas consisting of tuft grasses and bare land.
  7. Cattle rustling which causes loss of live and destruction of property.
  8. Inaccessibility of pastoral areas due to poor roads making the farmers unable to get their animals to the market.
  9. They rear indigenous cattle such as zebu and boran which mature slowly, yield little milk and have poor quality beef.
  10. Exploitation by middlemen due to lack of market information.
  11. Small local market due to sparse population.
  12. Competition from national parks leading to conflicts.

Improvements in Pastoral Areas (Measures Taken By the Government to Improve Pastoral Farming)

  1. Encouraging pastoralists through the ministry of livestock to start ranching in order to improve the quality of their animals.
  2. Improvement of water supply in drier areas by sinking boreholes, wells, construction of dams, etc.
  3. Establishment of demonstration ranches to sensitize pastoralists on better methods of animal husbandry.
  4. Construction of cattle dips, and setting animal pest and disease organisations to control pests and diseases.
  5. Providing extension services to advice pastoralists and offer drug treatment to animals.
  6. Teaching pastoralists through formal education about advantages of keeping manageable sizes of herds.
  7. Encouraging them to keep smaller number of animals to solve the problem of quality.
  8. Ploughing and resowing pasture with more nourishing drought resistant grass.
  9. Purchasing pedigree animals and cross breeding with indigenous animals resulting in hybrid stock which is able to resist many tropical diseases, give more milk and better quality meet.
  10. b) Commercial Livestock Farming
  11. i) Dairy Farming
  • Keeping cattle for milk production.

Characteristics

  • Dairy cattle are reared.
  • It’s usually practiced in areas with good economy i.e. developed infrastructure for quick transportation of milk and good ready market because dairy products are perishable.
  • Employment of high modern technology of processing, packaging because milk is a perishable product which should be processed short time after it is milked.
  • High milk yielding cows are reared e.g. Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sahiwal.

                                               Kenya

  • The main breeds are Friesian and Ayrshire and cross breeds between indigenous and exotic breeds.
  • Farmers use AI administered by veterinary extension officers or bulls directly to sire calves and keep the herd ‘in milk.
  • In the past the government used to provide the services but they have been privatised making them inaccessible to many Kenyans.

Types of dairy farming

  1. a) Lowland Dairy Farming
  • Keeping traditional cattle for consumption by family members.
  1. b) Highland Commercial Dairy Farming
  • Practiced in the Kenyan highlands. in the following dairying areas:

Rift valley

  • Kericho, Bomet and Nakuru, Laikipia, Trans Nzoia and Uasin Gishu which are the leading dairying areas.

Characteristics

  • Large scale farms
  • Milking is mechanised
  • Fed on fodder and grass

Central

  • All districts
  • Small farms
  • Ranches exist in Makuyu Murang’a
  • Intensive farming
  • Zero grazing and fodder feeding practiced

Western

  • Kakamega, Vihiga, and Bungoma.
  • Small scale dairying
  • Open grazing is common

Eastern

  • Meru, upper Embu, Tharaka Nithi, Kangundo, Machakos, Mbooni hills and Makueni.
  • Large scale dairying in Timau and Kibirichia in Meru
  • Small scale in higher altitudes
  • Open grazing common
  • Minimal zero grazing

Nyanza

  • Kisii, Nyamira and Oyani and suna in higher parts of Migori
  • Dominated by small scale dairying
  • Zero grazing in some parts of Nyamira and Kisii districts.

Conditions Favouring Dairy Farming

Kenya Highlands

Physical

  1. The region experiences low temperatures ideal for survival of exotic breeds (averaging 18◦c).
  2. The areas receive high and well distributed rainfall which ensures abundant supply of natural pasture and water from permanent rivers.
  3. Fertile volcanic soils which have ensured there is quality nutritious cover of grass.

Human

  1. Well established infrastructure e.g. roads which ensures quick transportation of milk to processing plants.
  2. High population which offers ready market for dairy products.
  3. Availability of processing and storage facilities near dairy farms to transform milk into less perishable products which has increased the rate of milk production.
  4. Provision of veterinary services and demonstration farms by the government which promotes rearing of high quality dairy breeds.

Denmark

  • A small country in W.Europe.
  • The greatest exporter of dairy products.

Physical Factors

  1. Low lying relatively flat land which makes it ideal for dairy farming.
  2. Low lying relatively flat land which makes it ideal for dairy farming.
  3. Cool to warm temperature (0.4-16.6◦c) which facilitates the growth of natural pasture.
  4. Soils derived from boulder clay which is constantly enriched with animal manure and fertilizer which are good for the growing of fodder crops.
  5. Availability of a variety of fodder crops, manufactured feeds and supplements leading to high milk production.

Human Factors

Mechanisation of most dairy farms e.g. machines for milking are widely used.

Big market for dairy products locally and in other European countries due to a high purchasing power.

Availability of adequate capital and modern technology which has improved production and storage of dairy products.

Extensive use of artificial insemination which improves the quality of breeds making dairy farming a success.

Rapid growth of co-operative movement which are very competitive causing farmers to strive to get products of high quality.

Organisation of Dairy farming

Kenya

  • The main breeds kept are Friesian and Ayrshire and cross breeds between indigenous and exotic breeds.
  • Carried out for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
  • Farmers depend on fodder and natural grass.
  • There are cooperatives which provide processing, marketing and credit services to farmers.
  • Dairy farming is less mechanised.
  • Few farmers have access to AI services since their privatisation.

Denmark

Dairy farming is carried out by individual farmers in large scale.

It’s carried out for commercial purposes.

The breeds reared are Danish Holstein which is the traditional cow, Friesian (75%), Ayrshire and channel island cows.

Livestock are kept indoors for between 4-5 months during winter.

Farmers mainly depend on fodder than natural grass because temperatures are cold most of the year.

There are thousands of co-operatives provide processing, credit, advisory and research services.

Dairy farming is highly mechanised with machines such as combined harvesters, Lorries, ploughs and seed drills being provided by co-operatives.

Processing of Milk

  • Pasteurisation – Heating liquid milk to 75◦c for about 15 minutes.
  • Sterilisation – Heating to 100◦c for a short time to kill bacteria which survived pasteurisation.
  • Homogenising – Breaking and distributing fat particles throughout the milk to ensure a layer of cream doesn’t form of milk.
  • Ultra heat treatment – Heating milk beyond 100◦c.
  • Processed further into products such as butter, ghee or cheese.
  • The products are packed ready for distribution to consumers.

Marketing

Kenya

  • It’s done by KCC and Dairy board of Kenya.
  • Farmers may take the milk to KCC by themselves.
  • Local co-operatives also collect milk from farmers at various collection points and take it to KCC.
  • After processing the products are sent to KCC depots for distribution to consumers.
  • Some is exported to neighbouring countries such as Uganda.
  • Other processors also market their milk locally and internationally.

Denmark

  • Done by co-operatives.
  • The products are sold locally and abroad with major destination being EU such as Germany, UK, Sweden, etc.
  • The government monitors quality by use of inspectors who endorse the quality by Lurmark.
  • Agricultural Marketing Board and Danish Dairy Board promote exports by international trade fares and surveys.
  • New markets are being explored in Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia and China.

Problems Facing Dairy Farming in Kenya

  1. Small scale dairy farms face stiff competition from other cash crops like tea, coffee, vegetables and passion fruits, etc.
  2. The cost of inputs is very high which has minimised mechanisation and resulted into to low profit margins.
  3. Impassability of roads during the rainy season making milk delivery difficult.
  4. Excessive droughts which result in inadequate feeds which causes temporary milk shortage.
  5. Risk of cattle pests and diseases which has restricted dairy farming to Kenyan highlands.
  6. Poor management of co-operatives at grassroots resulting to delayed payments which kills farmers’ morale.
  7. Shortage of proper storage facilities at the collecting centres such as cooling plants causing milk to go bad before it gets to processing factories.
  8. AI services have been privatised making them very expensive and inaccessible to many small scale farmers resulting in low quality breeds and hence low milk production.
  9. Lack of training especially to small scale farmers.

Improvements (How Govt Is Laying Emphasis to Dairy Farming)

  1. Appointing supervisory boards for dairy co-operatives.
  2. Extending credit facilities to farmers through co-operatives.
  3. Holding agricultural shows to educate farmers on good dairy farm management.
  4. Setting up demonstration farms which breed high quality bulls to be released to farmers.
  5. Establishing well maintained roads for delivery of milk.
  6. Carrying out extensive research on possible solutions to diseases.

                                                 Denmark

Rare incidents of diseases such as mastitis and Salmonella Dublin.

It’s expensive to run farms in winter when animals are kept indoors and fed on fodder.

Dairy animals emit a considerable amount of carbon dioxide and methane which contributes to green house effect.

Reduced market share due to competition from other dairy producing countries and restrictions.

Occasional spells of drought causing a considerable drop in milk production.

Role of Dairy farming to the Economies

  1. Earns Kenya foreign exchange by exporting milk and dairy products.
  2. Saves some foreign exchange.
  3. Government also earns revenue by taxation from the sale of dairy products which is used to fund various development projects.
  4. Provides employment in dairy farms, milk processing plants and dairy related industries.
  5. Gives farmers an income which has alleviated poverty and raised living standards.
  6. Promoted development of industries such as milk processing plants, input manufacturing industries which has created more employment and raised per capita income.
  7. Promotes good health and nutrition by providing proteins, fats and vitamins that are essential for human growth and development.
  8. Has led to improvement of infrastructure in Kenya by government improving existing roads to ease milk delivery.

Comparison

Similarities

  • Dairy farmers in both countries sell their products to co-operatives.
  • Both countries experience similar problems of adverse weather changes and diseases.
  • Animals kept are similar e.g. Friesian, Ayrshire, Jersey, etc.
  • Milk processing and dairy products are similar e.g. liquid milk, cheese and butter.
  • In both countries milk is consumed locally and for export.
  • Both countries keep traditional and exotic breeds.
  • Open and zero grazing are practiced in both countries.

Differences

  • Dairy farming in Kenya is carried outdoors most of the year while in Denmark the animals are kept indoors for about 6 months in winter.
  • Dairy farming depends mainly on grass in Kenya while in Denmark it’s mostly dependent on fodder.
  • Dairy farming in Denmark is evenly distributed while in Kenya it is restricted to highlands.
  • Dairy farming is heavily mechanised in Denmark while mechanisation lacks in many farms in Kenya.
  • Dairy farming is a major foreign exchange earner in Denmark while in Kenya most of dairy products are consumed locally.
  • Denmark achieves high yields throughout the year because they feed animals on fodder while in Kenya yields are affected by climatic changes.
  • Kenyan farmers practice mixed farming while Denmark farmers specialised.
  • Dairy co-operatives are highly developed in Denmark whereby they give grants and supply farmers with machines.
  • AI services are more widely used in Denmark than Kenya where only a few farmers have access to AI services since their privatisation.
  1. ii) Beef Farming
  • Rearing of cattle for production of meet.

Conditions Favouring Beef Farming

Kenya

Physical Factors

  • Extensive flatlands with natural grass within Nyika plateau and Rift Valley region.
  • Moderate temperatures of about 28◦c.
  • Moderate rainfall of about 750mm or above which ensures there is enough pasture.
  • Availability of watering sites like Lorian swamp and a number of permanent rivers flowing through beef farming areas.

Human Factors

  • Availability of ranching schemes which control overgrazing and the spread of pests and diseases.
  • Cultural practice of local people who carry out livestock keeping as their occupation.

                                                       Argentina

  • Argentina is the worlds top beef exporter.
  • Beef farming is mainly carried out in pampas grasslands with the major beef farming areas being Chaco Formosa and Santiago del Estero.

Physical Factors

  • Extensive rolling pampas grasslands which provides good natural grazing landscape and allows cattle to graze freely.
  • Fertile soils from the slopes of Andes which have given rise to good natural pasture.
  • Moderate and well distributed reliable rainfall (about 1000mm annually) received in Pampas which favours growth of good pasture throughout the year and ensures regular water supply for animals.
  • Temperatures ranging between 24◦c in summer and about 10◦c in winter which enables grass to grow throughout the year.

Human Factors

  • High quality exotic breeds such as Short horn and Hereford which mature faster and have quality and quantity beef.
  • Availability of alfalfa which matures faster and is more nutritious which has been planted to replace natural grass.
  • Well developed infrastructure like the railway network used for movement of beef cattle from ranches to factories and to the markets.
  • Availability of large scale ranches which are well managed and mechanised.
  • Availability of adequate capital making it possible to have refrigeration for proper storage of beef products.
  • Availability of local markets in E.U and U.S.A.

                                            

 

Organisation of Beef Farming

Kenya

  • 90% of beef cattle are reared by subsistence farmers and pastoralists and the rest by commercial ranching.
  • Pastoralists constitute the greatest majority.
  • There is small scale farming distributed all over the country and large scale farming carried out in the ranches in Rift Valley, Laikipia, Nakuru, Trans Nzoia, Kajiado, Kilifi, Kwale, Taita Taveta, Kitui and Machakos.
  • The main indigenous breed kept is Zebu while imported breeds include Aberdare Angus, Hereford, Galloway, Short horn and Charolais.
  • Animals are fed on natural grass in pastoralism and nutritious drought resistant pasture introduced in some ranches to improve beef quality.
  • Fertilizers are being applied on the pasture to improve its quality.
  • Cattle are frequently inoculated against fatal diseases like anthrax.
  • Cattle dips and veterinary services are provided by the government to improve farming activity.

Argentina

  • There are large scale ranches known as
  • Each Estancia has a manager.
  • Farms are paddocked.
  • The animals are reared mainly on natural pasture though there are areas which have been sown with alfalfa.
  • Cowboys called gauchos drive horses around farms to look after the cattle.
  • There are quarters for stockmen at strategic points of the farm.
  • Farming is mechanised and aeroplanes jeep and land rover cars are used.
  • There are cattle dips and wind pumps to provide water in some farms.
  • Calves enter pastures with about 180kg.
  • They are branded, fattened using cultivated pastures and supplementation for 16-17 months.
  • They are slaughtered and taken to meet packing plants and put in cold storages and packed into tins or taken by rail to slaughter houses of main towns such as Buenos Aires and Rosario.

Marketing of Beef Products

Kenya

  • Small scale farmers sell their animals to butchers who slaughter and sell to consumers after it’s inspected.
  • Livestock Marketing Division is in charge of marketing beef from pastoral areas.
  • It acts as a co-operative society and buys beef cattle and puts them in holding grounds.
  • The animals are vaccinated against diseases and then sold to individual butchers or to slaughter houses through auction.
  • Pastoralists sell to middlemen who transport livestock to big towns like Nairobi.

Argentina

  • Most beef is consumed locally although there is a large surplus for export.
  • Marketing channels are mainly found in urban areas such as Buenos Aires and Rosario.
  • Beef and beef products undergo stringent sanitary tests and certification before exportation.
  • Chilled or corned beef is exported to European countries such as Germany.

Role to the Economies

  1. It’s a source of foreign exchange when beef and beef products are exported.
  2. Provides employment to people working in ranches, slaughter houses, butcheries etc.
  3. Saves foreign exchange by supplying beef for local consumption.
  4. Provides income to farmers and butchers raising their standard of living.
  5. Has promoted development of industries by providing raw materials e.g. shoe making.
  6. The governments earn revenue from tax levied on beef products.
  7. In Argentina it has led to infrastructural improvement from the interior to the coast to ease transportation.

Problems Facing Beef Farming

Kenya

  • Refer to problems facing pastoralism and improvements by the government.

Argentina

  • Diseases such as rinderpest, African swine fever, foot and mouth.
  • Stringent sanitary conditions which have to be fulfilled before exporting beef and beef products.
  • International trade barriers due to diseases such as mad cow diseases which has restricted exportation to processed beef only.
  • Economic and political crisis.

Comparison

Similarities

  • Indigenous and exotic breeds are kept in both countries.
  • Beef animals kept are similar e.g. Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, etc.
  • Beef farming is for local and export market in both countries.
  • There is employment of modern methods of farming in countries e.g. cross breeding, AI and research.
  • Both experience the problem of pests and diseases.
  • Ranching is common in both countries.

Differences

  • Argentina has extensive natural pastures while Kenya has inadequate pastures.
  • There is a higher local demand for beef in Argentina than in Kenya due to low purchasing power.
  • Pests and diseases are a major problem in Kenya while in Argentina the problem has been controlled.
  • In Argentina beef farming is mainly carried out in extensive ranches while in Kenya it’s mainly carried out by small scale farmers and ranches are few.
  • Farmers in Argentina have more access to capital while Kenyan farmers have inadequate capital.
  • There is a well developed transport network in Argentina while Kenyan roads are poor which hinders transport to markets.
  • Beef farming is more highly mechanised in Argentina than Kenya.
  1. Mixed Farming
  • Growing crops and rearing animals on the same farm.

Characteristics

  1. Crops are grown and animals reared on the same farm.
  2. Portion of land is reserved for animal pasture.
  3. Farms are moderate in size.
  4. Crop residue is used for fodder.
  5. Manure from animals is used to fertilise the soil.

Advantages

  1. When crop fails or prices fluctuate the farmer can depend on livestock and vice versa.
  2. The farmer gets income continually.
  3. Income is larger.
  4. Farmer is busy throughout the year.
  5. Using crop residue as fodder saves money for buying it.
  6. Using manure from animals ensures sustained crop production and also saves money that would be used to buy manure.

Maranda School KCSE Exams 2023 Predictions & Answers

Maranda School KCSE Exams 2023 Predictions & Answers.

2023 Maranda Pre-Mock GEOG PP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BIOPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BUSS PP2 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BUSS PP2 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEM PP2 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock AGRIC PP2 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BIOPP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BIOPP3MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BIOPP3QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEM PP1 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock AGRIC PP2 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEM PP3 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BIOPP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEMISTRY PP3 CONFIDENTIAL.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock COMPPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CREPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock ENGPP3QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock BIOPP2MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock COMPPP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock ENG PP3MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock ENGPP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock ENGPP2MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock ENGPP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEMPP3MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEM PP1 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock FRENCPP2MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEM PP2 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock FRENCPP3QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock FRENPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock FRENPP3MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock FREPP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock FREPP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock GEO PP1 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock GEOG PP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock GEOG PP2 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock CHEM PP3 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock GEOPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock HIST PP1 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock HIST PP1 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock HIST PP2 F4 END TERM 1 2023 QP_125701 (1).pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock HIST PP2 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock HIST PP2 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock KISW PP2 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock KISW PP3 QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock KISWPP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock KISWPP3MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock KISWPP2MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock MATHS PP2 MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock KISWPP3QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock MATHSPP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock MATHSPP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock MATHSPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHY PP3MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYPP1MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYPP1QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYPP2MS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYPP2QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYPP3 CONFIDENTIAL.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYSCSPP3QNS.pdf
2023 Maranda Pre-Mock PHYSICS PP1 QNS.pdf

MOKASA KCSE JOINT HISTORY EXAMS & MARKING SCHEMES PP2

HIST PAPER 2 CLUSTER QUESTIONS & MARKING SCHEME

SECTION A ( 25MKS )

  1. Identify any two classifications of written sources of information on History and Government. 2 mks               
  • Archives
  • Manuscripts
  • Printed sources 2×1 = 2mk
    1. Give one social activity that was practised by early man during the New Stone Age period. 1 mk
  • Development of a language for communication.
  • Lived in small groups
  • Practised religion and worship system.
  • Practised decoration of huts with animal paintings.
  • Use of red ochre to paint their bodies for beautification. 1 x 1=1mk
    1. State two effects of the Land Enclosure System in Britain during the Agrarian Revolution
  • It led to landlessness after poor peasants were forced to sell off their land.
  • Farmers were able to use their title deeds to borrow loans.
  • It allowed use of machines
  • Farmers were able to specialise in crop growing or animal keeping
  • Landless peasants migrated to towns and the new world. 2 x 1 = 2mks
  • Fencing prevented inbreeding and spread of diseases
  • It led to large scale farming/ ranches.
  1. Highlight two negative effects of the trans-Saharan trade.
  • Increased warfare.
  • Increased slavery
  • Increased insecurity
  • Hatred and suspicion among the people
  • Destruction of wild life
  • Depopulation due to increased capture of slaves                2 x 1 =2mks
    1. Name the first woman astronaut to travel into space
  • Sally K.Ride 1 x 1= 1mk
    1. State two importance’s of the radio as a form of communication.
  • Passes information fast.
  • Compliments transport systems by sending signals and updates
  • Broadcasts education programmes
  • Entertainment
  • Advertising
  • Used in space exploration in guiding space crafts.                               2 x 1=2mks
    1. Give two ways how scientific inventions have negatively impacted on Agriculture
  • Increase in food related diseases due to GMOs
  • Pesticides are toxic and harmful
  • Pests have become resistant to pesticides
  • Soil fertility has been impoverished
  • Traditional crops have been abandoned.
  • Unemployment as a result of mechanisation 2 x 1 = 2mks
    1. What was the title given to the highest political and religious leader of the Shona?
  • MweneMutapa 1mk
    1. Identify one chartered company that was used by the Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa.
  • Imperial British East Africa company
  • German East African Company
  • Royal Niger Company
  • British South African Company.

NB: Company name must be written in full

  1. State one way how the Lochner treaty benefited King Lewanika individually,
  • He would be paid $2000 p.a and royalties of 4% for all minerals extracted.
  • He would continue to be King but with lesser powers. 1 x 1 = 1mk
    1. Outline one social factor that led to the rise of Nationalism in Africa
  • Africans were subjected to cultural discriminations as their cultures were branded primitive.
  • The urban environment enabled Africans to interact and overcome tribal prejudices.
  • Africans were denied social services
  • Acquisition of western education exposed Africans new ideas about nationhood and patriotism.
  • Christian teachings on equality influenced Africans to question the behaviour of European. 1 x 1 = 1mks
    1. State one military alliance that was formed by European nations before the First World War.
  • Triple Entente.
  • Triple Alliance 1 x 1 =1mk
    1. Name two permanent member states of the United Nations security council
  • China
  • Russia
  • France
  • United states of America (USA)
  • Britain 2 x 1=  2mks
    1. State one way how the Cold War was witnessed in Africa
  • Overthrowing of Ethiopian government with the support of USSR in 1974
  • USSR supported Angola to acquire independence against Portugal while USA supported rebels.
  • Government of DRC was supported by NATO. 2 x 1 = 2mks
    1. Give two organs of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
  • Authority of Heads of states & Governments
  • Council of ministers.
  • Secretariat
  • Tribunal
  • Specialised commissions. 2 x 1 = 2mks
    1. State two political challenges facing the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) since independence.
  • Political assassinations of various leaders
  • Ethnic based political wars
  • Threats of seceding by some regions
  • Interference by former colonialists
  • Overthrowing of governments
  • Frequent rebellions
  • Army mutinies 2 x 1 = 2 mks
    1. State the system of government practised in Britain.
  • Constitutional Monarchy 1 x 1 =1 mk

 

SECTION B (45MARKS )

ANSWER ANY THREE QUESTONS IN THIS SECTION.

 

  1. State five physical changes that early man underwent tomark a clear distinction between apes and modern man.
  • The skull size became bigger to accommodate larger brains.
  • The size of jaws and teeth became smaller due to softer diets.
  • The fore arms and hands became shorter and appropriate for upright movement.
  • The thumb finger separated from the other fingers for former grip.
  • The leg and foot formation changed to support the body and maintain balance.
  • The tail disappeared.
  • The hair disappeared. any 5 x 1 = 5mks
  1. Explain five features of early man’s culture during the Neolithic period 10mks
  • They made smaller and better tools called Microliths
  • They practised large scale hunting and gathering because they lived in larger groups.
  • They practised fishing
  • They began domestication of crop and animals which marked the beginning of agriculture.
  • They made better shelters using tree branches and grass.
  • They lived a more settled life as a result of having semi permanent settlements.
  • The formulated rules and regulations to govern their social way of life/government.
  • They developed religion because they began to depend much more on natural forces such as the rain for livelihood.
  • They specialised in crafts such as basketry, pottery, weaving
  • They practised smelting of bronze and iron.
  • They invented language which was crucial for communication and strengthening of social bonds and preservation of cultures..                                              Any 5 x 2 = 10mks
  1. State five disadvantages of using animals as a means of transport 5mk
  • It’s tedious and slow because animals must feed and drink frequently along the way.
  • Pack animals may be attacked by wild animals
  • Animals can only travel relatively shorter distances compared to modern forms of transport.
  • Some animals are stubborn and difficult to control or tame.
  • Animals carry smaller loads than vehicles.
  • They can only travel during the day.
  • Animals are affected by diseases Any 5 x 1 = 5mks
  1. Explain five economic effects of modern forms of transport.
  • Local and international trade has been promoted through faster and efficient movement of goods across the globe.
  • The growth of the service sector has been boosted by modern means of transport through provision of insurance and banking services.
  • Agricultural production has increased because farmers can transport farm inputs and produce much faster.
  • Modern transport has influenced industrialisation because raw materials, finished goods and workers can be moved much faster and further across the globe.
  • Governments generate revenue through various charges and levies.
  • They create jobs/ employment opportunities.
  • Modern transport systems have enhanced exploitation of natural resources because they can be easily accessed.
  • They have boosted tourism since tourist attraction sites can be reached easily and fast.

5 x 2 = 10 mks

  1. State five uses of Gold in Africa in the early days.
  • Making ornaments
  • Making utensils
  • Making swords and flint knife handles.
  • Was used as a measure and store of wealth.
  • Making weapons.
  • Used as a trade item using gold bars and gold dust.
  • Used as a currency/medium of exchange/gold coins Any 5 x 1 = 5mks
  1. Explain 5 effects of iron working technology in Africa.
  • Widespread use of iron led to the decline of the use of other metals.
  • It led to the emergence urban centres which began as centres of iron working
  • It led to the growth of trade due to increased demand for iron ore and iron tools.
  • Use of iron tools improved agriculture as more land was put under cultivation.
  • There was increased food production as a result of increased use of iron tools/population increase
  • People were able to migrate and settle into new areas by using iron tools to clear forests.
  • Iron working led to specialisation in other crafts by those who were not smithers.
  • The smithers and smelters gained recognition and status in society because of the wealth they generated and their skills.
  • There was increased warfare and intercommunity conflicts lead to the rise of powerful kingdoms.                                                           Any 5 x 2 = 10 mks21.A
  • 21 a. Explain five causes of the Mandinka rebellion
  • SamoriToure wanted to safeguard the independence of his empire
  • Samori did not want to lose the Bure gold mines.
  • The French threatenedSamori’s plans of territorial expansion into areas they occupied.
  • Samori was confident of his large and well trained army and did not fear fighting with the French.
  • Samori was disappointed by the failure of the British to support him against the French.
  • Samori was not happy with the French who were selling arms to his enemies such as chief Tieba of Sikasso.
  • Samori was influenced by friends to resist e.g Chief Khama of Ngwato    Any 5 x 1 = 5mks
  1. Explain five results of the Chimurenga war
  • Company rule was discredited by the colonial office due to poor administration.
  • Africans eventually lost their independence and the British established their authority over the area.
  • Africans were exposed to great famine since the war hindered them from engaging infarming.
  • There was massive loss of lives.
  • There was massive destruction of property
  • TheIndunas were to be recognized as headmen.
  • No Shona police would be stationed in Matebele land.
  • There was massive land alienation and Africans were confined in reserves.
  • Africans were subjected to forced labour in European farms.
  • Africans were subjected to taxation.
  • Missionaries were able to spread Christianity since the people had lost confidence in their traditional religion.                                              Any 5 x 2 = 10mks

SECTION C (30 MARKS)

 

ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS IN THIS SECTION.

22

  1. State three factors that led to the growth of Nationalism in Mozambique.
  • Arbitrary replacement of traditional leaders.
  • Land alienation by Portuguese settlers.
  • Introduction of taxes.
  • Violation of African cultures by Portuguese officials.
  • Forced labour and mistreatment of Africans in settler farms.
  • Racial discrimination against Africans in settlement schemes and semi skilled jobs.
  • Restrictions of African movement and press censorship.
  • Cruelty of the colonial police.. Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks
  1. Explain six factors that favoured FRELIMO in the war against the Portuguese colonial government.
  • The Portuguese did not have enough troops to deal with the African random attacks ( guerrilla warfare)
  • Many Africans joined the nationalist war voluntarily.
  • The region was heavily forested with narrow foot paths which rendered Portuguese aircraft and armoured vehicles ineffective.
  • The fighters were supported by the civilians with information of Portuguese movements.
  • The FRELIMO fighters cultivated their own crops thus were not overburdening the local population
  • The FRELIMO fighters were friendly to locals.
  • They were supported by communist countries such as USSR, China and Czechoslovakia
  • The guerrillas were supported by independent African countries through the OAU liberation committee.
  • FRELIMO abolished all forms of exploitation in the liberated areas and built social amenities thus receiving the support of local people
  • They respected women and recognised their role in mobilising Africans to support the struggle.
  • Ethnicity was removed through having people of different ethnic groups in the same fighting units.
  • They were supported by fighters from Southern Rhodesia (mercenaries). Any 6 x 2 = 12mks 

23

  1. State three conditions given to the Germans to surrender at the end of world war one (WWI)
  • To withdraw from all occupied territories including overseas colonies.
  • Withdrawal of all German forces North of River Rhine.
  • Surrender of all German warships to the Allied forces.
  • Occupation of some parts of Germany by the Allied forces.
  • Release of all prisoners of war. Any 3 x 1 = 3mks
  1. Explain six causes of the second world war
  • The rise of nationalism after WWI as nations were more concerned with their domestic affairs than international affairs.
  • The Great Depression resulted in the collapse of many European economies and they adopted protectionist politics and aggression in a bid to generate wealth.
  • Some nations continued to violate the terms of the Versailles treaty and this threatened world peace.
  • The policy of Appeasement adopted by Britain and France enabled some countries to continue with acts of aggression further threatening world peace.
  • The League of Nations had failed to maintain world peace.
  • Emergence of dictators across Europe and their acts of aggression further caused international tension.

                                                                                                    6 x2=12mks

24

  1. Identify any three political parties in India. 3mks
  • Congress party
  • Bharatiya Janata party
  • Communist parties
  • Regional parties                                                                                                        3×1= 3mks
  1. Explain six powers and functions of the president in India
  • Powers to declare emergency in a state and rule that state by decree
  • Powers to veto or assent to bills
  • Commander in chief of all armed forces
  • Powers to appoint supreme court judges and state governors
  • Powers to appoint the prime minister on the advice of parliament.
  • Is the major symbol of unity in the country

Any 6×2= 12mks